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Talk:Hijab

2026-04-06T00:16:10Z

Lightyears: /* Wrong chapter of Quran */

==Wrong chapter of Quran==
We see the subsection of this article called "Umar struck a slave girl for wearing jilbab like free women" refers to Quran 3:59. I assume it should be Quran 33:59. [[User:Qorqud|Qorqud]] ([[User talk:Qorqud|talk]]) 16:06, 22 March 2026 (UTC)
:Fixed, thanks [[User:Lightyears|Lightyears]] ([[User talk:Lightyears|talk]]) 00:16, 6 April 2026 (UTC)

Hijab

2026-04-06T00:14:44Z

Lightyears: /* Umar struck a slave girl for wearing jilbab like free women */

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All [[Madh'hab|schools]] of [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Islamic law]] require that Muslim [[Islam and Women|women]] over the age of majority observe the ''hijab'' when in the presence of non-mahrams. Conceptually, the hijab is a set of requirements according to which both women and men must cover certain parts of their body (the Arabic word ''hijab'' literally referred to the concept of veiling as with a screen or curtain). While the requirements for men are similar to common expectations of public decency in the modern world, those for women extend to covering the entirety of the body except for the face and hands, with legal schools differing on the requirements for women to cover their feet, face, and hands. Colloquially, the word "hijab" refers to headgear employed by Muslim women to cover their hair and neck. There are many cultural variations on the hijab garment, many of which provide different degrees of coverage, including famously the ''burqa'', ''niqab'', and ''dupata''. Some modern scholars disagree with the traditional interpretations that require head covering and many Muslim women choose not to do so, as discussed below.

In a few verses the Quran sets out requirements regarding the ''jilbab'' (overgarment or cloak) and the ''khimar'' (probably a piece of cloth over the head and mentioned in terms of covering the bosom). One verse mentions the word ''hijab'' in terms of a separating curtain or veil behind which visitors may ask things of Muhammad's wives. Later this term acquired the conceptual meaning mentioned above. While the [[Quran]] contains general guidelines on the purpose of these requirements, the [[Hadith|hadith literature]] is more particular in its discussion of what the [[Asbab al-Nuzul (Revelational Circumstances of the Quran)|circumstances behind the revelation]] of these verses were, though hadiths still provide scarce information on what precisely they entail. One account in the hadith suggests that the verse of hijab regarding Muhammad's wives was a result of pressure from [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]], who objected to them being recognisable in public. The Quran indicates that the dress requirements for believing women in general were to prevent molestation and for purposes of modesty.

Classically, these accounts have been embraced, though in recent times they have been criticised as problematic. The Quran has been objected to because it suggests that women must bear the burden for their harassment by changing their attire, and the hadith accounts about Umar have been criticised both because it paints this highly-revered religious figure, the second of the [[Rashidun Caliphs|rightly-guided caliphs]] and friend of [[Muhammad]]'s, as an unsavory character and because it suggests that Allah was not alone responsible for the formulation of the Sharia, which is supposed to be divinely-revealed and unchanging.

In her short but detailed book, ''The Islamic Veil'', Professor Elizabeth Bucar has written on the role and interpretations of hijab through history and modernity.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar (2012) ''The Islamic Veil'', Oxford: Oneworld Publications</ref> Her book will be referenced at many points in this article.

==In modern times==
In most Muslim majority countries there is no legal enforcement of hijab (in some former soviet states it is not even common for women to wear it). Hijab adherance saw a revival in some Muslim majority countries during the mid-20th century after falling out of favour and in the West it is commonly worn voluntarily. However, alongside such social norms it is also common that women and girls (even in the West) sometimes feel community or family pressure to adhere to hijab against their wishes, especially in the case of adolescents living with their parents. In a small number of Muslim majority countries (such as Iran) hijab in one form or another is legally enforced. The "Women, Life, Freedom" protests of 2023 in Iran highlighted that this enforcement is against the wishes of millions of women there. Saudi Arabia removed its legal requirements for head covering in 2018.

Elizabeth Bucar explains that for Muslim women in Western countries, hijab is often a way of expressing Muslim identity, and specific styles of hijab can further be a way of maintaining identity with a specific cultural heritage.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar (2012) ''The Islamic Veil'', Oxford: Oneworld Publications, pp. 119-122</ref> In 20th century Algeria, hijab served as a symbol of cultural defence and resistance against colonialism, while in Palestine it became a symbol of national identity, while unveiling was associated with Israeli collaboration.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar (2012) ''The Islamic Veil'', Oxford: Oneworld Publications, pp. 77-83</ref>

==In the Quran==
The Quran contains verses which mention the ''jilbab'' (overgarment or cloak), ''khimar'' (piece of cloth that covers the head, and ''hijab'' (screen to shield Muhammad's wives from the gaze of visitors to his home). Bucar summarises that Q. 33:53 was a command concerning Muhammad's wives to separate the public and private space; Q. 33:59 was a command for free believing women to preserve their bodily integrity from harrassment; and Q. 24:30-31 was a command to all Muslim women for modesty purposes.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', p. 45</ref>

===Quran 33:53===
{{Quran|33|53}} mentions a ''hijab'', or screen / barrier behind which visitors to Muhammad's home should ask things of his wives without seeing them. Bucar observes that besides this verse, the word hijab is used elsewhere in the Quran for a concealing veil, screen or partition (see {{Quran|42|51}}, {{Quran|7|46}}, {{Quran|41|5}}, and {{Quran|17|45}}). {{Quran|19|17}} where Mary secludes herself is the only other verse where hijab is used in relation to women. In {{Quran|33|53}} it is unclear upon whom the responsibility for adherance of the command rests, the men or Muhammad's wives.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', p. 35</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|33|53}}|O you who have believed, do not enter the houses of the Prophet except when you are permitted for a meal, without awaiting its readiness. But when you are invited, then enter; and when you have eaten, disperse without seeking to remain for conversation. Indeed, that [behavior] was troubling the Prophet, and he is shy of [dismissing] you. But Allah is not shy of the truth. And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition [ḥijābin حِجَابٍ]. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts. And it is not [conceivable or lawful] for you to harm the Messenger of Allah or to marry his wives after him, ever. Indeed, that would be in the sight of Allah an enormity.}}

Traditions about the occasion of revelation for this verse are mentioned in a number of hadiths, and are covered later in this article. {{Quran-range|33|32|33}} is another command specifically addressed to Muhammad's wives ("O wives of the Prophet, you are not like anyone among women [...]").

===Quran 33:59===
{{Quran|33|59}} states that the purpose of drawing over the ''jilbab'' (overgarment or cloak) is to distinguish free Muslim women (presumably from non-Muslim or slave women, who do not have to observe it) in order to prevent them from being molested/harassed.

Bucar explains that Quran commentators agreed that the occasion of revelation for this verse was that the hypocrites (al-munafiqun) in Medina (who are mentioned in the next verse, {{Quran|33|60}}) were physically harrassing slave women in public spaces. This context is mentioned for example in Tafsir al-Jalalayn regarding the verse. The jilbab thus made free believing women visibly distinct. It was a responsibility placed on them by the Quran to mitigate the immoral behaviour of certain men. Bucar says that the meaning of jilbab is unclear, but most scholars believed it to be a type of outer covering.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 38-40</ref>

{{quote |{{Quran|33|59}}|O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments [jalābībihinna جَلَٰبِيبِهِنَّ]. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.}}

===Quran 24:31===
{{Quran|24|31}} tells believing women to draw the ''khimar'' (piece of cloth that covers the head) over their bosoms and to hide their adornment or [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Beauty and Makeup|beauty]] from men.

{{quote |{{Quran|24|31}}|And tell the believing women to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their private parts and not expose their adornment [zīnatahunna إِخْوَٰنِهِنَّ] except that which [necessarily] appears thereof and to wrap [a portion of] their headcovers [bikhumurihinna بِخُمُرِهِنَّ] over their chests [juyūbihinna جُيُوبِهِنَّ] and not expose their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands' fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers, their brothers' sons, their sisters' sons, their women, that which their right hands possess, or those male attendants having no physical desire, or children who are not yet aware of the private aspects [ʿawrāti عَوْرَٰتِ] of women. And let them not stamp their feet to make known what they conceal of their adornment. And turn to Allah in repentance, all of you, O believers, that you might succeed.}}

Bucar notes that unlike the above two verses, only late traditions provide an occasion of revelation for Q. 24:30-31. Believing women are told to draw their ''Khumur'' (singular: ''Khimar'') over their bosoms (''juyub''). Bucar comments that the word khimar, which some Quran commentators glossed as a veil, mainly meant a kerchief worn on the head, and that the root of the word juyub meant a space between, so probably meant cleavage. Thus she argues that the purpose of this part of the verse is that the cleavage must be covered.<ref name="Bucar40-45">Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 40-45</ref> In the same year (2012) a PhD thesis by Sheikh Mustapha Mohamed Rashed at al-Azhar University similarly concluded that the verse only commands that the bosom be covered.<ref>[https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2012/06/45564/hijab-is-not-an-islamic-duty-scholar Hijab is Not an Islamic Duty: Muslim Scholar] - Morocco World News, 24 June 2012</ref>

Except in specifically defined company, the verse also says that women must not reveal their adornment (''zina'', which besides illicit sexual activity is a word used in a few verses for stars adorning the heavens). It seems to essentially mean a woman's attractiveness, though Quran commentators have always disagreed on the meaning of hidden zina in this verse. Some suggested it meant ankle bracelets due to the final part of the verse telling women not to stamp their feet. {{Quran|24|60}} later in the same surah exempts older women from the command to wear garments hiding their adornment. Some Quran commentators like al-Tabari thought it allowed a woman's face to show, based on a hadith in which Muhammad defines what a woman can reveal of herself when she reaches the age of menstruation ({{Abu Dawud||4104|darussalam}}, quoted in the next section below). For al-Zamakhshari, adornment in this context meant jewelry and makeup. Ibn Taymiyyah and al Baydawi said that even a woman's face and hands must be covered in public except during prayer.<ref name="Bucar40-45" />

Bucar notes that there was similarly no consensus on the meaning of the word 'awra in the verse. For men, hadiths made clear that a man's 'awra was from his navel to his knees. As for a woman's 'awra, there is an isolated hadith collected by al-Tirmidhi quoted in the next section on hadiths below. For some scholars it referred to a woman's bosom, neck and head, for others everything except her face and hands, or for others just the genital region (as with men).<ref name="Bucar40-45" />

==Hadiths==
Bucar observes that there are no explicit references in hadiths to women being required to cover the face or hair (a popular translation of {{Bukhari|||4759|darussalam}} mentions the women covering their faces, but this is not clear in the Arabic text and another version of the narration in {{Abu Dawud||4100|darussalam}} refers only to them making Khimars). Bucar observes that hadiths distinguish a time before and after the revelation of the hijab verse concerning Muhammad's wives, particularly narrations about the event of the slander (al-ifk) in which 'Aisha was accused of adultery. By the time of these narrations, ''hijab'' had come to be transformed from a literal screen in the home of Muhammad's wives to a complex ideology of segregation, privacy and social status, perhaps reflecting post-Muhammad cultural practices of specific Muslim communities.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 47-48</ref>

A few hadiths refer specifically to Muhammad's wives covering their heads and faces with jilbab in public such as {{Bukhari|||4141|darussalam}}, which is the above mentioned event of the slander. It mentions Aisha drawing her jilbab over her face, though it also says this was after the verse of hijab had come down, which was a requirement specifically for Muhammad's wives.

Bucar says that the few relevant hadiths detailing requirements for believing women in general concern the avoidance of thin clothing or short hemlines while an isolated hadith collected by al-Tirmidhi is the exception, describing a woman in her entirety as 'awra.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', p. 34</ref>

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4104|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:

Asma, daughter of AbuBakr, entered upon the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) wearing thin clothes. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) turned his attention from her. He said: O Asma', when a woman reaches the age of menstruation, it does not suit her that she displays her parts of body except this and this, and he pointed to his face and hands. Abu Dawud said: This is a mursal tradition (i.e. the narrator who transmitted it from 'Aishah is missing) Khalid b. Duraik did not see 'Aishah}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi|3|22|1731|}}|Narrated Ibn 'Umar:

That the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "Whoever arrogantly drags his garment, Allah will not look at him on the Day of Judgement." So Umm Salamah said: "What should the women do with their hems?" He said: "Slacken them a handspan." So she said: "Then their feet will be uncovered." He said: "Then slacken them a forearm's length and do not add to that." He said: This Hadith is Hasan Sahih. In the Hadith there is a concession for women to drag their Izar because it covers them better.}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|10|1173}}|Abdullah narrated that The Prophet said:

“The woman is Awrah, so when she goes out, the Shaitan seeks to tempt her.”}}

A narration mentioned by some Quran commentators such as Ibn Kathir attributes to Ibn Abbas a view that a woman should be entirely covered by her jilbab except for a single eye.

{{Quote|Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for Q. 33:59|Here Allah tells His Messenger to command the believing women -- especially his wives and daughters, because of their position of honor -- to draw their Jilbabs over their bodies, so that they will be distinct in their appearance from the women of the Jahiliyyah and from slave women. The Jilbab is a Rida', worn over the Khimar. This was the view of Ibn Mas`ud, `Ubaydah, Qatadah, Al-Hasan Al-Basri, Sa`id bin Jubayr, Ibrahim An-Nakha`i, `Ata' Al-Khurasani and others. It is like the Izar used today. Al-Jawhari said: "The Jilbab is the outer wrapper. `Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn `Abbas said that Allah commanded the believing women, when they went out of their houses for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with the Jilbab, leaving only one eye showing. Muhammad bin Sirin said, "I asked `Ubaydah As-Salmani about the Ayah: 

يُدْنِينَ عَلَيْهِنَّ مِن جَلَـبِيبِهِنَّ
(to draw their Jalabib over their bodies.) He covered his face and head, with just his left eye showing.'' 
ذلِكَ أَدْنَى أَن يُعْرَفْنَ فَلاَ يُؤْذَيْنَ
(That will be better that they should be known so as not to be annoyed. ) means, if they do that, it will be known that they are free, and that they are not servants or whores.}}

Some other relevant hadiths were collected by Abu Dawud (all graded Sahih by al-Albani):

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||641|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Allah does not accept the prayer of a woman who has reached puberty unless she wears a veil [Khimar بِخِمَارٍ]. Abu Dawud said: This tradition has been narrated by Sa;id b. Abi 'Arubah from Qatadah on the authority of al-Hasan from the Prophet (ﷺ).}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4106|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas ibn Malik:

The Prophet (ﷺ) brought Fatimah a slave which he donated to her. Fatimah wore a garment which, when she covered her head, did not reach her feet, and when she covered her feet by it, that garment did not reach her head. When the Prophet (ﷺ) saw her struggle, he said: There is no harm to you: Here is only your father and slave.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4101|darussalam}}|Narrated Umm Salamah, Ummul Mu'minin:

When the verse "That they should cast their outer garments over their persons" was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows over their heads by wearing outer garments.}}

The following hadith account mentions the use of hijab (screen) to conceal Muhammad's wives from a eunuch, or effeminate man in other translations (similarly see {{Abu Dawud||4107|darussalam}}).

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2181|reference}}|'A'isha reported that a eunuch used to come to the wives of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) and they did not And anything objectionable in his visit considering him to be a male without any sexual desire. Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) one day came as he was sitting with some of his wives and he was busy in describing the bodily characteristics of a lady and saying:

As she comes in front four folds appear on her front side and as she turns her back eight folds appear on the back side. Thereupon Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) said: I see that he knows these things; do not, therefore, allow him to cater. She (" A'isha) said: Then they began to observe veil from him.}}

Some observe that a eunuch could not pose any threat to the chastity or safety of Muhammad's wives, which distinguishes the purpose of hijab in Q. 33:53 from that of jilbab or khimar for protection or modesty in the other verses discussed above.

==In Islamic Law==
Bucar details how different opinions on the veil existed between and within the schools of Islamic jurisprudence over time, probably influenced by the differing cultural contexts (she uses the term "veil" to mean the relevant Islamic concepts in a general sense).<ref name="Bucar49-58">Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 49-58</ref>

She writes that "Early ''fiqh'' discussed veiling in the context of prayer, and in general saw veiling as an issue of social status and physical safety". Later, it was not a central concern of medieval legal scholars, though their reasoning remains relevant to modern discussions about veiling. Regarding the concept of 'awra mentioned in Q. 24:31 and discussed above, the majority view was that it excluded a woman's hands and face (the main Maliki and Hanafi view), though a minority view was that everything should be covered except her eyes despite no mention of this in the Quran, while hadiths indicate this was not common practice for early Muslim communities. Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328 CE) who inspired modern day Salafism said that her face should be covered in public, which became the standard Shafi'i and Hanbali legal position. Legal scholars also commonly linked 'awra with the concept of fitnah mentioned separately in the Quran. Bucar quotes the prominent jurist al-Nawawi (d. 1278) as an exemplar of this view, which is a motivation argued by some emerging Islamic governments in modern times:

{{Quote|al-Nawawi quoted by Elizabeth Bucar (transl. El Fadl)<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 56</ref>|Since God made men desire women, and desire looking at them and enjoying them, women are like the devil in that they seduce men towards the commission of evil, while making evil look attractive [to men]. We deduct from this that women should not go out in the midst of men except for a necessity.}}

Some modern Islamic jurists such as Khaled Abou El Fadl (d. 1963) have criticised this linking of a woman's 'awra with the concept of fitna and preventing illicit intercourse. He argues that modesty is a Quranic ethical command in and of itself and the relevant verses do not link it to fitna. The medieval jurists invocation of fitna in addition thereby shifted the blame for potential sin from men to women (whereas the hypocrites are blamed in Q. 33:59-60 for violating women's modesty). Thirdly, since even medieval jurists allowed exemptions (for example slaves labouring in fields), he argued that the rules must be "contigent and contextual in nature". In the late 19th and early 20th century a renewed juridical interest in veiling led to a wide range of debates and opinions.<ref name="Bucar49-58" />

Saudi Arabia (until it revoked its legal head covering requirement in 2018), Afghanistan, and Iran base their laws on veiling on the Hanbali, Hanafi, and Shi'a Jafari schools of jurisprudence, respectively.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 65-66</ref>

==Proposed benefits of hijab and modern criticisms thereof==
[[File:Hijab propaganda billboard.jpg|thumb|Billboard in Tehran reading "hijab is security"]]
Bucar categorises three types of traditional and modern purposes for hijab that have been articulated. Firstly, it was seen as a means of building moral character (modesty, shyness) and a path to piety because it is not an easy thing to start wearing it. With repetition, over time a woman would feel uncomfortable at the thought of not wearing it. Indeed, one could add that ex-Muslim women commonly describe how leaving home without hijab for the first time takes some courage. Secondly, it has been said to have the benefit of preventing inapproprate desires, which could end in [[zina]] (illicit sexual activity), and strengthens the marital bond since a woman's sensuality was reserved for her husband. Finally, it is seen as having a social purpose, to regulate and prevent sexual urges in society running out of control. Arguments in this last category are of four types: 1) that it prevents constant male arousal, protects social dignity and a tranquil society; 2) that it supports educational and economic productivity due to reduced male distraction; 3) that it allows women to participate more fully in society as every public space is a morally safe zone; and 4) that it serves as a guard against westernizing influence.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', pp. 19-23</ref>

Bucar gives examples of Muslim figures who have criticised such arguments for hijab. Some reformists and progressives interpreted hijab metaphorically in terms of a principle of modest behaviour and controlling one's desires. Other Muslim critics have noted that veiling is not sufficient to suppress desire, and in a modern context can even stimulate desire for that which is "forbidden". Others criticise mandatory veiling for removing moral choice.<ref>Elizabeth Bucar, ''The Islamic Veil'', p. 24</ref> Secular observers might add that most of the arguments for hijab pre-suppose a conservative moral order in which sexual activity outside the bounds of marriage (or in the past, slavery) must be forbidden, and the risk of such, mitigated.

Some critics argue that if the hijab is intended to protect women from sexual assault, it wholly fails to serve this purpose. Islamic countries where the overwhelming majorities of women observe the hijab have been found to have some of the highest rates of women experiencing all manner of sexual harassment, notably in the case of Egypt.<ref>See [https://timep.org/commentary/analysis/sexual-harassment-laws-in-egypt-does-stricter-mean-more-effective/ Sexual Harassment Laws in Egypt: Does Stricter Mean More Effective?] by Habiba Abdelaal, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy - December 2021</ref><ref>Manar Ammar - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bikyamasr.com/77158/sexual-harassment-and-pedophilia-await-egyptian-girls-outside-schools/|2=2012-09-14}} Sexual harassment awaits Egyptian girls outside schools] - Bikya Masr, September 10, 2012</ref> In Saudi Arabia, where the observance of hijab is strictly enforced throughout the country, women experience one of the highest rates of [[Rape in Islamic Law|rape]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://womanstats.wordpress.com/2013/01/16/the-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia/|title= The High Rape-Scale in Saudi Arabia|publisher= WomanStats Project (blog)|author= |date= January 16, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwomanstats.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F01%2F16%2Fthe-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia%2F&date=2013-07-13|deadurl=no}}</ref>

=='Umar and the revelation of the hijab verse (Quran 33:53)==
A hadith narrated from Anas bin Malik describes how he witnessed the revelation of the hijab verse. See also {{Muslim||1428a|reference}}.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4792|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:

I of all the people know best this verse of Al-Hijab. When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) married Zainab bint Jahsh she was with him in the house and he prepared a meal and invited the people (to it). They sat down (after finishing their meal) and started chatting. So the Prophet (ﷺ) went out and then returned several times while they were still sitting and talking. So Allah revealed the Verse: 'O you who believe! Enter not the Prophet's houses until leave is given to you for a meal, (and then) not (so early as) to wait for its preparation.....ask them from behind a screen.' (33.53) So the screen was set up and the people went away.}}

A somewhat different account, or background leading up to the revelation of the verse is reported regarding pressure exerted on Muhammad regarding his wives by 'Umar, as detailed below.

===Umar bin Al-Khattab's spies on Sauda===
According to hadiths found in [[Sahih Bukhari|Sahih al-Bukhari]], the most authoritative hadith collection, the series of events leading up to the [[revelation]] of the verse of the hijab ({{Quran|33|53}}) was as follows. First, Umar repeatedly asked Muhammad that Allah should reveal verses of the Qur'an pertaining to the veiling of women. Next, when no such revelation was forthcoming from Muhammad, Umar went out one night and stalked one of [[Muhammad's Marriages|Muhammad's wives]] when she went out to relieve herself. Identifying the wife as Sauda bint Zam'a, he called out to her by name, noting that he had succeeded in recognizing her in her compromised circumstance. After this, Sauda presumably returned home embarrassed by the incident and reported what occurred to Muhammad, finally resulting in the revelation of the verses pertaining to the hijab.

Note that the Sahih al-Bukhari translator's comment attempting to define hijab as "a complete body covering excluding the eyes" at the end of the hadiths is not present in the Arabic. Moreover, in the Arabic these hadiths do not mention "verses" of the hijab plural, but at most mention the "verse" singular. This is in reference to Q. 33:53 which concerns concealing Muhammad's wives from public view (this is even clearer with the related hadiths in the section after this below).

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||146|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha:
The wives of the Prophet used to go to Al-Manasi, a vast open place (near Baqia at Medina) to answer the call of nature at night. 'Umar used to say to the Prophet "Let your wives be veiled," but Allah's Apostle did not do so. One night Sauda bint Zam'a the wife of the Prophet went out at 'Isha' time and she was a tall lady. 'Umar addressed her and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda." He said so, as he desired eagerly that the verses of Al-Hijab (the observing of veils by the Muslim women) may be revealed. So Allah revealed the verses of "Al-Hijab" (A complete body cover excluding the eyes).}}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6240|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha:
(the wife of the Prophet) 'Umar bin Al-Khattab used to say to Allah's Apostle "Let your wives be veiled" But he did not do so. The wives of the Prophet used to go out to answer the call of nature at night only at Al-Manasi.' Once Sauda, the daughter of Zam'a went out and she was a tall woman. 'Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her while he was in a gathering, and said, "I have recognized you, O Sauda!" He ('Umar) said so as he was anxious for some Divine orders regarding the veil (the veiling of women.) So Allah revealed the Verse of veiling. (Al-Hijab; a complete body cover excluding the eyes). (See Hadith No. 148, Vol. 1) }}

{{quote| {{Muslim||2170d|reference}}|'A'isha reported that the wives of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) used to go out in the cover of night when they went to open fields (in the outskirts of Medina) for easing themselves. 'Umar b Khattab used to say: Allah's Messenger, ask your ladies to observe veil, but Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) did not do that. So there went out Sauda, daughter of Zarn'a, the wife of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him), during one of the nights when it was dark. She was a tall statured lady. 'Umar called her saying: Sauda, we recognise you. (He did this with the hope that the verses pertaining to veil would be revealed.) 'A'isha said: Allah, the Exalted and Glorious, then revealed the verses pertaining to veil. }}

====Allah agrees with Umar====
{{Main|Convenient Revelations}}
Following the incident with Sauda and a number of other incidents where Umar had directly preceded revelation in his recommendations to Muhammad, Umar proclaimed that Allah had come, on multiple occasions, to agree with him.

Note that the translation of the hadiths below are incorrect. The Arabic text of these hadiths refers to "the veil" (hijab) singular, and "verse" singular, not plural i.e. the various versions of this hadith refer to the revelation of {{Quran|33|53}} concerning the screen (al hijab) between visitors and Muhammad's wives.

{{quote | {{Bukhari|||4483|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas:

Umar said, "I agreed with Allah in three things," or said, "My Lord agreed with me in three things. I said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Would that you took the station of Abraham as a place of prayer.' I also said, 'O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons visit you! Would that you ordered the Mothers of the believers to cover themselves with veils.' So the Divine Verses of Al-Hijab (i.e. veiling of the women) were revealed. I came to know that the Prophet had blamed some of his wives so I entered upon them and said, 'You should either stop (troubling the Prophet ) or else Allah will give His Apostle better wives than you.' When I came to one of his wives, she said to me, 'O 'Umar! Does Allah's Apostle haven't what he could advise his wives with, that you try to advise them?' " Thereupon Allah revealed:--
"It may be, if he divorced you (all) his Lord will give him instead of you, wives better than you Muslims (who submit to Allah).." (66.5) }}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||4790|darussalam}}| Narrated Umar:

I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Good and bad persons enter upon you, so I suggest that you order the mothers of the Believers (i.e. your wives) to observe veils." Then Allah revealed the Verses of Al-Hijab. }}

{{quote | {{Muslim||2399|reference}}| Ibn Umar reported Umar as saying: My lord concorded with (my judgments) on three occasions. In case of the Station of Ibrahim, in case of the observance of veil and in case of the prisoners of Badr.}}

====Umar ups the ante====
After Umar's wish of having Muhammad's wives veiled was fulfilled, he set his sights on having the clothing requirements increased to the point of making the women completely unrecognizable. To this end, he again spied on Sauda as she had gone out to relieve herself, this time notifying her that because she was a distinctively "fat huge lady", the newly-obligated veil did not suffice in obscuring her identity. Embarrassed yet again, Sauda returned home to inform Muhammad. Then feasting on a piece of meat and apparently disturbed by the interruption, Muhammad immediately received revelation from God alerting Sauda that Umar's demands would not this time be met. Accordingly, Sauda was informed that she would be allowed to relieve herself outdoors in spite of Umar's harassment.{{quote |{{Bukhari|||4795|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha:

Sauda (the wife of the Prophet) went out to answer the call of nature after it was made obligatory (for all the Muslims ladies) to observe the veil. She was a fat huge lady, and everybody who knew her before could recognize her. So 'Umar bin Al-Khattab saw her and said, "O Sauda! By Allah, you cannot hide yourself from us, so think of a way by which you should not be recognized on going out. Sauda returned while Allah's Apostle was in my house taking his supper and a bone covered with meat was in his hand. She entered and said, "O Allah's Apostle! I went out to answer the call of nature and 'Umar said to me so-and-so." Then Allah inspired him (the Prophet) and when the state of inspiration was over and the bone was still in his hand as he had not put in down, he said (to Sauda), "You (women) have been allowed to go out for your needs."}}

{{quote | {{Muslim||2170a|reference}}| A'isha reported that Sauda (Allah be pleased with her) went out (in the fields) in order to answer the call of nature even after the time when veil had been prescribed for women. She had been a bulky lady, significant in height amongst the women, and she could not conceal herself from him who had known her. 'Umar b. Khattab saw her and said: Sauda, by Allah, you cannot conceal from us. Therefore, be careful when you go out. She ('A'isha) said: She turned back. Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) was at that time in my house having his evening meal and there was a bone in his hand. She (Sauda) cline and said: Allah's Messenger. I went out and 'Umar said to me so and so. She ('A'isha) reported: There came the revelation to him and then it was over; the bone was then in his hand and he had not thrown it and he said: "Permission has been granted to you that you may go out for your needs."}}

Another hadith records how Umar attempted to apply the ruling of hijab (curtain) to other women in Muhammad's house besides his wives (the same account is in {{Bukhari|||6085|darussalam}}).
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2396|reference}}|Sa'd b. Waqqas reported that Umar sought permission from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) to visit him when some women of the Quraish were busy in talking with him and raising their voices above his voice. When 'Umar sought permission they stood up and went hurriedly behind the curtain. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) gave him permission smilingly. Thereupon 'Umar said:

Allah's Messenger, may Allah keep you happy all your life. Then Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: I wonder at these women who were with me and no sooner did they hear your voice, they immediately went behind the curtain. Thereupon 'Umar said: Allah's Messenger, you have more right that they should fear you. Then Umar (addressing the women) said: O ye enemies of yourselves, do you fear me and fear not the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ)? They said: Yes, you are harsh and strict as compared to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). Thereupon, Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: By Him in Whose Hand is my life, if satan would encounter you in the way he would certainly take a different way from that of yours.}}

===Umar struck a slave girl for wearing jilbab like free women===
One tradition relates Umar's strident views also to the theme of {{Quran|33|59}}, the verse in which believing women in general are instructed to wear the jilbab to distinguish themselves and to avoid harrasment.
{{Quote|1=[https://archive.org/details/FP152371/04_152374/page/n353/mode/1up?view=theater Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah 6382 and 6383] (both graded sahih [https://archive.org/details/WAQ25781WAQ/erwaa6/page/n201/mode/2up?view=theater by al-Albani] and [https://archive.org/details/FP152371/04_152374/page/n353/mode/1up?view=theater by Sa'd al Shathri])|2=Narrated Anas ibn Malik:
Umar saw a slave-girl wearing a veil, so he struck her. He said, "Do not emulate free women." 
Narrated Anas ibn Malik:
A female slave came to Umar ibn al Khattab. He knew her through some of the emigrants, or the Ansar. She was wearing a jilbab (cloak) which veiled her. He asked her: "Have you been freed?" She said: "No." He said: "What about the jilbab? Pull it down off your head. The jilbab is only for free women from among the believing women." She hesitated. So he came at her with a whip and struck her on the head, until she cast it off her head.}}

==Hijab as a screen or physical barrier==
Another type of veiling, also referred to in Arabic as ''hijab'', is that effected through physical barriers. This was the original meaning of the term as discussed above regarding {{Quran|33|53}}. While Islamic legal schools disagree about the requirement and use of physical barriers in addition to hijab as matter of personal clothing, the use of physical barriers is the rule rather than the exception in much of the Islamic world and even make frequent appearance in Western diasporic settings.

In addition to the generic employment of physical barriers wherever both men and women are present, there is the more specific practice of the "household hijab". The idea of separating male and female visitors at one's home is inspired by hadith accounts which describe this practice in Muhammad's household as well as a Quranic allusion thereto in {{Quran|33|53}}. According to the hadiths, the separate revelation regarding the household hijab was also situationally inspired. Here, the story is that Muhammad had visitors and was bothered to find them lingering to chat with his wives after they had dinner.

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||4791|darussalam}}; see also {{Bukhari|||4792|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:

When Allah's Apostle married Zainab bint Jahsh, he invited the people to a meal. They took the meal and remained sitting and talking. Then the Prophet (showed them) as if he is ready to get up, yet they did not get up. When he noticed that (there was no response to his movement), he got up, and the others too, got up except three persons who kept on sitting. The Prophet came back in order to enter his house, but he went away again. Then they left, whereupon I set out and went to the Prophet to tell him that they had departed, so he came and entered his house. '''I wanted to enter along with him, but he put a screen between me and him. Then Allah revealed: '''
''''O you who believe! Do not enter the houses of the Prophet...' (33.53)''' }}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||4793|darussalam}}; see also {{Bukhari|||4794|darussalam}} & {{Bukhari|||5166|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas:

A banquet of bread and meat was held on the occasion of the marriage of the Prophet to Zainab bint Jahsh. I was sent to invite the people (to the banquet), and so the people started coming (in groups); They would eat and then leave. Another batch would come, eat and leave. So I kept on inviting the people till I found nobody to invite. Then I said, "O Allah's Prophet! I do not find anybody to invite." He said, "Carry away the remaining food." Then a batch of three persons stayed in the house chatting. The Prophet left and went towards the dwelling place of Aisha and said, "Peace and Allah's Mercy be on you, O the people of the house!" She replied, "Peace and the mercy of Allah be on you too. How did you find your wife? May Allah bless you. Then he went to the dwelling places of all his other wives and said to them the same as he said to Aisha and they said to him the same as Aisha had said to him. Then the Prophet returned and found a group of three persons still in the house chatting. The Prophet was a very shy person, '''so he went out (for the second time) and went towards the dwelling place of 'Aisha. I do not remember whether I informed him that the people have gone away. So he returned and as soon as he entered the gate, he drew the curtain between me and him, and then the Verse of Al-Hijab was revealed.''' }}

{{quote | {{Bukhari|||6238|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:

that he was a boy of ten at the time when the Prophet emigrated to Medina. He added: I served Allah's Apostle for ten years (the last part of his life time) and I know more than the people about the occasion whereupon the order of Al-Hijab was revealed (to the Prophet). Ubai b n Ka'b used to ask me about it. It was revealed (for the first time) during the marriage of Allah's Apostle with Zainab bint Jahsh. In the morning, the Prophet was a bride-groom of her and he Invited the people, who took their meals and went away, but a group of them remained with Allah's Apostle and they prolonged their stay. Allah's Apostle got up and went out, and I too, went out along with him till he came to the lintel of 'Aisha's dwelling place. Allah's Apostle thought that those people had left by then, so he returned, and I too, returned with him till he entered upon Zainab and found that they were still sitting there and had not yet gone. The Prophet went out again, and so did I with him till he reached the lintel of 'Aisha's dwelling place, and then he thought that those people must have left by then, so he returned, and so did I with him, and found those people had gone.''' At that time the Divine Verse of Al-Hijab was revealed, and the Prophet set a screen between me and him (his family).''' }}

==See also==

*[[Convenient Revelations]]

==External links==

*[https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/04/13/why-dress-codes-cant-stop-sexual-assault/ Why dress codes can’t stop sexual assault] - Washington Post

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Hijab]]
[[Category:Honor violence]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[ar:حجاب]]

Scientific Errors in the Quran

2026-03-21T00:18:06Z

Lightyears:

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[[File:Noahs-Ark-Edward-Hicks.jpg|right|thumb|275px|"Noah's Ark" (1846) painted by Edward Hicks. The Quranic story raises questions of historical as well as scientific fact.]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}A common criticism of the [[Quran]], [[Scientific Errors in the Hadith|as with the Hadith]], is that it contains numerous [[Islam and Science|scientific]] and [[Historical Errors in the Qur'an|historical errors]], with no obvious attempts to differentiate its understanding of the natural world and historical events from the common folklore and misconceptions of the people living in 7th century Arabia. Modern responses typically appeal to metaphor, alternative meanings, or phenomenological interpretations of such verses. They also argue that the wording needed to be acceptable to people of its time. Critics typically argue that an all-knowing, perfect communicator would nevertheless have been able to avoid statements in the Quran that reinforced misconceptions of the time, caused future generations to have doubts about its perfection, and on a scale that critics contend is an overwhelming weakness.

==Astronomy==

===Geocentricism===
{{Main|Geocentrism and the Quran|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16th century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran|13|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and for the casual observer appears to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|36|37|40}}|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}
{{Quran-range|36|37|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim||159a|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).

An alternative view cited by classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE), attributed to Qatada ibn Di'amah (d. 735 CE),<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.38 Tafsir ibn Kathir for 36:38]</ref> and which is favoured by many Muslim scholars today, was that this refers to the sun's final 'resting' on the last day. Other verses talk about the sun swimming for a 'term appointed' (though using a different Arabic word).

Whichever interpretation was intended, the sun's movement is nevertheless mentioned right after describing day and night, just as the next verse mentions the different mansions appointed for the moon each night. The whole passage is about day and night and the sun and moon's movement in that context.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}

A modern vantage point would explain the above Qur'anic description of the sun moving in a ''falak'' (see note above) as a reference to our sun orbiting the black hole at the center of the milky way galaxy every 225 million years. Critics argue that this is of no relevance to human time scales, and that nothing from the text implies that the sun is orbiting anything other than the Earth. The Quran never in any way differentiates the sun's orbit from that of the moon and consistently mentions them together. Nor does it ever mention the Earth's own movement.

{{Quote|{{Quran|31|29}}|'''Do you not see''' that Allah causes the night to enter the day and causes the day to enter the night and has subjected the sun and the moon, each running [its course] for a specified term, and that Allah, with whatever you do, is Acquainted?}}
Here the sun running / pursuing its course (يَجْرِىٓ)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000051.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 415 يَجْرِىٓ]</ref> is something that the author expects people to have seen or at least know about (thus posing another challenge for the galactic orbit interpretation).

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|91|1|2}}|By the sun and its brightness And [by] the moon when it follows it}}
The word translated as "follow"<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000350.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 313 تَلَىٰ]</ref> is primarily defined as to follow, go or walk behind, follow in way of imitation, of action etc. and was often used for animals like camels following behind each other. The Moon does not actually follow behind the sun's movement, nor does it provide its own light like the sun. The verse is most suggestive of a worldview in which the moon and sun traverse the same or similar paths after one another, which is what a 7th century person might believe from observing the sky. Critics would expect a less suspicious choice of wording in a perfect book if it merely meant the sun and moon appear one after the other. One day instead of following the sun, the moon will by brought together with it according to another verse (see the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Implied_similar_size_and_distance_of_the_sun_and_moon|Implied Similar Size and Distance of the Sun and Moon]] section below).

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|258}}|Abraham said, ‘Indeed Allah brings the sun from the east; now you bring it from the west.’ So the disbeliever was overwhelmed [by astonishment], and Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.}}
Here the Qur'an quotes a few lines from a debate between Abraham and a disbelieving King, where Abraham replies that Allah 'brings the sun' (''yatee biashshamsi'' يَأْتِى بِٱلشَّمْسِ) from the east. The Arabic verb and preposition indicates that the sun actually moves from East to West across the sky. The verb means to come<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000052.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 15 يَأْتِى]</ref>, and when it has an object with the bi- preposition it means to bring, as in many other instances in the Qur'an. While the story is quoting a mere human's words, the author apparently believes it to be a good response and sees no problem with it.

===Setting and rising place of the sun===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part Two}}

In these verses, the author presents a version of a popular [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac legend from the mid 6th century]] (which used to be dated to the early 7th) in which Alexander the Great visits the place where the sun sets and also describes its rising place in a similar way to the Quran. Later he builds a wall to block Gog and Magog among other close similarities.

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|
Till, when he reached the setting-place of the sun, he found it setting in a muddy spring, and found a people thereabout. We said: O Dhu'l-Qarneyn! Either punish or show them kindness. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|90}}|
Till, when he reached the rising-place of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had appointed no shelter therefrom. }}

Centuries after Muhammad lived, commentators with better astronomical knowledge introduced interpretations of these verses such that Dhu'l-Qarnayn only traveled until he reached "the west" and "the east", or to spots "at the time" when the sun set and rose and not the places where it actually did so. Additionally, in these interpretations the Quran merely comments on how the sun ''appeared'' to set and rise at those destinations. However, these alternative interpretations are severely undermined by the [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One#First_interpretation:_He_reached_the_west_and_east|context and Arabic words used in these verses]], which instead point to physical locations where the sun did its setting and rising. An abundance of evidence from poems, hadiths and Quranic commentaries show that the early Muslims understood the verses in this straightforward way.

===Earth and heavens created in six days===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation}}

The Qur'an presents the prevailing Middle-Eastern myth that the Earth and heavens were formed in six days. This is in sharp contrast with the findings of modern cosmology which show the Earth to have formed some 9 billion years after the beginning of the universe.

Prevailing Middle-Eastern creation myths featured six literal days of creation (for example, the Bible in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201&version=NIV Genesis 1:5] reads, "Evening came and morning came: The first day"). Similarly, in the Quranic creation account the Arabic word for day, ''yawm'' is used (cognate to the Biblical yôm), which means day in the hundreds of other verses where it occurs. In this case, however, many modern Muslim scholars appeal to an alternative meaning for yawm, 'time period', and point to verses stating that, with Allah, a day is like a thousand years ({{Quran|22|47}} and {{Quran|32|5}}), or that angels ascend in a day like fifty thousand years ({{Quran|70|4}}). A similar motif occurs in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm%2090&version=NIV Psalm 90:4] in the Bible.<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 165</ref>

Nevertheless, neither the universe nor earth were formed in six distinct periods of time, and there is no attempt in the creation verses to indicate, even poetically, the vast duration of time in which the universe has developed (namely, 13.8 billion years).

{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
We created the heavens and the earth and all between them in Six Days, nor did any sense of weariness touch Us}}

The Earth specifically was created in two days according to the Qur'an, and in four days (on days three and four according to the [[Tafsir|tafsirs]]) were created mountains and the sustenance of the Earth.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|9|10}}|Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two Days? And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds. He set on the (earth), mountains standing firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the earth, and measure therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days, in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (Sustenance).}}

Mountains nonetheless continue to rise and erode to this day. Similarly, living things and their sustenance continue to evolve, yet the Qur'an says that the creation of mountains and sustenance occurred in a specific period during the six days of creation. See the next section regarding the final two of the six days ({{Quran-range|41|11|12}}) which immediately follow the verses discussed above, and another verse which confirms this sequence.

===Earth created before stars===

The [[w:Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|elements in the Earth's crust]] and core were first formed in stars by [[w:Nucleosynthesis|nucleosynthesis]]. When those stars exploded as [[w:Supernova|supernovas]], they expelled the elements that were used in future solar systems such as Earth's own. Modern radiometric dating of meteorites and rocks from the Earth and Moon show that these bodies were formed at the same time as the sun and its other planets, [[w:Age_of_the_Earth|4.5 billion years ago]]. The Qur'an, on the other hand, describes the Earth as being fully formed before the stars.

{{Quran|41|12}} states that lamps (or more specifically, stars in the similar verse {{Quran|37|6}}) were placed in the nearest of the seven heavens. But before there were seven heavens and while heaven was just smoke, the Earth already existed according to the previous verse, {{Quran|41|11}}, and the Earth's creation and completion in the preceding days is described in the verses immediately preceeding that one, {{Quran-range|41|9|10}} discussed in the previous section above. The creation sequence is thus as follows:

#Heaven and completed Earth;
#Seven heavens and each given its mandate;
#The nearest heaven adorned with stars and guarded.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|11|12}}|
Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. '''Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days''' and inspired in each heaven its mandate; '''and We decked the nether heaven with lamps''', and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower. }}

{{Quran|2|29}} further confirms that heaven was only fashioned seven heavens when, according to the Quran, everything on Earth had been created.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|
He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}

The word lamps (masabeeha مَصَٰبِيحَ) in {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}} with which Allah adorns (zayyanna زَيَّنَّا) the lowest heaven would need, of course, to include any luminous bodies such as the stars. Stars are termed as ''kawakib'' (كَوَاكِبِ) in the very similar verse {{Quran|37|6}}, a word which also appears in Joseph's dream ({{Quran|12|4}}) and the destruction of the heavens ({{Quran-range|82|1|2}}).

Some modern Muslim scholars attempt to reconcile the Qur'anic description with modern science by arguing that the word 'Then' in the verses above does not indicate sequence, but that it instead means 'moreover'. This argument collides with the fact that these words (thumma in {{Quran|41|11}} and {{Quran|2|29}}, and fa in {{Quran|41|12}} - all translated as 'then') are generally used to indicate sequence. In other contexts, thumma was sometimes used to mean 'moreover'. This alternative usage, however, would always be unambiguous and clear in context, unlike in the passages quoted above, which evidently describe a stepwise process - the creation of the heavens subsequent to that of the Earth. In any case, the Arabic particle ''fa'' in the latter of these three verses unambiguously indicates sequence.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2321 ف]</ref>

In another passage, {{Quran-range|79|27|33}}, the heaven (singular) has already been raised and proportioned as a ceiling before the earth is spread, pastures produced and mountains fixed. Ibn Kathir notes in his tafsir that Ibn 'Abbas said the Earth was created first before each of these events and that scholars interpreted the Arabic word dahaha (دَحَىٰهَآ) in verse 79:30 to refer to a specific kind of spreading that occurred after everything on Earth had been created.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/2.29 Tafsir ibn Kathir 2:29]</ref> However, the passage nevertheless appears to contradict the sequence of {{Quran-range|41|9|12}}, in which the heaven is still "smoke" after Earth's sustenance and mountains have been placed.

====Earth and heavens torn apart====

Modern Muslim scholars generally maintain that the following verse is compatible with and even predictive of the Big Bang theory. According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe was formed 13.8 billion years ago due to a rapid expansion from singularity. The earth was then formed, 4.54 billion years ago, from accretion of debris that surrounded the precursor of the Sun. There was at no stage a "separation" of the "joined" earth and heavens.

The ancient concept can be traced back to [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm Mesopotamian creation myths] in which heaven was separated from earth. {{Quran|21|30}} and similar verses assume that listeners are familiar with the basic outlines of this myth which was extremely wide-spread at the time of [[Muhammad]] and his [[Sahabah|companions]].

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|
Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe? }}

The word translated "joined together" is ratqan (رَتْقًا)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000193.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1027 رَتْقًا] </ref> meaning closed up or sewn up, also used metaphorically in terms of reconciling people, but does not imply a homogenous mass or state, let alone a singularity. The words "(one unit of creation)" are the translator's own exegetical note.

Mirroring this is the word fataqnāhumā ("we clove them asunder"), whose root rhymes with ratqan and means to slit, rent asunder, divide, unstitch.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000115.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2331 فتق]</ref>

The separation of the heavens and earth can be read in the context of verses that mention something "between" their fully formed state (which seems to be occupied by the clouds {{Quran|2|164}} and birds {{Quran|24|41}}), and that the heaven is a roof "raised high" ({{Quran|52|5}}).

{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
And verily We created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them, in six Days, and naught of weariness touched Us.}}

There is no scientific theory in which the Earth and heavens were torn apart from each other. The verse states that "We clove them" (dual pronoun 'huma'), not "We clove it", thereby indicating that the Earth and heavens are distinct after the cloving. If one holds that {{Quran|21|30}} describes the big bang, the atomic particles that would later form the Earth would at the beginning would have to be separated from those that would go on to form everything else in the universe. This, however, bears no resemblance to modern scientific cosmology, wherein the material that forms the Earth passed through at least one earlier generation of stars, and more recently was part of various asteroids, comets and planetesimals orbiting the sun (which could all be described as being in the 'heavens') that sometimes collided and merged with each other, sometimes split apart, and gradually coalesced under gravity to form the Earth and other planets.

The very next verse {{Quran|21|31}} speaks of mountains being placed on the Earth. Here, 'the Earth' must mean an actual world, yet modern interpretations of the previous verse hold that 'the Earth' refers merely to atomic particles around the time of the big bang.

====Heaven made from smoke====
{{main|Quran and a Universe from Smoke}}

There is no stage in the formation of the universe that involved smoke (carbon particles suspended as a result of combustion; the word translated smoke is the noun dukhan دُخَانٍ, which means literal smoke of the sort that rises from a fire<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000027.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 861 دُخَانٍ]</ref>). Similarly, the Earth and heavens did not each "come" as separate entities at any point in time. Rather, the Earth is a part of this universe and has developed within it.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|11|12}}|
Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We decked the nether heaven with lamps, and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower. }}

Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}, discussed above).

Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance (he used the Septuagint Greek translation which says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew verse says vanished like smoke).<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>

===Seven Earths===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|Science and the Seven Earths}}

The Quran states that there exist seven earths. Academic scholarship has noted that this concept of seven earths, along with seven heavens, was present in the near east in the first millennia BCE and CE (see [[Cosmology of the Quran]]).

{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|
Allah it is who hath created seven heavens, and of the earth the like thereof. The commandment cometh down among them slowly, that ye may know that Allah is Able to do all things, and that Allah surroundeth all things in knowledge.}}

A hadith in [[Sahih Bukhari|Bukhari]] reveals that these seven Earths are stacked above each other.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2454|darussalam}}| The Prophet said, "Whoever takes a piece of the land of others unjustly, '''he will sink down the seven earths''' on the Day of Resurrection.}}

The number, like seven heavens, might have come from a misunderstanding or indigenous interpretation of mythology from classical antiquity in which there were seven moving planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the sun and moon). The number seven, however, does not accord with the findings of modern astronomers, which know there to be eight ordinary planets and five dwarf planets, making for a grand total of thirteen in our solar system. Modern astronomy also has found many thousands of planets in other solar systems and Cosmologists estimate that hundreds of billions of stars and planets exist in the universe at large.

===Seven Heavens===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|l1=Cosmology of the Qur'an|Science and the Seven Earths#Seven_Universes|l2=Science and the Seven Earths - Seven Universes}}

The universe consists of hundreds of billions of galaxies, each with hundreds of billions of stars. The Quran states that beyond our heaven which contains the stars, there exists another six heavens. The myth of seven heavens was a common idea prevalent in the Middle East during the time when the Qur'an was first recited.

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|15}}|
See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another}}

Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that these verses refer to the seven layers of the atmosphere. However, {{Quran|37|6}} and {{Quran|67|5}} state that stars occupy the nearest heaven. Additionally, there are 5 rather than 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], and likewise only 5 rather than 7 major layers to the [[w:Structure_of_Earth|Earth itself]].

{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}}

===Meteors as stars fired at devils===
{{Main|Shooting Stars in the Quran|Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)}}

The Qur'an states that stars (''kawakib'' ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ), lamps (''masabih'' مَصَٰبِيحَ) and great stars/constellations/zodiac signs (''burūj'' بُرُوجًا) adorn the heavens and guard against devils.

The Qur'an further asserts that Allah has made them (the stars/lamps) flaming missiles to ward away devils (or in some verses, jinn), who attempt to listen in on heavenly meetings (known as the Exalted Assembly). The Quranic concept has a close parallel in [[Pre-Islamic_Arab_Religion_in_Islam#Shooting_Stars_and_Eavesdropping_Shaytans|an earlier Jewish development from Zoroastrian mythology]]. Such myths are best understood as pre-modern attempts to explain the common phenomenon of meteors streaking across the night sky.

While stars are giant balls of gas thousands of times larger than the earth, meteors are small rocky masses or grains of debris which burn up after entering the earth's atmosphere. Many ancient people confused the two, as meteors look like stars that are streaking across the sky; this is why they were often called [[w:Meteoroid|shooting stars]] or falling stars. Large increases in meteors occur on a predictable schedule each year as the Earth's orbit passes through the stream of particles and debris left in the wake of a number of comets (or in a few cases, of asteroids). The most visible is usually the annual [[w:Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]] in August.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|37|6|10}}|
Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars '''And as protection''' against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing [in brightness].}}

The same Arabic words are used at the start of {{Quran|67|5}} as in {{Quran|37|6}} (زَيَّنَّا ٱلسَّمَآءَ ٱلدُّنْيَا), except that in {{Quran|67|5}} the word lamps is used instead of stars. The lamps that 'beautify the heaven' must refer to stars (and perhaps also the 5 visible planets), which are always there. Meteors, on the other hand, are now known to be distinct from the distant stars. They are often not much larger than grains of sand and only become visible for a second when they burn up, generating light in the Earth's atmosphere.

{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|
And verily We have beautified the world's heaven with lamps, '''and We have made them''' missiles for the devils, and for them We have prepared the doom of flame.}}

The word translated "missiles" is rujūman (رُجُومًا), which are things that are thrown, especially stones.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000214.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1048 رُجُومًا]</ref>

A hadith confirms that the 'pursuant flames / missiles' in the two verses were understood to mean what we now know are visible meteors. {{Muslim||2229a|reference}} and {{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3224}} recount an occasion when Muhammad and his companions saw a shooting star at night. He explains to his companions that angels throw these at Jinn when they try to steal information about Allah's commands passed down through the heavens.

Other relevant Quran verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context), {{Quran-range|15|16|18}}, and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|33|35}}|O company of jinn and mankind, if you are able to pass beyond the regions of the heavens and the earth, then pass. You will not pass except by authority [from Allah].
So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? There will be sent upon you a flame of fire and smoke, and you will not defend yourselves.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|16|18}}|It is We Who have set out the zodiacal signs in the heavens, and have beautified it for the beholders; And (moreover) We have guarded them from every cursed devil: But any that gains a hearing by stealth, is pursued by a flaming fire, bright (to see).
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|72|8|9}}|And we have sought [to reach] the heaven but found it filled with powerful guards and burning flames. And we used to sit therein in positions for hearing, but whoever listens now will find a burning flame lying in wait for him.}}

If the flaming missiles mentioned by the Quran are to be identified with meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere, this would locate the eavesdropping devils (or jinn) in the upper atmosphere too, which leaves no way for the (extremely distant) stars to serve as guards in this process as outlined in the verses. However, these verses would of course fit a relatively small universe as imagined by 7th century Arabs, in which a heavenly firmament is adorned with stars able to pelt shooting stars at any devils or jinn in their vicinity, seeming to cover interstellar distances in a flaming streak across the sky. This is further supported by {{Quran|21|32}} which describes the heaven as a guarded ceiling.

===The entire heaven has a night and day===
The Qur'anic conception of the cosmos accords with its author's visual perception of the sky, even to the extent that in {{Quran-range|79|28|29}} night and day is mistaken as a feature of the entire heaven (the lowest heaven is elsewhere said to be adorned with stars, as discussed above, and it will become clear that this is the heaven being referred to). In these verses the night and morning brightness are said to be an attribute of the heaven (l-samāu) which Allah built (banāhā) and raised (rafaʿa) as a ceiling (samkahā) and ordered it (fasawwāhā) when he created the heaven and earth.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|79|27|30}}|Are ye the harder to create, or is the heaven that He built? He raised the height thereof and ordered it; And He made dark the night '''thereof''', and He brought forth the morn '''thereof'''. And after that He spread the earth,}}

The possessive hā suffix in laylahā (its night) and ḍuḥāhā (its morning light) relates night and day to the heaven in its entirety. In reality, the night and day we experience is a feature of the earth's rotation on its axis. There is no sense in which the earth's night and day (which happen at the same time) apply across the wider cosmos.

In order to confirm the interpretation of these verses it is important to look at how the significant words are used elsewhere in the Quran. "The night" is a very common word in the Quran, and the morning light is used in the same context in {{Quran-range|93|1|2}} and {{Quran|91|1}} (see also {{Quran|79|46}}).

Indeed, {{Quran-range|91|1|6}} has many of the same Arabic words as {{Quran-range|79|27|30}}: "its morning light" (this time of the sun), "the night", and "the heaven" (singular) "built" by Allah. Putting the two passages together, it seems that the author of the Quran intuitively believed that the night and the sun's morning light were features pertaining to the entire visible heaven.

Other verses are helpful to confirm what is meant by the heaven (singular) in this context. {{Quran|2|29}} states that Allah turned (is'tawā) to the heaven and fashioned them (fasawwāhunna) seven heavens. These are two forms of the same Arabic verb as is translated "ordered" in {{Quran|79|28}} in the above quote.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}

The word "raised" in {{Quran|79|28}} is similarly used for the creation of the heaven (singular) and earth in {{Quran|88|18}} and the heavens (plural) raised without visible pillars in {{Quran|13|2}}.

The word "he built it" in v. 27 (banāhā) also occurs in {{Quran|50|6}}, which says regarding the heaven (singular) that Allah "built it" and "adorned it" (wazayyannāhā), a word which in other verses refers to the stars adorning the lowest heaven ({{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, as discussed in the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Earth created before stars|Earth created before stars]] section above).

====Night and day as moving entities====
As the above section explains, night and day in the Quran are a property of the entire heaven rather than a specific phenomena only occurring on the surface of the Earth as it rotates and orbits the sun. The Qur'anic description extends to the night covering/veiling the day, chasing it rapidly ({{Quran|7|54}}). And god 'strips' the night of the day ({{Quran|36|37}}). The day and night are also said to successively overlap ({{Quran|39|5}}) or enter into each other ({{Quran|35|13}}, {{Quran|3|27}}, {{Quran|22|61}}, and {{Quran|57|6}}). {{Quran|10|27}} says the faces of evil doers will be dark, as though covered by pieces of the night.

In addition, not only the sun and moon, but the day and night too are each (Kullun, which means "all"<ref>[https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000256.pdf Lane's Lexicon supplement p. 3002 كُلّ]</ref>) floating/swimming in an orbit/sphere/hemisphere (fee falakin<ref name="LLFalak" />) in Q. 21:33 and Q. 36:40.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not allowable for the sun to reach the moon, nor does the night overtake the day, but each, in an orbit, is swimming.}}

===The sky/heaven as a ceiling===

{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}

A common myth at the time of the Quran's composition was that the sky or heavens were held up with pillars, which is also a Biblical motif. While classical Muslim scholars often believed in a dome shaped heaven, some academic scholars have argued that the Quranic heavens are flat, stacked expanses (see main article). These heavens are like roofs (saqf {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|52|5}}), a building/edifice/tent (binaan {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|40|64}}), a ceiling (samk {{Quran|79|28}}), in layers ({{Quran|71|15}} and {{Quran|67|3}}), while {{Quran|13|2}} adds that the heavens were raised without visible pillars (perhaps phrased with deliberate ambiguity).

Reinforcing the 2 dimensional imagery, {{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allah's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}; the same Arabic noun is used in {{Quran|50|6}} where the listeners are expected to notice that the heaven has no slits, reinforcing the canopy metaphor), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|22}}|[He] who made for you the earth a bed [spread out] and the sky a ceiling and sent down from the sky, rain and brought forth thereby fruits as provision for you. So do not attribute to Allah equals while you know [that there is nothing similar to Him].}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|15}}|Do you not consider how Allah has created seven heavens in layers}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|78|12}}|And We have built above you seven strong (heavens)}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|
Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|81|11}}|
And when the sky is stripped away}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We will fold the heaven like the folding of a [written] sheet for the records. As We began the first creation, We will repeat it. [That is] a promise binding upon Us. Indeed, We will do it.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|25}}|The Day the heaven shall be rent asunder with clouds, and angels shall be sent down, descending (in ranks),-}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|69|15|17}}|Then on that Day, the Resurrection will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm. And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them].}}

===The sky/heaven as a guarded ceiling===

{{Quran|21|32}} says Allah made the sky/heaven a guarded ceiling (but is not itself a guard or protection, which is a common misreading). This is most likely related to the verses about devils chased by shooting stars (meteors) that guard the lowest heaven. One of those verses, {{Quran-range|37|6|10}} discussed above, contains a noun meaning "guard" from the same Arabic root (hafiza) as the verb in this verse.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000237.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 601 حفظ]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|
And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}

Interestingly, modern science has revealed that the things by which the sky / heaven is said to be guarded can also pose a threat to living things on Earth - asteroids and meteorites have penetrated the atmosphere and hit the earth throughout the course of history. This includes the [[w:Chicxulub crater|massive meteorite]] that hit near the [[w:Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán Peninsula]] 65 million years which killed off numerous species, including most dinosaurs.

More recently in 2013, in Chelyabinsk, Russia, a house-sized meteoroid entered the atmosphere at over 11 miles / 18 kilometers per second and blew apart 14 miles / 23 kilometers above the ground, having penetrated the Earth's atmosphere. The explosion released the energy equivalent of around 440,000 tons of TNT and generated a shock wave that blew out windows over 200 square miles (518 square kilometers) and damaged buildings. More than 1,600 people were injured in the blast, mostly due to broken glass.<ref>[https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/meteors-and-meteorites/in-depth/ Meteors & Meteorites] - NASA website</ref>

===The sky/heaven as something that can fall===

The Quran describes the sky/heaven as a roof held up by Allah that can fall or fragments of which may break off and fall upon unfortunate individuals. This is challenging in light of the modern realization that the sky is simply a conglomeration of various gasses.

{{Quote|{{Quran|52|44}}|And if they were to see a fragment of the heaven falling, they would say: A heap of clouds.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|34|9}}|See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|22|65}}|Hast thou not seen how Allah hath made all that is in the earth subservient unto you? And the ship runneth upon the sea by His command, and He holdeth back the heaven from falling on the earth unless by His leave. Lo! Allah is, for mankind, Full of Pity, Merciful.}}

===Heavens to be rolled up===

{{Quran|21|104}} and {{Quran|39|67}} state that the heavens will be 'rolled up' come the day of judgement, implying their corporeality and two dimensional form.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|39|67}}|No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: On the Day of Judgment the whole of the earth will be but His handful, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!}}

===The gates of the sky/heaven===
The Quran states in many verses that there are gates in the sky/heavens (see: {{Quran|7|40}}, {{Quran|15|14}}, {{Quran|78|19}}, {{Quran|54|11}}), of which Allāh alone holds the keys to {{Quran|42|12}}, and are at least close enough for water to fall to the Earth from, and flood it after Noah's preaching.
{{Quote|{{Quran|54|11}}|Then We opened the gates of the sky with pouring waters}}

===The sky-ways/cords of the heavens===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}
Similar to other ancient Near-East and West Asian cosmologies, the sky/heavens are equipped with pathways or conduits, called sabab (singular) asbāb (plural),<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 223-224.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref> that are some kind of ropes or cords (as per their literal meaning)<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> that support or run along the high edifice of the heaven, which can be traversed physically by people who arrive at them. Al-Rabīʿ ibn Anas (d. 756), to whom is attributed an early Quran commentary on verse Q38:10 notes: "The asbāb are finer than hair and stronger than iron; it [sic] is in every place although it is invisible.<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 237.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|36-37}}|And Pharaoh said, "O Haman, construct for me a tower that I might reach the ways (asbāb) - The ways (asbāb) into the heavens - so that I may look at the deity of Moses; but indeed, I think he is a liar." And thus was made attractive to Pharaoh the evil of his deed, and he was averted from the [right] way. And the plan of Pharaoh was not except in ruin.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|38|10}}|Or is theirs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them? Then let them ascend through [any] ways (asbāb) of access}}
Despite the existence of space exploration and telescopes these have not been found.

===Stars as something that fall===

The Qur'an says that the stars will fall (inkadarat ٱنكَدَرَتْ) as one of many dramatic events surrounding the last day. The word كدر in the form used in this verse (form VII) meant 'to dart down', as is said of a bird or hawk, or to fall and scatter.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000124.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2596 ٱنكَدَرَتْ]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|81|2}}|And when the stars fall}}

The structure of space-time is such that nothing, not even stars, can move faster than the velocity of light. Even if the stars were to move close to light speed across the sky, their apparent motion would be so slight relative to their distance that it would nonetheless be imperceptible to the naked eye. Moreover, as many visible stars are hundreds of light years away (the nearest star is more than four light years away), the light from such events would take years to reach our eyes. Indeed, many stars still visible in the sky ceased to exist centuries ago and it is only their light which is just now reaching the Earth.

Similarly the stars are said to disperse/scatter (intatharat انْتَثَرَتْ) on judgement day, which classical commentaries have also linked to dispersing/falling on Earth,<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/82.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 82.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/82.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 82.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).

</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/82.1 Tafsir ibn Kathir Verse 82.2.]'' Ibn Kathir <abbr>c.</abbr> 1300 – 1373.</ref> along with the above verse 81:2.<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/81.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 81.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/81.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 81.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|82|2}}|when the stars are scattered,}}

===Moon split in two===
{{Main|Moon Split Miracle}}

The Qur'an (according to a common interpretation) and a hadith tradition state that the moon was miraculously split into two pieces and then, presumably, put back together again. There is, however, no scientific evidence suggesting that the moon was ever been split into two parts. Critics have pointed out that since the moon is visible to half the planet at any given time, there should exist numerous accounts from different parts of the world attesting to the event if it in fact happened. The Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, Persians, Chinese and Indians had avid astronomers who, critics maintain, should have seen this event and recorded it in their histories. The complete absence of any such historical record from other civilizations contemporary to Muhammad is thus presented as a strong indication that the event described in scripture never happened.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|1|3}}|The Hour has come near, and the moon has split [in two]. And if they see a miracle, they turn away and say, "Passing magic." And they denied and followed their inclinations. But for every matter is a [time of] settlement. }}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4864|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn Masud:

During the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) the moon was split into two parts; one part remained over the mountain, and the other part went beyond the mountain. On that, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Witness this miracle."
}}Some modern Islamic scholars and academic scholars interpret the moon splitting verse as an eschatological prophecy. One reason is that the traditional interpretation contradicts the repeated claims that Muhammad was not sent with miracles, but only to warn people with the message (see also {{Quran|6|109}} and {{Quran|11|12}}):
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|The unbelievers say, "Why has God not sent him, (Muhammad), some miracles." (Muhammad), you are only a warner. For every nation there is a guide.}}

===Nature of the moon's light===

Modern Muslim scholars have sometimes argued that the Qur'an predicted the realization that the moon does not emit its own light, but simply reflects light coming from the Sun. The Arabic word for reflected (''in`ikaas'') does not appear in the two Qur'anic verses that say the Moon is a "light". Instead, the word ''noor'' (nooran نُورًا) is used, which simply means "a light", and, in another verse, the word ''muneer'' (''muneeran'' مُّنِيرًا) is used, which means "giving light" and is from the same root as ''noor''. Nonetheless, the usage of these words is vague and appears to permit alternative interpretations.

{{Quote|{{Quran|10|5}}|
He it is Who appointed the sun a splendour and the moon a light, and measured for her stages, that ye might know the number of the years, and the reckoning. Allah created not (all) that save in truth. He detaileth the revelations for people who have knowledge.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|16}}|
And hath made the moon a light therein, and made the sun a lamp?}}

''Noor'' appears again (this time as a participle muneeran مُّنِيرًا) in a similar verse about the moon:

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|61}}|
Blessed be He Who hath placed in the heaven mansions of the stars, and hath placed therein a great lamp and a moon giving light!"}}

{{Quran-range|33|45|46}} most clearly displays the meaning of ''noor'' to be "light" rather than "reflected light". A lamp is described as "shining light" with the same Arabic word used in {{Quran|25|61}} (muneeran مُّنِيرًا):

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|45|46}}|
O Prophet! Lo! We have sent thee as a witness and a bringer of good tidings and a warner. And as a summoner unto Allah by His permission, and as a lamp '''that giveth light'''.}}

In Lane's Lexicon of classical arabic, the word ''muneer'' (مُّنِيرً) is defined as 'Giving light, shining bright, bright, or shining brightly'.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000120.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2866 مُّنِيرً]</ref> ''Noor'' is defined on the previous page as 'Light; whatever it may be; and the rays thereof'.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000119.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2865 نُورًا]</ref> In reference to {{Quran|10|5}} (quoted above) which describe the moon with this word, Lane writes, 'In the Kur. x. 5, the sun is termed ضياء and the moon نور and it is said that ضياء is ''essential'', but نور is ''accidental'' [light]'. The notion of essential and accidental light and its application to the sun and moon originates not from the Arabs at the time of the Qur'an, but rather from the book ''Kitab al-Manazir'', commonly known as 'Optics', published in 1572 by the great polymath and optics pioneer al-Hazen. Lane goes on to say, citing the highly regarded Taj al-Arus classical dictionary, 'it [light] is of two kinds, the light of the present world and that of the world to come; and the former is either perceived sensibly, by the eye, and this is what diffuses itself from luminous bodies, as the sun and moon and stars, and is mentioned in the Kur. x. 5 referred to above'.

The word ''noor'' is also used in {{Quran|24|35}} to show that Allah is the "light" of the universe. The author does not imply that Allah reflects light from another source, but rather that he is the ultimate source of all light.

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|35}}|
Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.}}

===Implied similar size and distance of the sun and moon===
{{Main|Geocentrism and the Quran|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

In a passage about events on the day of resurrection, some critics argue that the Qur'an implies that the sun and moon are of comparable size and distance. As already noted, the Quran says that the moon "follows" the sun ({{Quran-range|91|1|2}}), and "It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day." ({{Quran|36|40}}). Verse {{Quran|75|9}} adds that on the last day the sun and moon will be brought together. While such a perspective is intuitive for one in seventh century Arabia viewing the sun and moon with their unaided eye and observing eclipses, modern science has revealed that 64.3 million moons could fit in the sun.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|8|9}}|And the moon darkens And the sun and the moon are joined,}}

The Arabic word translated as "are joined" is ''jumi'a'', a verb which means to collect together, gather together, bring together.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000091.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 455 جُمِعَ]</ref> Critics note that this would involve our moon, which orbits the Earth 93 million miles away from the sun, being brought together with our local star which is over 400 times wider. To say that such mismatched objects will be brought together (jumi'a) in such a scenario would hardly be apt, critics argue, and a very odd apocalyptic event. Rather, the description sits comfortably in the ancient understanding of the cosmos, whereby the sun and moon were assumed to be two roughly equivalent celestial bodies in the sky above the Earth.

It is worth noting that the "darkening" of the moon in verse 8 is an Arabic word which in hadiths refers to a lunar or solar eclipse (in this case lunar). However, for a lunar eclipse to occur (when the earth's shadow is cast upon the moon) the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and thus are not in any sense "brought together". Nor does brought together in verse 9 work as a reference to a solar eclipse (when the sun occasionally casts a shadow of the moon on the earth). The moon is invisible during the portion of a month when it can eclipse the sun since it must be on the daylit side of the earth, and hence the moon does not "darken" or itself become eclipsed (verse 8) as it passes between observers and the sun but rather its silhouette becomes visible.

===The cause of shadows changing length===
Shadows are produced when the sun's light is obstructed. The Earth's rotation causes these shadows to change size and lengthen. {{Quran-range|25|45|46}} states that the reason shadows fluctuate in size rather than being stationary is because Allah has made the sun their guide. This appears to confirm the geocentric outlook widely evidenced elsewhere in the Qur'an, for it is only on a geocentric view that shadows would be of fixed length if the sun (rather than the Earth) were not made to do something.

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|45-46}}|
Hast thou not turned thy vision to thy Lord?- How He doth prolong the shadow! If He willed, He could make it stationary! then do We make the sun its guide; Then We draw it in towards Ourselves,- a contraction by easy stages.}}

Interestingly, {{Quran|25|46}} follows up by stating that Allah 'draws the shadows towards himself'. The exact meaning of this verse is unclear, but if it regards the retraction of an object's shadow 'back onto itself' - that is, to a state where there is no shadow or the shadow is at its shortest - then perhaps it can be interpreted to describe the gradual 'pointing of the shadow towards heaven' or 'upwards towards Allah'. Even this reading is difficult to justify, however, and the verse is perhaps best regarded as having lost intelligibility beyond the vague spiritual sense in which it may be read.

===Disregard of North and South Poles===
{{Main|The Ramadan Pole Paradox}}

In polar regions, the longevity of day and night vary during summer and winter. The day gets shorter and shorter in winter until there are days or weeks of uninterrupted night. At the poles themselves, day and night alternately last for six months and all phases of the moon occur several times between sunrise and sunset. These circumstances render many of the most important Islamic rituals impracticable and suggest that the author(s) of the Qur'an and hadith, in so far as they aspired to produce a religion of global practicability, were not aware of the extreme distortions to the day length that take place near the poles.

{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|
It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit. }}

When reading this verse one may also wonder in what sense day and night each have an orbit (See [[Geocentrism and the Quran]]).

See also the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Fasting_and_prayer_requirements_near_the_Poles|Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles]] section below.

==Biology==

===Evolution===
{{Main|Evolution and Islam}}

The Qur'an takes what is perhaps best described as the creationist view of the origins and history of life on earth. This diverges sharply from the overwhelming scientific evidence that humans have evolved from prior life forms, over the course of millions of years and through natural selection.<ref>https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence</ref> Consequently, while some Muslim scholars reinterpret the Quran in order that they may accept the theory of evolution, most reject it in favor of a creationist world view. Opinion polls show that the majority of Muslims agree Islam and evolution are not compatible.

====First humans created from clay====
{{Main|Creation of Humans from Clay|Evolution and Islam}}

The Qur’an states that the first man was created instantaneously from clay (''salsalin'' صَلْصَٰلٍ) / ''mud'' (hamain حَمَإٍ). There is no indication that the author is aware of the evolution of human life over millions of years or our common ancestry with apes and primates. While some scientists argue over the detailed mechanisms driving evolution, they agree that common descent is an overwhelmingly proven fact.

{{Quote|{{Quran|15|26}}|
We created man from sounding clay, from mud molded into shape; }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|55|14}}|
He created man from clay like [that of] pottery.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|38|71|75}}|[So mention] when your Lord said to the angels, "'''Indeed, I am going to create a human being from clay. So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration.'''" So the angels prostrated - all of them entirely. Except Iblees; he was arrogant and became among the disbelievers. [Allah] said, "O Iblees, what prevented you from prostrating to '''that which I created with My hands?''' Were you arrogant [then], or were you [already] among the haughty?" He said, "I am better than him. '''You created me from fire and created him from clay.'''"}}

====Descent from Adam and Eve====
{{Main|Evolution and Islam|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation}}

The Qur’an contains stories concerning the 'first humans' which detail, among other matters, how all people are descended from Adam and Eve (called ''Hawa'' in Arabic), the two earliest ancestors. These humans were created in a garden (the word for paradise in Arabic is ''jannah'', which literally means 'garden') and then brought to Earth fully formed (Sahih Hadiths say Adam was 60 cubits - or 90 feet - tall). This view of the origins of human life is directly challenged by overwhelming DNA evidence and the numerous fossils of pre-Homo sapiens species that lived on earth for millions of years prior to the evolution modern humans.<ref>http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence</ref> Powerful DNA evidence that humans have common ancestry with other primate families includes endogenous retroviruses in the exact same genetic locations of our respective genomes<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oXfDF5Ew3Gc DNA Evidence That Humans & Chimps Share A Common Ancestor: Endogenous Retroviruses] - Youtube.com</ref> and the fusion of two primate chromosomes to become chromosome 2 in humans<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dK3O6KYPmEw Professor Ken Miller on DNA fusion events] - Youtube.com</ref> (for more detail see the main article).

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|189}}|
It is He who created you from one soul and created from it its mate that he might dwell in security with her. And when he covers her, she carries a light burden and continues therein. And when it becomes heavy, they both invoke Allah, their Lord, "If You should give us a good [child], we will surely be among the grateful."}}

In the above verse the poetic allusion to sex and pregnancy and the couple's invocation to Allah leaves no doubt that the first sentence is a reference to common descent from Adam (in similar verses this is less explicit). All the classical exegetes state that this “single being” (نَّفْسٍ وَٰحِدَةٍ ) refers to Adam. Both classical Sunni and Shia Tafsirs confirm this and there are even mutawatir hadith narrations (mass transmitted reports) implying that all humans descend from Adam (for details, see [[Evolution_and_Islam|Evolution and Islam]]).

Another verse describes the literal descent of humanity from one man with reference to the sexual means by which it was achieved ("despised fluid" i.e. semen) after Allah had created that first man out of clay.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|32|7|8}}|Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;}}
The word translated “seed” in the Pickthall translation is nasl نسل, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 3032 نسل]</ref>

Other verses address humanity as banī ādama ("children of Adam"), including {{Quran|7|27}} which describe the first couple as "your parents". See also {{Quran|17|70}} and {{Quran|4|1}}.

Some modern Muslim scholars argue that the notion of two ancestral “parents” is consistent with recent scientific findings that show a common female and male ancestor of all modern humans. This results, however, from a confusion with the nicknames (Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam) by which scientists have referred to human's earliest genetic ancestors. These two individuals, however, are distinct from the Quranic characters as they are simply the last common male and female ancestors of everyone alive today and not of all humans in history. More importantly, whereas the Qur'an describes Eve as Adam's wife (who, notably, was created ''after'' him), Mitochondrial Eve lived some 50,000 to 80,000 years earlier than Y-chromosomal Adam.<ref>[http://biologos.org/blog/does-genetics-point-to-a-single-primal-couple Adam, Eve, and Human Population Genetics: Responses to Popular Arguments] - Biologos website</ref> Genetic evidence also overwhelmingly indicates that humans diverged from earlier species as a population rather than as a single couple.<ref>[http://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2011/09/18/how-big-was-the-human-population-bottleneck-not-anything-close-to-2/ How big was the human population bottleneck? Another staple of theology refuted.] - Why Evolution is True website by Professor Jerry Coyne</ref>

===Genetics===
====Noah's ark human population bottleneck====
''Main Article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Noah's%20worldwide%20flood|Historical errors in the Qur'an - Noah's worldwide flood]]''

The Qur'an contains the Biblical worldwide flood story, common to many ancient Near-East and Mesopotamian cultures, whereby Noah escapes on an ark with his family (bar a disbelieving son who attempts to hide up a mountain to avoid the flood),<ref>Reynolds, G. S. (2017). ''[https://eurasia.org.uk/docs/academic/biblical-character/Noahs_Lost_Son_in_the_Quran.pdf Noah’s Lost Son in the Qurʾān]. Arabica, 64 (2), 129-148.'' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341452</nowiki></ref> and a pair of all living things. Though not mentioned in the Qur'an, some traditions put eighty people with him,<ref>E.g. Tafsir Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/11.40 Q11:40] who mentions this report comes from Ibn Abbas</ref> including forty men and women.<ref>E.g. Tafsir Al-Jalalyan on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/11.40 Q11:40]</ref> The majority of prominent tafsirs say founders of all contemporary different nations such as the Byzantines, Turks and Persians etc. are descended from a different one of Noah's surviving sons.<ref>E.g. see many English translated classical commentaries/tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/37.77 Q37:33].</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|[So it was], until when Our command came and the oven overflowed, '''We said, "Load upon the ship of each [creature] two mates and your family''', except those about whom the word has preceded, and [include] whoever has believed." But none had believed with him, except a few.}}There is no genetic evidence for a population bottleneck that could match this event whatsoever, of which we would expect.<ref>''David Reich. 2018. Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past.'' Covers the history of modern humans from a genetic POV including notable population bottlenecks - of which none match this story.

[''Chapters 1 to 4'' covers the origins of ancient humanoids into modern humans, effectively debunking Adam and Eve too.]</ref>Including (but not limited to): Genetic diversity analysis (inc. reduced heterozygosity and the loss of rare alleles), runs of homozygosity (ROH) in the genome, the allele frequency spectrum (AFS) showing a skewed distribution: favoring common alleles and reducing the prevalence of rare ones, and with statistical modelling, researchers can compare observed allele frequencies with theoretical expectations under different demographic scenarios. As well as analyzing Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosome DNA with Lineage Tracing, reconstructing genealogies with coalescent models to trace genetic lineages back to common ancestors, the presence of genetic signatures showing; Reduced effective population size (Ne) and/or Linkage disequilibrium (LD) (alleles at different loci may show higher correlations (association of genes) than expected due to the reduced population size and limited recombination events), plus analyzing and directly comparing ancient DNA with modern Ancient DNA (aDNA), and further simulation and modelling, such as using Bayesian Inference Computational methods simulate genetic data under various demographic scenarios to identify the most likely historical events - software such as BEAST and msprime have been made specifically for this.<ref name=":0">Some academic papers discussing these methods for both humans (and ancient pre-human hominins as in the first article) and animals include for example:

''"[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37651513/ Genomic inference of a severe human bottleneck during the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition]"'' Authors: Wangjie Hu, Ziqian Hao, Pengyuan Du, Fabio Di Vincenzo, Giorgio Manzi. Published in: Science, 2023

''[https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2202.08394 Dynamical phases in growing populations: understanding recovery from bottlenecks].'' Emanuele Crosato, Jeffrey N. Philippson, Shashi Thutupalli, Richard G. Morris. 2022. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2202.08394</nowiki>

''[https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article-abstract/107/5/392/2622901?redirectedFrom=fulltext Genetic Evidence of a Population Bottleneck and Inbreeding in the Endangered New Zealand Sea Lion],'' Osborne AJ, Negro SS, Chilvers BL, Robertson BC, Kennedy MA, Gemmell NJ. Phocarctos hookeri. J Hered. 2016 Sep;107(5):392-402. doi: 10.1093/jhered/esw015. Epub 2016 Mar 19. PMID: 26995741.

Li H, Roossinck MJ2004. [https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jvi.78.19.10582-10587.2004 ''Genetic Bottlenecks Reduce Population Variation in an Experimental RNA Virus Population'']. J Virol78:.<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.78.19.10582-10587.2004</nowiki>

Lucena-Perez M, Kleinman-Ruiz D, Marmesat E, Saveljev AP, Schmidt K, Godoy JA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eva.13302 ''Bottleneck-associated changes in the genomic landscape of genetic diversity in wild lynx populations.''] Evol Appl. 2021 Oct 8;14(11):2664-2679. doi: 10.1111/eva.13302. PMID: 34815746; PMCID: PMC8591332.</ref>

====Animals and plants====
Part of the legend of Noah's Ark is that a pair of every living species was stored on board. Similarly none of this even more extreme bottleneck of two living pairs has been found in animal genetics either (and at the same time across all species and the human bottleneck),<ref name=":0" /> (nor plants, which most traditional Islamic scholars such as Ibn Kathir agree are considered part of these pairs)<ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/11.40 ''verse 11:40'']</ref> of which we would expect to see a notable sudden and extreme bottleneck of two animals, also causing inbreeding being far below the safe level needed for long-term species survival.<ref>Pérez-Pereira, N., Wang, J., Quesada, H. et al. ''[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-022-02456-z Prediction of the minimum effective size of a population viable in the long term]. Biodivers Conserv 31, 2763–2780 (2022).'' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02456-z</nowiki></ref>

This goes without mentioning the practical problems of such a task. While we do not know exactly how many animals Muhammad, or specific 7th century Arabs were aware off, it can be assumed they were aware of local cattle, birds and visible insects etc. in Arabia - where gathering two of every pair was a difficult, but not certainly not impossible task. Modern science has, however, revealed over 2.1 million species identified so far across all taxonomic groups. This includes over a million identified insect species, 110,000 arachnids, 11,000 birds, 11,000 reptiles and 6,500 mammals that live spread across the entire planet and each of which require different climates, habitats, and diets, while a widely cited estimate for the total number of terrestrial species including those as yet undiscovered is 6.5 million.<ref>[https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there#:~:text=Species%20that%20we%20have%20identified,million%20species%20on%20the%20planet How many species are there?] - Our World in Data website</ref>Furthermore many animals are a severe risk to the humans on board (e.g. polar bears), gathering them across different parts of the world including isolated islands and keeping the rest alive whilst getting others is essentially impossible, and many are predators of each other so would soon have destroyed the ecosystem if one was eaten by another etc.<ref>Many practical issues of the account are covered in this article on Talk Origins by Mark Isaak ''<nowiki/>'[https://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html Problems with a Global Flood]''', focusing on the biblical version of the story - but with most applicable to the Qur'anic version.</ref>

These discoveries appear to render the idea that all animals could have been kept on board a single ship impossible.

===Embryology===
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|l1=Embryology in the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an contain descriptions regarding bodily fluids and the stages of development of the human embryo. Many of these descriptions are extremely vague and most bear a telling resemblance to [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|similar descriptions]] found in the [[w:Talmud|Jewish Talmud]] as well as the ideas of ancient Greeks, [[History of Embryology|such as Galen]]. These descriptions do not accord with the findings of modern science and are generally considered unremarkable in the seventh-century Arabian context wherein the Quran was first recited.

====Semen originating between the backbone and ribs====
{{Main|Quran and Semen Production|l1=Qur'an and Semen Production}}

The Qur'an states that semen originates from somewhere between the backbone and ribs, though Muslim scholars have proposed a wide range of alternative interpretations. The word for backbone here is ''sulb'' (صلب), meaning the back, particularly the lumbar / loins portion of it.<ref>
[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000436.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1712 - صلب]</ref>. Other verses and hadiths too suggest a reproductive function for the backbone. While this aligns with the views of the physicians of antiquity, modern science has shown that sperm comes from the [[w:testicle|testicles]] and semen from various glands behind and below the bladder, which are not between the backbone and ribs.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|86|6|7}}|
He is created from a drop emitted- Proceeding from '''between the backbone and the ribs''' }}

We see this concept also in another verse using another Arabic word for a man's back, ''thahr'' (ظهر, translated below as loins<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000212.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 197 - ظهر]</ref>) whereby a man's future progeny are somehow in his back before conception, a notion also found in hadiths discussed in the main article.

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|172}}|And [mention] when your Lord took from the children of Adam - from their loins - their descendants and made them testify of themselves, [saying to them], "Am I not your Lord?" They said, "Yes, we have testified." [This] - lest you should say on the day of Resurrection, "Indeed, we were of this unaware."}}

====Embryo formed from semen====
{{Main|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith}}

The Qur'an describes the initial formation of a human embryo out of fluid emanating from the man, which has been placed in the womb (and possibly mixed with a female fluid). This reflects the widespread contemporary view at that time that semen is the material from which the embryo is initially formed, as taught by Hippocrates, Galen, and the Jewish Talmud. It is also very evident in hadiths. By contrast, modern science has shown that semen is the vehicle for the sperm cells, one of which fuses with a woman's [[w:ovum|ovum]] in her [[w:fallopian tube|fallopian tube]], and that the resulting cell divides (rather than the seminal medium) and travels back into the womb for implantation.

While many English translations mention a "drop of seed", or "drop of sperm", the Arabic word used in the Quran is ''nutfah'', which literally means a small amount of liquid and was a euphemism for semen.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|77|20|22}}|
Did We not create you from a '''liquid disdained'''[ma-in maheenin]? And '''We placed it in a firm lodging''' For a known extent.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|13|14}}|'''Then We placed him''' as a sperm-drop [nutfatan] '''in a firm lodging.''' Then We made the sperm-drop [nutfata] into a clinging clot […]}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|80|18|19}}|
From what substance [shay-in, which means “thing”] did He create him? From a sperm-drop [nutfatin] He created him and destined for him;}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|76|2}}|Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture [nutfatin amshajin] that We may try him; and We made him hearing and seeing.}}

====Disregard of female ovum====

The Quran, in all its discussion of human reproduction, does not mention the role of the ovum, implying instead that reproduction is caused simply by storage and mingling of the male semen in the female womb. Although visible to the human eye, the female ovum is very small and unknown in the 7th century - this appears to explain its omission in the Quran.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|86|6|7}}|He was created from a fluid, ejected, Emerging from between the backbone and the ribs.}}

====Humans created from a clot of blood====
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|l1=Embryology in the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an describes humans as being formed from a clot of blood after an initial semen stage. By contrast, modern science has revealed that there is no stage in embryonic development where the relevant material is a clot of blood. The Quranic description is likely influenced by a simplistic attempt at explaining human reproduction based on unaided-eye observations of an early-term miscarriage and a woman's menstrual cycle. While in modern times some Muslims scholars have advanced alternative meanings for the relevant word, the historical certainty that the word can mean clotted blood (also the unanimous understanding in the classical tafsirs), which has a clear biological meaning, while being used in the Qur'an in the context of a biological description (formation of a baby), renders the modern reinterpretations extremely challenging.

{{Quote|{{Quran|23|14}}|
Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood...}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|96|2}}|
Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: }}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3208|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin Mus'ud:

“Allah's Apostle, the true and truly inspired said, "(The matter of the Creation of) a human being is put together in the womb of the mother in forty days, and then he becomes a '''clot of thick blood for a similar period''', and then a piece of flesh for a similar period.”}}

====Gender decided at clot stage====
The Qur'an states that an embryo is transformed from semen into a clot, shaped (presumably into a human mold), and then determined into either the male or female sex. Modern genetics, on the other hand, has shown that the sex of a human is decided at the moment of conception.<ref>{{cite book|first=eds.: Anthony S. Fauci [et al.] ; eds. of previous ed.: T. R. Harrison [et al.]|title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine.|date=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York [etc.]|isbn=978-0-07-147693-5|pages=2339–2346|edition=17th ed.}}</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|37|39}}|Was he not a drop of fluid which gushed forth? Then he became a clot; then (Allah) shaped and fashioned And made of him a pair, the male and female.}}

While translators mostly use "And" in verse 39, the Arabic particle is ''fa'', as also in the previous conjunction, which indicates sequence (i.e. 'and then').<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2321 ف]</ref> Classical tafsirs share this reading, and the same reading is reflected in a sahih hadith found in both Bukhari and Muslim:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||318|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, "At every womb Allah appoints an angel who says, 'O Lord! A drop of semen, O Lord! A clot. O Lord! A little lump of flesh." Then if Allah wishes (to complete) its creation, the angel asks, (O Lord!) Will it be a male or female, a wretched or a blessed, and how much will his provision be? And what will his age be?' So all that is written while the child is still in the mother's womb."}}

====Bones formed before flesh====
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|l1=Embryology in the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an states that the bones of a human embryo are formed first and then covered up with flesh. By contrast, modern science has shown that muscles and the cartilage 'models' of the future bones start to form at the same time and in parallel. Muscles have started to form before the cartilage models start to be replaced with actual bone.

{{Quote|{{Quran|23|14}}|
Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood; then of that clot We made a (foetus) lump; then we made out of that lump bones then (not and) clothed the bones with flesh; then we developed out of it another creature. So blessed be Allah, the best to create!}}

The Qur'an again parallels the influential Greek physician Galen, who says:

{{Quote|1=Galen, ''On semen'', p.101|2=And now the third period of gestation has come. After nature has made outlines of all the organs and the substance of the semen is used up, the time has come for nature to articulate the organs precisely and to bring all the parts to completion. Thus it caused flesh to grow on and around all the bones...}}

===All organisms created in pairs===
The Quran states that all beings are created in pairs. However, modern science has revealed that not every creature procreates or reproduces through a male and female sexual relationship.

The [[w:Desert grassland whiptail lizard|whiptail lizard]] in the U.S. Southwest, Mexico, and South America, for instance, is an all-females species which reproduces by [[w:parthenogenesis|parthenogenesis]].

[[w:virus|Viruses]] (if considered a life form) reproduce using a host's DNA and are neither female nor male. [[w:Bacteria|Bacteria]] reproduce by cell division.

[[w:Fungus|Fungus]] can reproduce either asexually or sexually with thousands of genders.

Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through [[w:Pollination|pollination]].

Those who are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex intersex] (including those people with both male and female sexual organs and body types) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite hermaphrodites] of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy. This has led to discriminatory rulings from Islamic scholars, not allowing those with ambiguous sexes to get married for example, due to the unknowingness of breaking a gender-based rule.<ref>See for example rulings from sheiks and scholars listed on IslamQA in response to the question: ''[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/114670/ruling-on-marrying-a-man-who-is-intersex-or-impotent-and-the-difference-between-them Ruling on marrying a man who is intersex or impotent, and the difference between them]'' </ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|49}}|
And of '''every thing''' We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction. }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|36}}|
Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs '''all things''' that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. }}{{Quote|{{Quran|92|3}}|by Him who created the male and the female:}}{{Quote|{{Quran|75|39}}|Then He made of him two kinds, the male and the female.}}

===Fetus in three layers of darkness===

The word ''butun'' (بطن) means belly/abdomen/midriff, though some translators have opted to use the more specific (and evocative) word "womb".<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000257.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 220 بطن]</ref> Classical tafsirs interpreted the "three darknesses" as the placenta, womb (uterus), and belly. Modern science has revealed there to be many more such layers in the human body, such as the endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium, peritoneum, besides the cervix uteri, corpus uteri, abdomen (with walls), and placenta (with layers). In terms of extra-embryonic membranes, there is also the allantois, which is a sac-like structure and does not surround the embryo, but becomes part of the umbilical cord and is not in any real sense 'a darkness' viz-a-viz the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the [[w:Amniotic_sac|amniotic sac]], which is quite thin and transparent. The idea of three membranes around the fetus ([[w:Chorion|chorion]], [[w:Allantois|allantois]], and [[w:Amnion|amnion]]) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen, and the description found in the Quran in all likelihood draws on Galen's widespread influence in the late antique world.

{{Quote|{{Quran|39|6}}|
He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?}}

===Functions of the heart (cardiocentrism)===
The Quran describes the literal heart as a locus of contemplation and thought, an ancient concept known as [[w:Cardiocentric hypothesis|cardiocentrism]], as opposed to the modern scientific understanding of our brain controlling thought, memory and emotion (alongside other physical processes).<ref>''[https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-brain Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works.]'' Brain, Nerves and Spine. Home. Health. Conditions and Diseases. Johns Hopkins Medicine.</ref>

The concept of the heart as the seat of the intellect, spiritual contemplation, and the eye of the heart/mind/soul was a common one in East-Syriac Christianity in the centuries before Islam, seen in the writings for example of Pseudo-Macarius, Issac of Nineveh, and Ephrem,<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), ''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110794083/html?lang=en Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background]'', Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 95 -102</ref> in contrast to certain scholars more closely influenced by Greek philosophy which associated the mind with the brain (encephalocentrism).<ref>Enrico Crivellato, Domenico Ribatti, ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S036192300600298X Soul, mind, brain: Greek philosophy and the birth of neuroscience]'', Brain Research Bulletin, Volume 71, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 327-336, ISSN 0361-9230, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.09.020.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036192300600298X)</nowiki></ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|22|46}}|So have they not traveled through the earth and '''have hearts by which to reason''' and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are '''the hearts which are within the breasts'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|11|5}}|Lo! now they fold up their breasts that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the breasts (of men). }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|179}}|And We have certainly created for Hell many of the jinn and mankind. '''They have hearts with which they do not understand''', they have eyes with which they do not see, and they have ears with which they do not hear. Those are like livestock; rather, they are more astray. It is they who are the heedless.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|46}}|And We place '''upon their hearts veils lest they should understand''' it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion. }}

===Characteristics of Milk===
The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are not, however, located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Sometimes cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before it can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans are [[w:Lactose_intolerance|lactose intolerant]], especially in some regions of the world, and are unable to digest much milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhoea, nausea, or vomiting. This occurs in adults who lack genes for lactase enzyme persistance which maintains lactose tolerance beyond childhood and is a relatively recent evolutionary development. These realities challenge the Qur'anic notion that milk is 'pure' and 'agreeable' to anyone who drinks it.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|66}}|
And verily in cattle (too) will ye find an instructive sign. From what is within their bodies '''between excretions and blood''', We produce, for your drink, milk, '''pure and agreeable''' to those who drink it. }}

==Geology and meteorology==

===Flat Earth===
{{Main|Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth}}The Qur'an assumes and describes a flat-Earth cosmography according to multiple academic studies. The later idea that Islamic scriptures themselves indicated a spherical Earth was a creative act of reinterpretation when Islamic scholars encountered advances in astronomy. Attempts to explain Quranic verses about the Earth only in terms of local flatness at a human level, non-literal readings, and/or by ignoring context, are often challenged by critics, as discussed in the [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth|main article]], which also contains further evidence and verses beyond those listed here.

====Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles====
{{Main|The Ramadan Pole Paradox}}

The Qur'an instructs Muslims to fast by abstaining from food and drink from sunrise till sunset during Ramadan. In the polar regions there are six months of sunlight and six months of perpetual night during Summer and Winter. Such fasting is not practicable for anyone living in the polar regions, and very easy (depth of Winter) or extremely hard (height of Summer) in places within around 40 degrees latitude of the poles. Various rules have been contrived by Muslim scholars for people at such latitudes to try to accommodate the (here inconvenient) fact that we live on a round Earth.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|187}}|
...Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall...}}

A similar issue emerges for the five daily prayers. Persons living in the polar region would not be able to make a sunset or sunrise prayer for much of the year. Even in less extreme contexts, for cities further south like Aberdeen in Scotland, the gap between the night prayer (Isha) and the dawn prayer (Fajr) is still around 4 and a half hours in June, so a person praying five times a day is required to interrupt their sleep around 3.20am, then go back to sleep before getting up for the day. These challenges would likely not have been on the mind of the author of the Quran during the 7th century in Arabia.

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|78}}|
Establish regular prayers - at the sun's decline till the darkness of the night, and the morning prayer and reading: for the prayer and reading in the morning carry their testimony.}}

====Facing toward Mecca====

The Qur'an instructs Muslims to face the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca when they pray. In consideration of the roundness of the Earth, scholars developed the great circle method to carry out this instruction. However, a number of problems have been suggested: one facing Mecca also necessarily has their back turned to it (a display of disrespect which is roundly prohibited in Islam), and one directly opposite Mecca on the globe may pray in any direction.

Another issue leads many North American Muslims, who live in the hemisphere of this antipode of Mecca, to instead prefer the rhumb-line technique (i.e. a straight line on a standard Mercator flat map projection). This is in disagreement with those who follow the great circle method, which causes people north and south in the Americas to face away from each as they pray (great circle lines from this antipode diverge cross the Americas before they start to converge again when they enter the hemisphere of Mecca), and requires much of North America to pray northwards, which to many people feels awkward. Finally, Astronauts in Earth's orbit or on the Moon or Mars are essentially unable to follow these instructions (suggesting that the author of the Qur'an did not have such future realities in mind).

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|149}}|
From whencesoever Thou startest forth, turn Thy face in the direction of the sacred Mosque; that is indeed the truth from the Lord. And Allah is not unmindful of what ye do.}}

====Earth as spread out and flat====

The author of the Qur'an mentions that the Earth is 'spread out' and laid flat. The Arabic word here (sataha) was used to describe making the flat top or roof of a house or chamber and making a top surface flat.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000081.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1357 سُطِحَ]</ref> Words from the same root mean the flat top surface or roof of a house or chamber, a bounded flat plane in geometry, a level place upon which dates can be spread, a rolling pin (which expands the dough), plane or flat.

{{Quote|{{Quran|88|20}}|And at the Earth, how it is spread out?}}

Despite Muslim encounters with Greek astronomy in the 8th century CE (see [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]]), a flat earth interpretation persisted for many more centuries in some circles.

For example, the Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn (composed by the two “Jalals”; Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d.1459 CE) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505 CE) - i.e. the 15th/16th century) agrees with this understanding of the verse, saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.

{{Quote|1=[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=88&tAyahNo=20&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 88:20] (See [https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/88/20 here] for the Arabic)|2=And the earth how it was laid out flat? and thus infer from this the power of God exalted be He and His Oneness? The commencing with the mention of camels is because they are closer in contact with it the earth than any other animal. '''As for His words sutihat ‘laid out flat’ this on a literal reading suggests that the earth is flat which is the opinion of''' most [the word "most" is not included in the original Arabic: "وعليه علماء الشرع"; see citation for full text] '''of the scholars of the revealed Law and not a sphere as astronomers ahl al-hay’a have it''' even if this latter does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.}}

====Earth as like carpet====

The Arabic word (''bisaatan'') used here means a thing that is spread or spread out or forth, and particularly a carpet.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000241.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 204 بِسَاطًا]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|19}}|And Allah has made the earth for you as a carpet (spread out)}}

====Earth as like a couch====

The Earth is described using an Arabic word (''firashan'') that means a thing that is spread on the ground to sit or lay upon.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000155.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2371 فِرَٰشًا]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|22}}|
[He] who made for you the earth a bed [spread out] and the sky a ceiling and sent down from the sky, rain and brought forth thereby fruits as provision for you. So do not attribute to Allah equals while you know [that there is nothing similar to Him].}}

The same root word for couch in {{Quran|2|22}} is used as a verb in {{Quran|51|48}} in the sense of to spread (the first word translated spread here).

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|And the earth, '''We have spread it'''; how excellent (are) the Spreaders!}}

====Earth as like a bed====

The Earth is described as a 'bed' (or 'carpet' in the Yusuf Ali translation) in verse {{Quran|20|53}}, and similarly {{Quran|43|10}}. The Arabic word (''mahdan'') suggests something completely flat and spread out on the ground (and not, for instance, 'rolled up' for storage).<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000267.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2739 مَهْدًا]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|53}}|
Who hath appointed the earth '''as a bed''' and hath threaded roads for you therein and hath sent down water from the sky and thereby We have brought forth divers kinds of vegetation}}

Sometimes the same Arabic word is translated as expanse, as in {{Quran-range|78|6|7}}. Together with the next verse, the Earth is here a thing spread out and pegged down by mountains.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth as a '''wide expanse''', And the mountains as pegs?}}

The same root word is used as a participle at the end of {{Quran|51|48}}.

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|And the earth, We have spread it; how excellent (are) '''the Spreaders!'''}}

====Earth stretched out====

In the verse below, as also in {{Quran|13|3}} and {{Quran|50|7}}, the Qur'an uses a verb (''madadna'') that meant to extend by drawing or pulling, stretch out, expand.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000223.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2695 مدد]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|15|19}}|And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.}}

====Earth as a level plain====

The Qur'an describes a time in the future when mountains will be removed. {{Quran|18|47}} uses an Arabic word (''baarizatan'') that means "entirely apparent" to describe the Earth at this time.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000224.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 187 بَارِزَةً]</ref> {{Quran|20|106}} uses words (''qa'an'' and ''safsafan'') that mean a level plain.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000248.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 2994 قَاعًا], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000418.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1694 صَفْصَفًا]</ref> This description implies the Earth is flat and level and that it is the mountains which give it shape.

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|47}}|And (bethink you of) the Day when we remove the hills and ye see the earth emerging, and We gather them together so as to leave not one of them behind.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|20|105|107}}|They will ask thee of the mountains (on that day). Say: My Lord will break them into scattered dust. And leave it as '''an empty plain''', Wherein thou seest neither curve nor ruggedness.}}

===Permanent barrier between "the two seas" of fresh and salt water===
{{Main|A Barrier Between Two Seas and the Cosmic Ocean}}
When a fresh water river flows into the sea or ocean, there is a transition region in between. This transition region is called an estuary where the fresh water remains temporarily separated from the salt water. However, this separation is not absolute, is not permanent, and the different salinity levels between the two bodies of water eventually homogenize. The Qur'an, by contrast, suggests that there is a separation between two seas, one salty and one fresh water, maintained by some sort of divine barrier placed between them.

Furthemore, {{Quran|55|20}} quoted below states that coral emerge from both seas. However, coral are found only in salt water oceans, and exposure to freshwater leads to coral bleaching.<ref>[https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/corals-and-coral-reefs Corals and Coral Reefs] - Smithsonian Institution website</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|53}}| It is He Who has let free the two bodies of flowing water: One palatable and sweet, and the other salt and bitter; yet has He made a barrier between them, '''a partition that is forbidden to be passed'''. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|61}}|Is He [not best] who made the earth a stable ground and placed within it rivers and made for it firmly set mountains and placed between the two seas a barrier? Is there a deity with Allah? [No], but most of them do not know.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|19|22}}|He released the two seas, meeting [side by side]; Between them is a barrier [so] neither of them transgresses. So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? From both of them emerge pearl and coral.}}

Another reference to "the two seas" (bahrayn) is found in the story of Moses and his servant.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|60|61}}|And [mention] when Moses said to his servant, "I will not cease [traveling] until I reach the junction of the two seas or continue for a long period." But when they reached the junction between them, they forgot their fish, and it took its course into the sea, slipping away.}}

The story of Moses and his servant is one of four stories in Surah al-Kahf. Modern academic scholarship has identified antecedants of each story in the lore of late antiquity. This particular story is almost unanimously considered to derive from a legend about Alexander the Great and his search for the water of life. For details see the section on the four stories in Surah al-Kahf in the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

It may further be compared to the ancient Akkadian myth of the Abzu, the name for a fresh water underground sea that was given a religious quality in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology. Lakes, springs, rivers, wells, and other sources of fresh water were thought to draw their water from the Abzu underground sea, while the Ocean that surrounded the world was a saltwater sea. This underground sea is called Tehom in the Hebrew Bible. For example, Genesis 49:25 says, "blessings of the heavens above, and Tehom lying beneath".<ref>Wensinck, Arent Jan (1918). "The Ocean in the Literature of the Western Semites". Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks. dl. 19. no. 2. page 14</ref> Wensinck explains, "Thus it appears that the idea of there being a sea of sweet water under our earth, the ancient Tehom, which is the source of springs and rivers, is common to the Western Semites".<ref>ibid. page 17</ref> Similarly in Greek mythology, the world was surrounded by Oceanus, the world-ocean of classical antiquity. Oceanus was personified as the god Titan, whose consort was the aquatic sea goddess Tethys. It was also thought that rainfall was due a third ocean above the "Firmament of the Sky" (a vast reservoir above the firmament of the sky is also described in the Genesis creation narrative).

Whether the two seas mentioned in the Qur'an referred to these mythological seas or a more general inviolable barrier between bodies of salt and fresh water, critics argue that the verse in question is scientifically wrong.

===Mountains as pegs which prevent the earth from shifting===
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
Modern geology has discovered that large plates in the crust of the Earth are responsible for the formation of mountains. Called plate tectonics, the slow movement of these massive plates meet and the pressure between them pushes up the crust, forming mountains while also causing earthquakes and faults in the Earth's surface. The formation of mountains and occurance of earthquakes are thus both largely the result of destabilizing tectonic activity. They are part of the same ongoing process and one cannot exist without the other.

The Qur'an, by contrast, holds that mountains are like pegs in the ground. Mountain formation can involve a thickening of the continental crust beneath them, which some modern Muslim scholars attempt to compare as peg-like, though mountains form in various other ways too (see main article for details and for many further problems with this claim).

The Qur'an further claims that mountains were created to prevent the Earth from shifting or swaying with its inhabitants. This is most commonly interpreted by modern Islamic scholars as a reference to earthquakes.

However, in early or pre-Islamic poetry mountains are mentioned in terms of stopping the Earth as a whole swaying/convulsing. This seems to support a more straightforward reading of the Quranic verses, backed also by a hadith - that shifting/convulsing (tamīda<ref>تَمِيدَ tamīda [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2746</ref>) does not refer to earthquakes, which have occured throughout history including in Muhammad's era and whose seismic waves can actually be amplified in certain locations by mountains, but rather to a movement of the entire Earth (see main article for details on all of these points and criticism of a few other interpretations).

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?}}

===Mountains cast upon Earth===
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
Mountains are usually formed through the movement and collision (or in the case of fault-block mountains, separation) of lithospheric (tectonic) plates, as well as by a number of other processes (see main article). This is an ongoing process which continues to this day as the plates slowly move. The Quran, by contrast, states that the mountains on Earth's surface were cast upon it by God. Other verses state that creation of mountains occurred during the first four days, as discussed in the section above on creation of earth and heaven in six days. The imagery is clear when one considers the above verses which describe the Mountains as 'pegs' which stabilize the Earth (which is itself compared to a carpet and bed matt in other verses).

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}

The word 'he has cast' is ''alqa'' (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000266.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3012 أَلْقَىٰ] See paragraph number 4 for the form IV verb definition.</ref> It is the same word as is used in {{Quran|3|44}} when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered, though perhaps it should not be taken too literally in this context), and {{Quran|12|10}} when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in {{Quran|20|20}} when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake. The implication of such verses is that mountains were a special act of creation rather them being a byproduct of a larger and ongoing process (tectonic plate movement).

===Chests contract with altitude===
{{Quran|6|125}} states that a person's chest cavity gets smaller at higher altitudes; which is an understandable belief for people to have as oxygen decreases as one travels higher, which in turn leads to hypoxemia (lower oxygen levels in the blood) causing the body to take short, shallow, fast breaths<ref>[https://www.healthline.com/health/hypoxemia What Is Hypoxemia?] ''What are the symptoms of hypoxemia?''

Healthline. Medically reviewed by Avi Varma, MD, MPH, AAHIVS, FAAFP — Written by Jill Seladi-Schulman, Ph.D. — Updated on April 26, 2023</ref> - which feels like the chest is constricted. Modern science, by contrast, has revealed that the opposite is the case.<ref>Callison, W.É., Kiyamu, M., Villafuerte, F.C. et al. ''[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-13263-5#:~:text=Individuals%20living%20in%20a%20hypoxic,partially%20a%20population%2Dlevel%20adaptation. Comparing high versus low-altitude populations to test human adaptations for increased ventilation during sustained aerobic activity.]'' Sc''i'' Rep ''1''2, 11148 (2022). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13263-5</nowiki></ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|125}}|Those whom Allah (in His plan) willeth to guide,- He openeth their breast to Islam; those whom He willeth to leave straying,- He maketh their breast close and constricted, as if they had to climb up to the skies: thus doth Allah (heap) the penalty on those who refuse to believe.}}

===Earthquakes as a punishment===
The Quran describes Earthquakes, blizzards, hurricanes, and other destructive natural activity as being a sort of punishment for the people they inflict. Research, however, has not found any correlation between civilizations' irreligiosity and their susceptibility to these or other type of natural disaster.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|45}}|
Do then those who devise evil (plots) feel secure that Allah will not cause the earth to swallow them up, or that the Wrath will not seize them from directions they little perceive?}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|29|37}}|
But they denied him, and the dreadful earthquake took them, and morning found them prostrate in their dwelling place. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|68}}|
Do ye then feel secure that He will not cause you to be swallowed up beneath the earth when ye are on land, or that He will not send against you a violent tornado (with showers of stones) so that ye shall find no one to carry out your affairs for you}}

===Disregard of evaporation in water cycle===
Some modern Muslim scholars argue that the water cycle is described in the Qur'an. Every verse about rain in the Qur'an implies that rain comes either directly from the sky or from Allah. The crucial step of evaporation of water into the air is never mentioned. That Quran describes a linear process orchestrated by Allah rather than a cyclical process (as with the water cycle) renders these modern reinterpretations challenging.

{{Quote|{{Quran|43|11}}|
That sends down (from time to time) rain from the sky in due measure;- and We raise to life therewith a land that is dead; even so will ye be raised (from the dead)}}

===Mountains of hail in the sky===

Hail forms in cumulonimbus clouds when updrafts raise water droplets to an altitude where they freeze. The Qur'an, by contrast, describes mountain-like masses of hail in the sky / heaven.

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|43}}|
Hast thou not seen how Allah wafteth the clouds, then gathereth them, then maketh them layers, and thou seest the rain come forth from between them; '''He sendeth down from the heaven mountains wherein is hail''', and smiteth therewith whom He will, and averteth it from whom He will. The flashing of His lightning all but snatcheth away the sight.

'''Transliteration:''' wayunazzilu (and he sends down) mina (from) alssamai (the sky) min (from) jibalin (mountains) feeha (in it ['it' is feminine here so must refer to the sky]) min (of) baradin (hail)
}}

Tafsirs such as al-Jalalayn and the one attributed to Ibn Abbas say that this means mountains in the sky.<ref>[https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/24/43 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 24:43]</ref> Ibn Kathir notes two views, that these are literally mountains of hail in the sky, or that they are a metaphor for clouds.<ref>[https://tafsir.app/ibn-katheer/24/43 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 24:43]</ref> Clouds could poetically be described as mountains in the sky, but the verse says "mountains of hail in the sky", which critics would say strongly suggests large masses of ice (in the clouds or otherwise), and it was sometimes understood in this literal way as evidenced in tafsirs.

===Allah smites with thunderbolts===

The Quran describes thunder and lightning in a manner typical of ancient mythology. Allah, in a manner evocative of the legends most famously regarding Zeus, smites persons he wishes to punish with thunderbolts. A hadith, graded hasan (good) by Dar-us-Salam, further states that Muhammad believed the sound of thunder was an angel striking the clouds, which the angel drives along with a piece of fire (evoking the image of a whip of fire).

{{Quote|{{Quran|13|13}}|
And the thunder declares His glory with His praise, and the angels too for awe of Him; and He sends the thunderbolts and smites with them whom He pleases, yet they dispute concerning Allah, and He is mighty in prowess.}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi|44|5|44|3117}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:
"The Jews came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said: 'O Abul-Qasim! Inform us about the thunder, what is it?' He said: 'An angel among the angels, who is responsible for the clouds. He has a piece of fire wherever that he drives the clouds wherever Allah wills.' They said: 'Then what is this noise we hear?' He said: 'It is him, striking the clouds when he drives them on, until it goes where it is ordered.' They said: 'You have told the truth.'}}

==Zoology==

===Ants converse and recognize humans===

Ants primarily communicate with each other using pheromones (chemical signals). While scientists have discovered that ants make some noises, nothing has ever indicated that the brains of ants could produce anything approximating complex speech. By contrast, the Qur'an recounts the story of an ant warning her fellow ants of the approach of Solomon's large army of humans. Solomon is able to understand her speech and proceeds, presumably, to leave the ants be.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|27|18|19}}|
At length, when they came to a (lowly) valley of ants, '''one of the ants said: "O ye ants, get into your habitations, lest Solomon and his hosts crush you (under foot) without knowing it." So he smiled, amused at her speech;''' and he said: "O my Lord! so order me that I may be grateful for Thy favours, which thou hast bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may work the righteousness that will please Thee: And admit me, by Thy Grace, to the ranks of Thy righteous Servants." }}

===Four types of cattle===

The Qur'an states that Allah has provided four kinds of cattle (eight including male and female). There exist, however, many more than four species of cattle. The word "cattle" in {{Quran|39|6}} is ''al-ana'ami'', from a root meaning plentiful subsistence and in this form meant pasturing (i.e. grazing) animals.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000289.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3035 أَنْعَٰمِ]</ref> The word ''azwajin'' ("kinds" in the translation of 39:6 below) generally means "mate" or "member of a pair".<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000432.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1266 أَزْوَٰجٍ]</ref> {{Quran|6|143-144}} clarifies that this refers to male and female pairs of sheep, goats, oxen, and camels, suggesting that the author of the Qur'an was aware of four kinds of grazing animals useful for humans (horses, mules and donkeys are considered a separate category from al-ana'ami, see {{Quran-range|16|5|8}}). This does not include many other types of cattle from the regions outside of Arabia, such as reindeer, which were and remain important to people in northern latitudes.

{{Quote|{{Quran|39|6}}|
He created you from one being, then from that (being) He made its mate; and He hath provided for you of '''cattle eight kinds'''. He created you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, in a threefold gloom. Such is Allah, your Lord. His is the Sovereignty. There is no Allah save Him. How then are ye turned away}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|142-144}}|'''And of the cattle (He produceth) some for burdens, some for food.''' Eat of that which Allah hath bestowed upon you, and follow not the footsteps of the devil, for lo! he is an open foe to you. '''Eight pairs: Of the sheep twain, and of the goats twain.''' Say: Hath He forbidden the two males or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females contain? Expound to me (the case) with knowledge, if ye are truthful. '''And of the camels twain and of the oxen twain.''' Say: Hath He forbidden the two males or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females contain; or were ye by to witness when Allah commanded you (all) this? Then who doth greater wrong than he who deviseth a lie concerning Allah, that he may lead mankind astray without knowledge. Lo! Allah guideth not wrongdoing folk.}}

===Horses created as transportation===

After thousands of years of domestication and cross-breeding, horses were domesticated approximately 4,000 years ago in East Europe and Central Asia. Prior to this, horses were wild animals not yet suitably bred for this purpose. Today feral horses are descendants of once domesticated horses that aren't tamed or used for human transportation. By contrast, the Qur'an appears to suggest that horses were created by Allah already prepared to serve human purposes.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|8}}|
And (He has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you to ride and use for show; and He has created (other) things of which ye have no knowledge.}}

===All animals live in communities===

The Qur'an emphatically states that all animals live in "communities". Many animals, such as the jaguar or leopard, are however well known for being solitary creatures, rarely meeting in pairs and then only to mate. Animals of these kinds do not live in communities and rather tend to resort to violence when their solitude is disturbed (the opposite, some argue, of what it means to live in a community). There also exist species whose young are not raised as family and which lay eggs and abandon them before hatching. Sea Turtles, for instance, bury their eggs on a beach and leave them. When an egg hatches the baby turtle must dig to the surface and make a sprint to the sea or perish. Some reptiles behave similarly. The Carolina anole, which is a lizard species, is another such example. These anoles lay a single egg every 2 weeks, around 10 in total, each taking 5 to 7 weeks to hatch. Anole hatchlings must fend for themselves and are by nature solitary creatures from birth.

One modern translation of the Quran interprets ''umamun'' (community / nation) to mean "genus" (group of species, plural: genera). This interpretation appears difficult, however, for while today we categorize species into genera, families, and other taxonomic ranks within evolutionary tree (phylogenetic) models, such categories are understood as an evolutionary process in which, even now, sub-groups of many species are diverging and gradually evolving into new species.

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|38}}|
'''There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you. Nothing have we omitted from the Book''', and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end.}}

===Bird flight as a miracle===

Modern science has revealed the aerodynamic properties of birds' anatomy which enable them to fly. Bird flight essentially functions by creating a difference in the air pressure between the lower and upper part of the wing and this creates lift that pushes the bird upward. The wings of birds have evolved over millions of years and have thereby refined birds' flight abilities. By contrast, the Quran states that 'nothing' holds birds in the air, except for the miraculous power of Allah.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|79}}|
Do they not look at the birds, held poised in the midst of (the air and) the sky? Nothing holds them up but (the power of) Allah. Verily in this are signs for those who believe}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|67|19}}|Do they not see the birds above them with wings outspread and [sometimes] folded in? None holds them [aloft] except the Most Merciful. Indeed He is, of all things, Seeing.}}

The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in {{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}} with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth. As so often with the Quran, modern academic scholarship has found a close parallel in 6th century CE Syriac literature. Joseph of Sarugh (d. 521 CE) similarly stated that only the action of God held up the sky and repeatedly used birdflight as another illustration of the same divine action in words very similar to the Quranic verse. For details, see [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Allah_keeps_the_heavens_and_the_birds_from_falling|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
==History==
{{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}}
Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to [[Historical Errors in the Quran|historical errors in the Quran]].

===Massive wall of iron built to trap Gog and Magog until judgement day===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}

The Qur'an states that two dangerous tribes, Gog and Magog, were trapped behind a massive wall of Iron erected by Dhu'l-Qarnayn and will only be let free on the day of Judgement. However, no such wall or tribes have ever been found despite the advent of global satellite imagery.

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|96-101}}|Bring me pieces of iron!’ When he had levelled up between the flanks, he said, ‘Blow!’ When he had turned it into fire, he said, ‘Bring me molten copper to pour over it.’
So they could neither scale it, nor could they make a hole in it. He said, ‘This is a mercy from my Lord. But when the promise of my Lord is fulfilled, He will level it; and my Lord’s promise is true.’
That day We shall let them surge over one another, the Trumpet will be blown, and We shall gather them all, and on that day We shall bring hell into view visibly for the faithless.
Those whose eyes were blind to My remembrance and who could not hear.}}

The trumpet blowing in {{Quran|18|99}} is referred to many other times in the Qur'an as happening on judgement day (see {{Quran|27|87}}, {{Quran|69|13}} and {{Quran|39|68}}), with the word 'yawm' يوم being used in Q18:99 and 18:100, meaning on that ''day''<ref>[http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85?cat=50 Lane's Lexicon dictionary - يوم]</ref> specifically. Another passage confirms that this wall was supposedly still intact and that its future opening will be associated with other apocalyptic events.

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|95-97}}|But there is a ban on any population which We have destroyed: that they shall not return,
Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.
Then will the true promise draw nigh (of fulfilment): then behold! the eyes of the Unbelievers will fixedly stare in horror: "Ah! Woe to us! we were indeed heedless of this; nay, we truly did wrong!"}}

===Mary as part of the Trinity===

Mainstream Christian doctrine has never held Mary to be a part of the Trinity. The Qur'an, however, apparently implies as much, leading many to conclude that Muhammad misunderstood Christian doctrine.

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|116}}|
And behold! Allah will say: "O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, '''worship me and my mother as gods''' in derogation of Allah'?" He will say: "Glory to Thee! never could I say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thou knowest what is in my heart, Thou I know not what is in Thine. For Thou knowest in full all that is hidden}}

This alternative formulation of the trinity is present even more clearly in {{Quran-range|5|72|75}}, which makes no mention of the holy spirit and takes measure to disprove the divinity of Jesus and his mother by pointing out that they, like normal human beings, also ate food.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|72|75}}|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}

A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible interpretation proposed so far by academic scholars interprets these verses as a response to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (or a misunderstanding thereof, in the view of critics). For details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

For further Christology in the Quran, see [[Qur'anic Christology]] and [[Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)]].

===Mary as Miriam===
{{main|Mary the sister of Aaron in the Quran}}

Mary the mother of Jesus was born in the first century BCE and was not related to Moses and his family whose story is set 1500 years earlier. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaron and daughter of Amram (Imran). The Quran appears to confuse these two characters, as it describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "Sister of Aaron" and her mother as the "wife of Imran" in context where the "Imran" being discussed is evidently Miriam's father. A possible source of this confusion is the fact that both Miriam and Mary had the same name in Arabic, or were at least similar enough sounding for the original distinction to have been lost or neglected (the word used in either case in the Quran is the same and is pronounced ''maryam'').

{{Quote|{{Quran|19|27-28}}|Then she brought him to her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an amazing thing. '''O sister of Aaron!''' Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|66|12}}|And Mary, '''daughter of 'Imran''', whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|33-36}}| Lo! Allah preferred Adam and Noah and the Family of Abraham '''and the Family of 'Imran''' above (all His) creatures. They were descendants one of another. Allah is Hearer, Knower. (Remember) when the '''wife of 'Imran''' said: My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! I have named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.}}

"Wife of 'Imran" is here im'ra-atu ʿim'rāna, literally woman of Imran, though the same construction certainly means "wife" a few verses later ({{Quran|3|40}}), and in several other verses.

Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements. {{Muslim||2135|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed customarily as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.

==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===

Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, describes the Jews as calling a certain ''ʿUzayr'' as the son of God. This is compared directly with the Christians calling Jesus the son of God.

{{Quote|{{Quran|9|30}}|The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?}}

ʿUzayr has traditionally been interpreted as the Biblical Ezra. Academic scholarship has tended to concur, noting that Ezra was held in high esteem (though not the "son of god") in the Talmud.

More recent academic work in 2025 found a more likely identification of ʿUzayr as the 2nd century CE Rabbi, Eliezar ben Hurcanus. For details see [[Historical_Errors_in_the_Quran#'Uzayr_as_the_son_of_God_in_Jewish_doctrine|Historical Errors in the Quran]]. To critics, the Quran appears to misunderstand the reverence in which R. Eliezar was held in rabbinic circles since god describes him as "Eliezer, my son" in certain texts, language which is actually common in the Hebrew Bible and is applied to multiple rabbis in the Talmud.

===David invented coats of mail===

Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.

In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|34|10|11}}| And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him, Saying: Make thou long coats of mail and measure the links (thereof). And do ye right. Lo! I am Seer of what ye do. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|21|79|80}}| And We made Solomon to understand (the case); and unto each of them We gave judgment and knowledge. And we subdued the hills and the birds to hymn (His) praise along with David. We were the doers (thereof). And We taught him the art of making garments (of mail) to protect you in your daring. Are ye then thankful?}}

Chainmail seems to have been familiar to the early Muslims. Muhammad is narrated as using a metaphor of two coats of iron (junnataani min hadeedin جُنَّتَانِ مِنْ حَدِيدٍ), one owned by a generous person and the other by a miser in whose coat every ring (halqat حَلْقَةٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000265.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 629 حلقة]</ref>) becomes close together ({{Muslim||1021c|reference}}). Ibn Kathir [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/34.11 in his tafsir for 34:11] has narrations in which Mujahid and Ibn Abbas use that same arabic word meaning rings (الحلقة) to explain the Quranic verse<ref>[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=34&tAyahNo=11&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for 34:11 (Arabic)]</ref>.

===Crucifixions in ancient Egypt===

The first historical reference to crucifixion as a method of execution is from 500 BCE, when the technique began being used in several middle eastern cultures. The Qur'an, by contrast, tells of crucifixions at the time of Moses (approximately 1500 BCE) as well as Joseph (approximately 2000 BCE).

{{Quote|{{Quran|12|41}}|
O two companions of prison, as for one of you, he will give drink to his master of wine; but as for the other, he will be crucified, and the birds will eat from his head. The matter has been decreed about which you both inquire." }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|71}}|
(Pharaoh) said: Ye put faith in him before I give you leave. Lo! he is your chief who taught you magic. Now surely I shall cut off your hands and your feet alternately, and '''I shall crucify you on the trunks of palm trees''', and ye shall know for certain which of us hath sterner and more lasting punishment.}}

Ancient Egypt has been subjected to extensive study by archaeologists. While there exists hieroglyphic evidence of people impaled by upright wooden stakes through their torsos in ancient Egypt, this remains distinct from crucifixions "on the trunks of palm trees" described in the Quran, as palm trees are of too great girth to be used to vertically impale an individual. Nor is there any evidence that the Arabic verb for crucifixion (salaba) could also mean "to impale".<ref>salaba [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000435.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1711-1713 - صلب]</ref>

The same verb for crucifixion is used in {{Quran|4|157}} regarding Jesus. It appears again in {{Quran|5|33}} which lists killing and crucifixion as distinct punishments, probably as the latter is a long, drawn out death (impalement would not be). Two other verses, {{Quran|38|12}} and {{Quran|89|8}}, use another word to call Pharaoh "owner of the pegs" or "stakes". Sometimes this is claimed to refer to impalement and even mistranslated as such. However, the context in {{Quran-range|89|6|11}} shows that it refers to unspecified and lasting rock-hewn monuments (most likely columned temples, obelisks or possibly even the pyramids).

Moreover, there is no ancient Egyptian evidence of cross amputation (punitive removal of a single hand and foot on opposite sides). It seems that here again a contemporary punitive practice has been transferred in the Quran to ancient Egypt. A parallel using the same Arabic words occurs in {{Quran|5|33}}, which commands crucifixion or cross amputation among a range of punishment options (both of which became part of Islamic jurisprudence). In the exceptionally cruel combination of both punishments put in the mouth of Pharaoh in 20:71 quoted above (see also {{Quran|7|124}} and {{Quran|26|49}}), the victim would need to be fastened to the palm tree by what remains of their limbs. In Roman crucifixion, ropes were typically used, though nails were sometimes driven through the heel bones and perhaps between the ulnar and radius above each wrist. Sometimes a crossbeam (patibulum) was added, though other times just a tree or upright post (''crux simplex'', or ''stipes''), which is likely what the Quranic author had in mind.<ref>[https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion Dispelling Some Myths: Crucifixion] - Tastes of History, March 31, 2024 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20250619085601/https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion archive])</ref>

===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===

One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For a more detailed discussion see [[Historical Errors in the Quran]].

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|28|8|9}}|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}

===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===

The Qur'an frequently lists destroyed peoples of the past, particularly the peoples of Noah, Lot, Pharaoh's army, Midian, Aad and its successor, Thamud. The destruction of Thamud after they disbelieved their prophet Salih is mentioned many times, either by an earthquake {{Quran|7|78}} or a thunderous blast (for example {{Quran|54|31}}).

Its destruction is also alluded to by a believer from the family of Pharaoh:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|40|28|31}}|And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}

The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in {{Quran-range|38|12|14}}.

[[w:Thamud|Thamud]] is a term used by experts for a people or peoples of a particular region over a number of centuries (8th century BCE to the 4th century CE), but the Qur'an speaks only of a particular destruction of Thamud after the warnings of their prophet Salih went unheeded. It describes them as the builders of well known palaces and homes, skillfully carved from the mountains, clarified in the Quran and hadith as a place in Arabia known as al Hijr (the rocky tract), or Mada'in Salih today.

The errors in the Quran here are two-fold: It is now known that these were actually elaborately carved tombs, not homes or palaces, and that they were made by the Nabateans from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE, not before the time of the Pharaohs<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ) - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)]</ref>. Petra in Jordan was the Nabateans' more famous city before al Hijr and both share a common style of construction and carving. There are over 100 tombs at al-Hijr, some very large, and many of them small, believed even by a 14th Century CE Arab traveller to contain the bones of the people of Thamud in their houses.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>. Nabatean inscriptions forbid opening the tombs, reusing them or moving the bodies. The town of al-Hegra where the people lived some distance from the surrounding rock tombs was built of mud-brick and stone.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref>

The Quran says Thamud carved palaces from its plains, and homes from its mountains:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|73|74}}|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|26|149}}|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}

These ruins were well known to Muhammad's listeners:

{{Quote|{{Quran|29|38}}|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|89|9}}|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}

Al-Hijr is widely accepted as this location. It is also mentioned once by name in {{Quran-range|15|80|83}} ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|80|83}}|And certainly did the companions of Thamud [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}

Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3379|darussalam}}|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}
===Samarians in ancient Egypt===
The Qu'ran states that Moses dealt with a Samarian during his time. However the Samarians did not exist until well over half a millennium after Moses is supposed to have existed.

Oxford Bibliographies (an academic website) says the following:

{{Quote|[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0176.xml Oxford Bibliographies - Samaria/Samaritans]|Samaria (Hebrew: Shomron) is mentioned in the Bible in 1 Kings 16:24 as the name of the mountain on which Omri, ruler of the northern Israelite kingdom in the 9th century BCE, built his capital, naming it also Samaria. After the conquest of the Northern Kingdom by the Assyrians in 722/721 BCE, the district surrounding the city was likewise called Samaria (Assyrian: Samerina). The Bible presents an etiology or folk etymology when it claims that the city was named after Shemer, the original owner from whom Omri bought the hill. It is more likely that the name is derived from the root šmr, to “watch, to guard”; that is, the hill was a point from which particularly the north–south route could be watched and guarded.}}

The likely root of the Quranic confusion is the story in the Bible, [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hosea%208&version=NIV Hosea 8:5-8] or [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2012&version=NIV 1 Kings 12:25-29] where there is mentioned a golden calf (or two of them) created in Samaria after the time of Solomon. One modern perspective holds that the Qur'an might be referring to Zimri, son of Salu (Numbers 25:14). However, the Quranic character is referred to three times in {{Quran-range|20|85|88}} as l-sāmiriyu with the definite article, "the Samiri", so this is a descriptive title rather than a proper name.

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|85}}|“( Allah) said; ‘We have tested thy people in thy absence: the Samiri has led them astray’.” }}{{Quote|{{Quran|20|95}}|“( Moses) said, ‘What then is thy case, O Samiri?’”}}

===Noah's worldwide flood===

''Main article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Noah's worldwide flood|Historical Errors in the Quran - Noah's worldwide flood]]''

The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|11|12}}|Then opened We the gates of heaven with pouring water And caused the earth to gush forth springs, so that the waters met for a predestined purpose.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|[So it was], until when Our command came and the oven overflowed, We said, "Load upon the ship of each [creature] two mates and your family, except those about whom the word has preceded, and [include] whoever has believed." But none had believed with him, except a few.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|71|26}}|And Noah, said: "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers, a single one on earth!}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|43}}|The son replied: "I will betake myself to some mountain: it will save me from the water." Noah said: '''"This day nothing can save''', from the command of Allah, any but those on whom He hath mercy! "And the waves came between them, and the son was among those overwhelmed in the Flood.}}

===Countable currency in ancient Egypt===
Surah Yusuf mentions that the caravan that rescued the eponymous prophet from the pit sold him to an Egyptian "for a low price, a few dirhams". Leaving aside the fact that dirham coins did not exist in ancient Egypt, a more fundamental problem is that the price is indicated as having been some kind of discreetly countable currency: darāhima maʿdūdatin ("dirhams counted"). The word maʿdūdatin occurs throughout the Quran denoting something discreetly numbered, for example "[Fasting for] a limited number of days" in {{Quran|2|184}}. Thus, it is not describing a weight of valuable material, but a countable currency. Such a thing did not exist in ancient Egypt. Rather, there were stone weights, particularly the denben, for measuring amounts of precious metals and to price other goods that could be barter traded, but not itself nor units of metal used as a means of exchange.<ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1079/trade-in-ancient-egypt/ Trade in ancient Egypt] - World History Encyclopedia</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|12|20}}|And they sold him for a reduced price - a few dirhams - and they were, concerning him, of those content with little.}}

==Sociology==

===Linguistics===

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|31}}|And He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, "Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful."}}

{{Quran-range|55|3|4}} states that Allah created man and taught him clear speech, while {{Quran|2|31}} quoted above states that Allah taught Adam the names of everything. Adam and his wife are both spoken to and speak articulate sentences with complex symbolic thought, for example {{Quran|7|23}}, and their sons have a fully articulate conversation in {{Quran-range|5|27|31}}.

While the species Homo sapiens arose c. 300,000 years ago, the [[w:Origin_of_language|earliest use of language]] is extremely uncertain and may even predate this. However, the earliest evidence for symbolic thought (necessary for complex utterances) dates to c. 100,000 years ago, consisting of very simple engraved markings on pieces of orche and egg shells,<ref>Tylén, K. et al. (2020) [https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1910880117 The evolution of early symbolic behavior in Homo sapiens] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume 117, Issue 9, p.4578-4584</ref> and an explosion of symbolic thought occured around 40,000 years ago.<ref>[https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/humans/symbolic-thinking Thinking in Symbols] American Museum of Natural History website, 2012</ref>

Some 1.9 million species of plants and animals have been identified and named, out of some 8.7 million that may actually exist<ref name="plos">{{cite journal | author= Mora, C.| title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?|journal=[[PLoS Biology]]|date=August 23, 2011|url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |pmid=21886479 |pmc=3160336 |volume=9 |pages=e1001127|display-authors=etal}}</ref>. Millions more have become extinct. Far more numerous are the living objects, galaxies, the countless stars and planets of the universe. In light of this, it is not clear what is meant by the idea that Allah taught Adam 'all the names', especially since the first humans do not appear to have been extremely knowledgeable.

Incidentally, the element in the Quranic verse in which the angels could not name animals after Adam had done so was a tale invented by a Rabbi. See the relevant section on that topic in the article [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#The_angels_could_not_name_animals_when_Adam_was_created|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

===Arabic as eminently accessible===

Fewer than 4% of the world's population grows up speaking Arabic. The Arabic of this 4%, however, is not the Arabic of the Quran and is instead comprised of various regional dialects of modern colloquial Arabic. The text of the Quran is thus directly accessible only to a small portion of the world's population. Additionally, there are present in the Quran many words, phrases, and references whose original 7th century Arabic meaning, being unrecorded, has been entirely lost to history or, in some cases, has remained subject to inconclusive debates. Consequently, while Muslims are obligated to pray and recite the Quran in Arabic, it is only a small proportion of the Muslim population that can claim to have some sense of what they recite on a daily basis. These circumstances are difficult to reconcile with the Quran's assertion that the Quran was 'revealed in Arabic so that people may understand it'.

{{Quote|{{Quran|43|3}}|
We have made it a Qur'an in Arabic, that ye may be able to understand (and learn wisdom). }}

===The people of Lot as the first homosexuals===
{{Main|Lut}}

Despite the overwhelming evidence (listed in the main article) that homosexuality occurs naturally in all populations, the Quran claims the first people to commit the act were in a town to which the prophet Lut was sent.

This is set long after the first humans (who appeared ~300,000 years ago),<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/essential-timeline-understanding-evolution-homo-sapiens-180976807/ An Evolutionary Timeline of Homo Sapiens] - Smithsonian Institution magazine - 2 February 2021</ref> with the town described in the story being too advanced for a [[w:Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherer]] tribe society, so at the earliest is set after the first [[w:Neolithic_Revolution|Agricultural Revolution]] in the following [[w:Neolithic|Neolithic]] period where these kind of settlements began to occur, beginning ~12,000 years ago.<ref>[https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/neolithic-revolution Neolithic Revolution] - History.com</ref> Yet we are told:
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|80|81}}|And [We had sent] Lot when he said to his people, "Do you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds? Indeed, you approach men with desire, instead of women. Rather, you are a transgressing people."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|28|29}}|And [mention] Lot, when he said to his people, "Indeed, you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds. Indeed, you approach men and obstruct the road and commit in your meetings [every] evil." And the answer of his people was not but they said, "Bring us the punishment of Allah, if you should be of the truthful."}}

===The witness of a woman is worth half that of a man===
''Main Articles: [[Islam and Women|Islam and Women - WikiIslam]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Women]]''

There is no proof that women lie more than men. In fact, to the contrary there is research showing that while dishonesty or intelligence is not caused by the sex of a person, certain studies suggest that men tend to lie more on average as a group than women.<ref>''[https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923 Frontiers | Face-to-Face Lying: Gender and Motivation to Deceive (frontiersin.org)]''. Pekka Santtila. Judee K Burgoon. Norah E. Dunbar. 2022. Front. Psychol., 22 March 2022 Sec. Forensic and Legal Psychology Volume 13 - 2022 | <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923</nowiki>

This research article written and reviewed by three university professors covers previous academic studies on this topic, they quote e.g. a meta-analysis on honesty where men were 4% more dishonest than women (Gerlach et al., 2019), and see the General Discussion section for an overview of their findings (confirming men lie more on average) on this topic and it's nuances. </ref> Men also commit crime in much higher rates than women across the world,<ref>''[https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/gender-and-crime Gender and Crime | Encyclopedia.com].'' Gender and Crime. Law. Legal and political magazines.

Article written by Professors Darrell Steffensmeier and Emilie Allan.</ref> and this is not just limited to violent crime.<ref>E.g. Fraud: [https://www.statista.com/statistics/461354/distribution-of-perpetrators-of-fraud-cases-by-gender/ ''Distribution of perpetrators of fraud cases worldwide in 2020 and 2021, by gender'']. Statica. Einar H. Dyvik, Aug 5, 2022.

And white collar crime inc. corporate fraud: [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-do-men-commit-more-crimes-than-women-prof-k-jaishankar-ps45c ''Why do men commit more crimes than women?''] Prof (Dr.) K Jaishankar. Principal Director & Professor of Criminology - IIJPS. Jan 13 2024.</ref> Women are also not less intelligent than men.<ref>E.g. There is no difference between men and women in general intelligence: Hunt, Earl B. (2010). [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Human_Intelligence/DwO4TtKAiCoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA389&printsec=frontcover ''Human Intelligence''.] Cambridge University Press. p. 389. ISBN <bdi>978-1139495110</bdi>.

Similarly ''<nowiki/>'"there are both differences and similarities in the cognitive abilities of women and men, but there is no data-based rationale to support the idea that either is the smarter or superior sex."''' Halpern, Diane F. (2001). "[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Women_and_Gender_Two_Vol/guzbKF8vTVcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA964&printsec=frontcover ''Sex Difference Research – Cognitive Abilities'']". In Worell, Judith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Women and Gender. Elsevier Science. p. 964. <nowiki>ISBN 0080548490</nowiki>. ''For a summary see pp 963 - 967.''

Women consistently beat men on average in grades at school: [https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/09/why-girls-get-better-grades-than-boys-do/380318/ ''Why Girls Tend to Get Better Grades Than Boys Do''] - The Atlantic. Education. Enrico Gnaulati. 2014
</ref> The Quran, however, rules that two women are needed to substitute for a man when witnessing financial contracts (a hadith, {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}, explains this as a deficiency in the intelligence of women).
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|282}}|O you who have faith! When you contract a loan for a specified term, write it down. Let a writer write with honesty between you, and let not the writer refuse to write as Allah has taught him. So let him write, and let the one who incurs the debt dictate, and let him be wary of Allah, his Lord, and not diminish anything from it. But if the debtor be feeble-minded, or weak, or incapable of dictating himself, then let his guardian dictate with honesty, and take as witness two witnesses from your men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women—from those whom you approve as witnesses—so that if one of the two defaults the other will remind her. The witnesses must not refuse when they are called, and do not consider it wearisome to write it down, whether it be a big or small sum, [as a loan lent] until its term. That is more just with Allah and more upright in respect to testimony, and the likeliest way to avoid doubt, unless it is an on-the-spot deal you transact between yourselves, in which case there is no sin upon you not to write it. Take witnesses when you make a deal, and let no harm be done to the writer or witness, and if you did that, it would be sinful of you. Be wary of Allah and Allah will teach you, and Allah has knowledge of all things.}}
Apologists typically argue that the scope of the rule is limited and contextualise it to the needs of women in 7th century Arabia, or argue that this is a command from God, and so human ideas of logic or fairness may not apply, making it not an 'error'. Critics contend that the verse reveals a misogynistic view of women, evidence of its human authorship from a highly patriarchal society of 7th century Arabia, rather than an all-knowing and just God.

==Miracles and myths==
{{Main|Magic, Miracles, and the Supernatural in the Qur'an}}
While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in this section illustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Quran was composed.

===Humans turned apes===

The Qur'an records a miraculous event where Sabbath breakers are transformed into apes.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|65}}|
And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected." }}

===Mooing statue===

The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}}

===Supernatural food===
The Qur'an states that Jesus received a feast sent down from heaven.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|114|115}}|
Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Allah, Lord of us! '''Send down for us a table spread with food from heaven, that it may be a feast for us''', for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee. Give us sustenance, for Thou art the Best of Sustainers. Allah said: Lo! I send it down for you. And whoso disbelieveth of you afterward, him surely will I punish with a punishment wherewith I have not punished any of (My) creatures.}}

===Stick turned serpent===
The Quran states that Moses' staff transformed into a serpent.

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|107}}|
Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }}

===The existence and attributes of Jinn===
{{Main|Jinn}}

The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن‎ ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us. In the [[Qur'an]], satan/devil(s) are also jinn ({{Quran|18|50}}), which like humans are sent prophets and have (at least some: ''see [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Predestination]]'') free-will and will be judged accordingly alongside mankind ({{Quran|6|130}}). They can interact with us ({{Quran|6|128}}) and even possess humans ({{Quran|2|275}}) (which the main article elaborates on), and cause people to forget things ({{Quran|18|63}}). As well as create buildings/structures ({{Quran|34|12-13}}). There is no evidence that these exist.

{{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}}

===Solomon's Army of jinn and birds===

A story in the Qur'an, drawing on Jewish folklore, states that Solomon commanded a massive army comprised of 'Jinns and men and birds'. Solomon is described as speaking with a Hoopoe bird and thereafter desiring to execute the bird when it is tardy to his assembly. The Hoopoe bird, it is then revealed, was only delayed because it had been spying on a beautiful female ruler, Queen Sheba, who Solomon subsequently insists is misguided and must be conquered. At this point, Solomon assigns a Jinn from his assembly the task of stealing Queen Sheba's magnificent throne. There is, however, no scientific evidence that Jinn exist, that birds can be commanded as soldiers, or that birds can engage in elaborate conversations with humans.

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|16-17}}|
And Solomon was David's heir. He said: "O ye people! We have been taught the speech of birds, and on us has been bestowed (a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from Allah.)And before Solomon were marshalled his hosts― of Jinns and men and birds, and they were all kept in order and ranks.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|20-23}}|
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence). But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.}}

===The existence of magic and sorcerers===
''Main article: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult]]''

No evidence has ever proven that magic is real. However, {{Quran|113|4}} ("evil of those who blow on knots") is reported in commentaries as referring to those who practice magic.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/113.4 Tafsirs for Quran 113:4]</ref> Knots were commonly associated with magic in antiquity.<ref>Day, C. L. (1950). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1520741 Knots and Knot Lore. Western Folklore], 9(3), 229–256</ref> The next verse, {{Quran|113|5}} ("evil of the envious when he envies), is said to refer to a superstitious belief known as 'The Evil Eye', a physical and mental supernatural condition that affects those who envy. For further explanation see the [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult|main article]].
{{Quote|{{Quran|113|1-5}}|1. Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn 
2. From the evil of what He has created 
3. And from the evil of the utterly dark night when it comes 
4. And from the evil of those who blow on knots 
5. And from the evil of the envious when he envies}}

At least once, humans are taught magic by satans (believed to be jinn) and angels ([[w:Harut and Marut|Harut and Marut]] are named in this verse):
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|102}}|and they follow what the Satans recited over Solomon's kingdom. Solomon disbelieved not, but the Satans disbelieved, teaching the people sorcery, and that which was sent down upon Babylon's two angels, Harut and Marut; they taught not any man, without they said, 'We are but a temptation; do not disbelieve.' From them they learned how they might divide a man and his wife, yet they did not hurt any man thereby, save by the leave of God, and they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them, knowing well that whoso buys it shall have no share in the world to come; evil then was that they sold themselves for, if they had but known.}}

===Living inside a big fish===

The Quran presents a version of the Biblical tale in which Jonah is swallowed by a whale ('the big Fish') and then lives in the whale for some time while praying. Scientific research, however, suggests that a person could not persist long inside a whale's digestive tract and, if not crushed by the whale or by water pressure, would almost immediately suffocate.

{{Quote|{{Quran|37|142}}|Then the big Fish did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame. Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified Allah, He would certainly have remained inside the Fish till the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth, on the naked shore in a state of sickness}}

===Buraq, the winged horse===
{{Main|Buraq}}

While it took one week to travel from Mecca to Jerusalem (the location of the alleged 'farthest Mosque') by camel, the Qur'an states that a magical winged horse, called the Buraq, transported Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem in a matter of minutes. Creatures like the Buraq were common characters in near Easter myths.

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|1}}|
Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). }}

===Speaking body parts===

The Quran states that human organs will, on the Day of Judgement, testify against their own persons.

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|24}}|
On the Day when their tongues, their hands, and their feet will bear witness against them as to their actions. }}

===Sea split in half===

The Quran present a version of the Biblical story where Moses splits the sea and crosses it with the Israelites. There is no historical or other evidence that such an event occured.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|50}}|
And remember '''We divided the sea for you''' and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people within your very sight. }}

===Manipulating the wind===

The Quran says that Solomon had the power to control the wind and traditional sources elaborate that Solomon could use this wind to fly upon a gigantic wooden carpet to wherever he pleased.

{{Quote|{{Quran|38|36}}|
Then We subjected the wind to his power, to flow gently to his order, Whithersoever he willed }}

{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn-Kathir on 21:81 | A flying carpet made from wood, on top of which he could carry everything in his kingdom including chairs, to wherever Solomon wants to go, whilst flocks of birds would fly over to give shade }}

===Testimony of a dead man===

The Quran states that Allah instructed a group of people to strike a murdered man with a piece of a heifer (young female cow that has not yet borne a calf) in order to temporarily resurrect him and discover the identity of the murderer.
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|73}}|
And We said: Smite him with some of it. Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His portents so that ye may understand. }}

===Mountains and birds sing psalms===
The Qur'an states that hills and birds would sing the psalms with David.
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|10}}|
And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him}}

==Other==

===Unmathematical inheritance laws===
{{Main|Contradictions in the Quran}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|11-12}}|
4.11: Allah (thus) directs you as regards your Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise.

4.12: In what your wives leave, your share is a half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to any one). Thus is it ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Most Forbearing. }}
In a variety of situations, the shares of inheritance outlined in the Quran leave ambiguities or add up to more than one.<ref>http://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Contra/i001.html</ref>

*Wife: 1/8 = 3/24,
*Daughters: 2/3 = 16/24,
*Father: 1/6 = 4/24,
*Mother: 1/6 = 4/24,
*'''Total''' = 27/24=1.125

To deal with situations where the total shares exceed one, Caliph Umar innovated the [https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/222526/the-origion-of-awl-in-inheritance-law post-Quranic 'awl system] whereby the shares are all reduced by the same proportion so that they add up to one. This is often falsely presented in online discourse as the agreed solution for all such scenarios.

In fact, yet another post-Quranic approach was invented when there are no children and the share for the spouse in verse 12 and for the parents in verse 11 was thought to exceed one.

If the deceased is survived only by a spouse and both parents, the spouse receives their full Quranic share (a quarter for a widow, or a half for a widower). Then the shares for the deceased's parents are calculated from the remainder of the estate (a third of the remainder for the mother, two thirds of the remainder for the father). This procedure too is credited to Umar and is used in online inheritance calculators.

Some companions such as Ibn Abbas and Ali advocated a different approach in this scenario: both the spouse and the mother receive their full Quranic shares of the original estate (a quarter / half, and a third, respectively). Then the remainder after that goes to the father. This was rejected by the majority, who assumed the father cannot inherit less than the mother and interpreted the inheritance for parents in verse 11 as though the word "only" was present (seen in brackets in the above translation).<ref>A. Hussain, ''The Islamic Law of Succession'', Maktaba Dar-us-Salam, 2005, pp. 169-173</ref>

Critics also note that an inheritance contradiction occurs between the above verses and {{Quran|4|176}}, a verse oddly appended to the end of the surah (see discussion at end of the main article).

==See Also==

*[[Islam and Science]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]

==References==
{{reflist}}\
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Reproductive sciences]]
[[ar:أخطاء_علمية_في_القرآن]]

Scientific Errors in the Quran

2026-03-20T23:58:52Z

Lightyears:

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}}
[[File:Noahs-Ark-Edward-Hicks.jpg|right|thumb|275px|"Noah's Ark" (1846) painted by Edward Hicks. The Quranic story raises questions of historical as well as scientific fact.]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}A common criticism of the [[Quran]], [[Scientific Errors in the Hadith|as with the Hadith]], is that it contains numerous [[Islam and Science|scientific]] and [[Historical Errors in the Qur'an|historical errors]], with no obvious attempts to differentiate its understanding of the natural world and historical events from the common folklore and misconceptions of the people living in 7th century Arabia. Modern responses typically appeal to metaphor, alternative meanings, or phenomenological interpretations of such verses. They also argue that the wording needed to be acceptable to people of its time. Critics typically argue that an all-knowing, perfect communicator would nevertheless have been able to avoid statements in the Quran that reinforced misconceptions of the time, caused future generations to have doubts about its perfection, and on a scale that critics contend is an overwhelming weakness.

==Astronomy==

===Geocentricism===
{{Main|Geocentrism and the Quran|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16th century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran|13|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and likewise appears, to the casual observer, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|36|37|40}}|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}
{{Quran-range|36|37|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim||159a|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).

An alternative view cited by classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE), attributed to Qatada ibn Di'amah (d. 735 CE),<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.38 Tafsir ibn Kathir for 36:38]</ref> and which is favoured by many Muslim scholars today, was that this refers to the sun's final 'resting' on the last day. Other verses talk about the sun swimming for a 'term appointed' (though using a different Arabic word).

Whichever interpretation was intended, the sun's movement is nevertheless mentioned right after describing day and night, just as the next verse mentions the different mansions appointed for the moon each night. The whole passage is about day and night and the sun and moon's movement in that context.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}

A modern vantage point would explain the above Qur'anic description of the sun moving in a ''falak'' (see note above) as a reference to our sun orbiting the black hole at the center of the milky way galaxy every 225 million years. Critics argue that this is of no relevance to human time scales, and that nothing from the text implies that the sun is orbiting anything other than the Earth. The Quran never in any way differentiates the sun's orbit from that of the moon and consistently mentions them together. Nor does it ever mention the Earth's own movement.

{{Quote|{{Quran|31|29}}|'''Do you not see''' that Allah causes the night to enter the day and causes the day to enter the night and has subjected the sun and the moon, each running [its course] for a specified term, and that Allah, with whatever you do, is Acquainted?}}
Here the sun running / pursuing its course (يَجْرِىٓ)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000051.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 415 يَجْرِىٓ]</ref> is something that the author expects people to have seen or at least know about (thus posing another challenge for the galactic orbit interpretation).

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|91|1|2}}|By the sun and its brightness And [by] the moon when it follows it}}
The word translated as "follow"<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000350.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 313 تَلَىٰ]</ref> is primarily defined as to follow, go or walk behind, follow in way of imitation, of action etc. and was often used for animals like camels following behind each other. The Moon does not actually follow behind the sun's movement, nor does it provide its own light like the sun. The verse is most suggestive of a worldview in which the moon and sun traverse the same or similar paths after one another, which is what a 7th century person might believe from observing the sky. Critics would expect a less suspicious choice of wording in a perfect book if it merely meant the sun and moon appear one after the other. One day instead of following the sun, the moon will by brought together with it according to another verse (see the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Implied_similar_size_and_distance_of_the_sun_and_moon|Implied Similar Size and Distance of the Sun and Moon]] section below).

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|258}}|Abraham said, ‘Indeed Allah brings the sun from the east; now you bring it from the west.’ So the disbeliever was overwhelmed [by astonishment], and Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.}}
Here the Qur'an quotes a few lines from a debate between Abraham and a disbelieving King, where Abraham replies that Allah 'brings the sun' (''yatee biashshamsi'' يَأْتِى بِٱلشَّمْسِ) from the east. The Arabic verb and preposition indicates that the sun actually moves from East to West across the sky. The verb means to come<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000052.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 15 يَأْتِى]</ref>, and when it has an object with the bi- preposition it means to bring, as in many other instances in the Qur'an. While the story is quoting a mere human's words, the author apparently believes it to be a good response and sees no problem with it.

===Setting and rising place of the sun===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part One|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun Setting in a Muddy Spring - Part Two}}

In these verses, the author presents a version of a popular [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac legend from the mid 6th century]] (which used to be dated to the early 7th) in which Alexander the Great visits the place where the sun sets and also describes its rising place in a similar way to the Quran. Later he builds a wall to block Gog and Magog among other close similarities.

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|86}}|
Till, when he reached the setting-place of the sun, he found it setting in a muddy spring, and found a people thereabout. We said: O Dhu'l-Qarneyn! Either punish or show them kindness. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|90}}|
Till, when he reached the rising-place of the sun, he found it rising on a people for whom We had appointed no shelter therefrom. }}

Centuries after Muhammad lived, commentators with better astronomical knowledge introduced interpretations of these verses such that Dhu'l-Qarnayn only traveled until he reached "the west" and "the east", or to spots "at the time" when the sun set and rose and not the places where it actually did so. Additionally, in these interpretations the Quran merely comments on how the sun ''appeared'' to set and rise at those destinations. However, these alternative interpretations are severely undermined by the [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One#First_interpretation:_He_reached_the_west_and_east|context and Arabic words used in these verses]], which instead point to physical locations where the sun did its setting and rising. An abundance of evidence from poems, hadiths and Quranic commentaries show that the early Muslims understood the verses in this straightforward way.

===Earth and heavens created in six days===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation}}

The Qur'an presents the prevailing Middle-Eastern myth that the Earth and heavens were formed in six days. This is in sharp contrast with the findings of modern cosmology which show the Earth to have formed some 9 billion years after the beginning of the universe.

Prevailing Middle-Eastern creation myths featured six literal days of creation (for example, the Bible in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201&version=NIV Genesis 1:5] reads, "Evening came and morning came: The first day"). Similarly, in the Quranic creation account the Arabic word for day, ''yawm'' is used (cognate to the Biblical yôm), which means day in the hundreds of other verses where it occurs. In this case, however, many modern Muslim scholars appeal to an alternative meaning for yawm, 'time period', and point to verses stating that, with Allah, a day is like a thousand years ({{Quran|22|47}} and {{Quran|32|5}}), or that angels ascend in a day like fifty thousand years ({{Quran|70|4}}). A similar motif occurs in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm%2090&version=NIV Psalm 90:4] in the Bible.<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, p. 165</ref>

Nevertheless, neither the universe nor earth were formed in six distinct periods of time, and there is no attempt in the creation verses to indicate, even poetically, the vast duration of time in which the universe has developed (namely, 13.8 billion years).

{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
We created the heavens and the earth and all between them in Six Days, nor did any sense of weariness touch Us}}

The Earth specifically was created in two days according to the Qur'an, and in four days (on days three and four according to the [[Tafsir|tafsirs]]) were created mountains and the sustenance of the Earth.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|9|10}}|Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two Days? And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds. He set on the (earth), mountains standing firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the earth, and measure therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days, in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (Sustenance).}}

Mountains nonetheless continue to rise and erode to this day. Similarly, living things and their sustenance continue to evolve, yet the Qur'an says that the creation of mountains and sustenance occurred in a specific period during the six days of creation. See the next section regarding the final two of the six days ({{Quran-range|41|11|12}}) which immediately follow the verses discussed above, and another verse which confirms this sequence.

===Earth created before stars===

The [[w:Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|elements in the Earth's crust]] and core were first formed in stars by [[w:Nucleosynthesis|nucleosynthesis]]. When those stars exploded as [[w:Supernova|supernovas]], they expelled the elements that were used in future solar systems such as Earth's own. Modern radiometric dating of meteorites and rocks from the Earth and Moon show that these bodies were formed at the same time as the sun and its other planets, [[w:Age_of_the_Earth|4.5 billion years ago]]. The Qur'an, on the other hand, describes the Earth as being fully formed before the stars.

{{Quran|41|12}} states that lamps (or more specifically, stars in the similar verse {{Quran|37|6}}) were placed in the nearest of the seven heavens. But before there were seven heavens and while heaven was just smoke, the Earth already existed according to the previous verse, {{Quran|41|11}}, and the Earth's creation and completion in the preceding days is described in the verses immediately preceeding that one, {{Quran-range|41|9|10}} discussed in the previous section above. The creation sequence is thus as follows:

#Heaven and completed Earth;
#Seven heavens and each given its mandate;
#The nearest heaven adorned with stars and guarded.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|11|12}}|
Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. '''Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days''' and inspired in each heaven its mandate; '''and We decked the nether heaven with lamps''', and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower. }}

{{Quran|2|29}} further confirms that heaven was only fashioned seven heavens when, according to the Quran, everything on Earth had been created.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|
He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}

The word lamps (masabeeha مَصَٰبِيحَ) in {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}} with which Allah adorns (zayyanna زَيَّنَّا) the lowest heaven would need, of course, to include any luminous bodies such as the stars. Stars are termed as ''kawakib'' (كَوَاكِبِ) in the very similar verse {{Quran|37|6}}, a word which also appears in Joseph's dream ({{Quran|12|4}}) and the destruction of the heavens ({{Quran-range|82|1|2}}).

Some modern Muslim scholars attempt to reconcile the Qur'anic description with modern science by arguing that the word 'Then' in the verses above does not indicate sequence, but that it instead means 'moreover'. This argument collides with the fact that these words (thumma in {{Quran|41|11}} and {{Quran|2|29}}, and fa in {{Quran|41|12}} - all translated as 'then') are generally used to indicate sequence. In other contexts, thumma was sometimes used to mean 'moreover'. This alternative usage, however, would always be unambiguous and clear in context, unlike in the passages quoted above, which evidently describe a stepwise process - the creation of the heavens subsequent to that of the Earth. In any case, the Arabic particle ''fa'' in the latter of these three verses unambiguously indicates sequence.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2321 ف]</ref>

In another passage, {{Quran-range|79|27|33}}, the heaven (singular) has already been raised and proportioned as a ceiling before the earth is spread, pastures produced and mountains fixed. Ibn Kathir notes in his tafsir that Ibn 'Abbas said the Earth was created first before each of these events and that scholars interpreted the Arabic word dahaha (دَحَىٰهَآ) in verse 79:30 to refer to a specific kind of spreading that occurred after everything on Earth had been created.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/2.29 Tafsir ibn Kathir 2:29]</ref> However, the passage nevertheless appears to contradict the sequence of {{Quran-range|41|9|12}}, in which the heaven is still "smoke" after Earth's sustenance and mountains have been placed.

====Earth and heavens torn apart====

Modern Muslim scholars generally maintain that the following verse is compatible with and even predictive of the Big Bang theory. According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe was formed 13.8 billion years ago due to a rapid expansion from singularity. The earth was then formed, 4.54 billion years ago, from accretion of debris that surrounded the precursor of the Sun. There was at no stage a "separation" of the "joined" earth and heavens.

The ancient concept can be traced back to [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm Mesopotamian creation myths] in which heaven was separated from earth. {{Quran|21|30}} and similar verses assume that listeners are familiar with the basic outlines of this myth which was extremely wide-spread at the time of [[Muhammad]] and his [[Sahabah|companions]].

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|
Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe? }}

The word translated "joined together" is ratqan (رَتْقًا)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000193.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1027 رَتْقًا] </ref> meaning closed up or sewn up, also used metaphorically in terms of reconciling people, but does not imply a homogenous mass or state, let alone a singularity. The words "(one unit of creation)" are the translator's own exegetical note.

Mirroring this is the word fataqnāhumā ("we clove them asunder"), whose root rhymes with ratqan and means to slit, rent asunder, divide, unstitch.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000115.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2331 فتق]</ref>

The separation of the heavens and earth can be read in the context of verses that mention something "between" their fully formed state (which seems to be occupied by the clouds {{Quran|2|164}} and birds {{Quran|24|41}}), and that the heaven is a roof "raised high" ({{Quran|52|5}}).

{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
And verily We created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them, in six Days, and naught of weariness touched Us.}}

There is no scientific theory in which the Earth and heavens were torn apart from each other. The verse states that "We clove them" (dual pronoun 'huma'), not "We clove it", thereby indicating that the Earth and heavens are distinct after the cloving. If one holds that {{Quran|21|30}} describes the big bang, the atomic particles that would later form the Earth would at the beginning would have to be separated from those that would go on to form everything else in the universe. This, however, bears no resemblance to modern scientific cosmology, wherein the material that forms the Earth passed through at least one earlier generation of stars, and more recently was part of various asteroids, comets and planetesimals orbiting the sun (which could all be described as being in the 'heavens') that sometimes collided and merged with each other, sometimes split apart, and gradually coalesced under gravity to form the Earth and other planets.

The very next verse {{Quran|21|31}} speaks of mountains being placed on the Earth. Here, 'the Earth' must mean an actual world, yet modern interpretations of the previous verse hold that 'the Earth' refers merely to atomic particles around the time of the big bang.

====Heaven made from smoke====
{{main|Quran and a Universe from Smoke}}

There is no stage in the formation of the universe that involved smoke (carbon particles suspended as a result of combustion; the word translated smoke is the noun dukhan دُخَانٍ, which means literal smoke of the sort that rises from a fire<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000027.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 861 دُخَانٍ]</ref>). Similarly, the Earth and heavens did not each "come" as separate entities at any point in time. Rather, the Earth is a part of this universe and has developed within it.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|11|12}}|
Then turned He to the heaven when it was smoke, and said unto it and unto the earth: Come both of you, willingly or loth. They said: We come, obedient. Then He ordained them seven heavens in two Days and inspired in each heaven its mandate; and We decked the nether heaven with lamps, and rendered it inviolable. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Knower. }}

Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}, discussed above).

Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance (he used the Septuagint Greek translation which says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew verse says vanished like smoke).<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>

===Seven Earths===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|Science and the Seven Earths}}

The Quran states that there exist seven earths. Academic scholarship has noted that this concept of seven earths, along with seven heavens, was present in the near east in the first millennia BCE and CE (see [[Cosmology of the Quran]]).

{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|
Allah it is who hath created seven heavens, and of the earth the like thereof. The commandment cometh down among them slowly, that ye may know that Allah is Able to do all things, and that Allah surroundeth all things in knowledge.}}

A hadith in [[Sahih Bukhari|Bukhari]] reveals that these seven Earths are stacked above each other.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2454|darussalam}}| The Prophet said, "Whoever takes a piece of the land of others unjustly, '''he will sink down the seven earths''' on the Day of Resurrection.}}

The number, like seven heavens, might have come from a misunderstanding or indigenous interpretation of mythology from classical antiquity in which there were seven moving planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the sun and moon). The number seven, however, does not accord with the findings of modern astronomers, which know there to be eight ordinary planets and five dwarf planets, making for a grand total of thirteen in our solar system. Modern astronomy also has found many thousands of planets in other solar systems and Cosmologists estimate that hundreds of billions of stars and planets exist in the universe at large.

===Seven Heavens===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran|l1=Cosmology of the Qur'an|Science and the Seven Earths#Seven_Universes|l2=Science and the Seven Earths - Seven Universes}}

The universe consists of hundreds of billions of galaxies, each with hundreds of billions of stars. The Quran states that beyond our heaven which contains the stars, there exists another six heavens. The myth of seven heavens was a common idea prevalent in the Middle East during the time when the Qur'an was first recited.

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|15}}|
See ye not how Allah has created the seven heavens one above another}}

Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that these verses refer to the seven layers of the atmosphere. However, {{Quran|37|6}} and {{Quran|67|5}} state that stars occupy the nearest heaven. Additionally, there are 5 rather than 7 principal layers to the [[W:Atmosphere of Earth|Earth's atmosphere]], and likewise only 5 rather than 7 major layers to the [[w:Structure_of_Earth|Earth itself]].

{{Quote|{{Quran|37|6}}| Surely We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment, the stars}}

===Meteors as stars fired at devils===
{{Main|Shooting Stars in the Quran|Mistranslations of Islamic Scripture (English)}}

The Qur'an states that stars (''kawakib'' ٱلْكَوَاكِبِ), lamps (''masabih'' مَصَٰبِيحَ) and great stars/constellations/zodiac signs (''burūj'' بُرُوجًا) adorn the heavens and guard against devils.

The Qur'an further asserts that Allah has made them (the stars/lamps) flaming missiles to ward away devils (or in some verses, jinn), who attempt to listen in on heavenly meetings (known as the Exalted Assembly). The Quranic concept has a close parallel in [[Pre-Islamic_Arab_Religion_in_Islam#Shooting_Stars_and_Eavesdropping_Shaytans|an earlier Jewish development from Zoroastrian mythology]]. Such myths are best understood as pre-modern attempts to explain the common phenomenon of meteors streaking across the night sky.

While stars are giant balls of gas thousands of times larger than the earth, meteors are small rocky masses or grains of debris which burn up after entering the earth's atmosphere. Many ancient people confused the two, as meteors look like stars that are streaking across the sky; this is why they were often called [[w:Meteoroid|shooting stars]] or falling stars. Large increases in meteors occur on a predictable schedule each year as the Earth's orbit passes through the stream of particles and debris left in the wake of a number of comets (or in a few cases, of asteroids). The most visible is usually the annual [[w:Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]] in August.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|37|6|10}}|
Indeed, We have adorned the nearest heaven with an adornment of stars '''And as protection''' against every rebellious devil [So] they may not listen to the exalted assembly [of angels] and are pelted from every side, Repelled; and for them is a constant punishment, Except one who snatches [some words] by theft, but they are pursued by a burning flame, piercing [in brightness].}}

The same Arabic words are used at the start of {{Quran|67|5}} as in {{Quran|37|6}} (زَيَّنَّا ٱلسَّمَآءَ ٱلدُّنْيَا), except that in {{Quran|67|5}} the word lamps is used instead of stars. The lamps that 'beautify the heaven' must refer to stars (and perhaps also the 5 visible planets), which are always there. Meteors, on the other hand, are now known to be distinct from the distant stars. They are often not much larger than grains of sand and only become visible for a second when they burn up, generating light in the Earth's atmosphere.

{{Quote|{{Quran|67|5}}|
And verily We have beautified the world's heaven with lamps, '''and We have made them''' missiles for the devils, and for them We have prepared the doom of flame.}}

The word translated "missiles" is rujūman (رُجُومًا), which are things that are thrown, especially stones.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000214.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1048 رُجُومًا]</ref>

A hadith confirms that the 'pursuant flames / missiles' in the two verses were understood to mean what we now know are visible meteors. {{Muslim||2229a|reference}} and {{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3224}} recount an occasion when Muhammad and his companions saw a shooting star at night. He explains to his companions that angels throw these at Jinn when they try to steal information about Allah's commands passed down through the heavens.

Other relevant Quran verses are {{Quran-range|55|33|35}} (flame of fire and smoke, though a slightly different context), {{Quran-range|15|16|18}}, and {{Quran-range|72|8|9}}.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|33|35}}|O company of jinn and mankind, if you are able to pass beyond the regions of the heavens and the earth, then pass. You will not pass except by authority [from Allah].
So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? There will be sent upon you a flame of fire and smoke, and you will not defend yourselves.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|16|18}}|It is We Who have set out the zodiacal signs in the heavens, and have beautified it for the beholders; And (moreover) We have guarded them from every cursed devil: But any that gains a hearing by stealth, is pursued by a flaming fire, bright (to see).
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|72|8|9}}|And we have sought [to reach] the heaven but found it filled with powerful guards and burning flames. And we used to sit therein in positions for hearing, but whoever listens now will find a burning flame lying in wait for him.}}

If the flaming missiles mentioned by the Quran are to be identified with meteors burning up in the Earth's atmosphere, this would locate the eavesdropping devils (or jinn) in the upper atmosphere too, which leaves no way for the (extremely distant) stars to serve as guards in this process as outlined in the verses. However, these verses would of course fit a relatively small universe as imagined by 7th century Arabs, in which a heavenly firmament is adorned with stars able to pelt shooting stars at any devils or jinn in their vicinity, seeming to cover interstellar distances in a flaming streak across the sky. This is further supported by {{Quran|21|32}} which describes the heaven as a guarded ceiling.

===The entire heaven has a night and day===
The Qur'anic conception of the cosmos accords with its author's visual perception of the sky, even to the extent that in {{Quran-range|79|28|29}} night and day is mistaken as a feature of the entire heaven (the lowest heaven is elsewhere said to be adorned with stars, as discussed above, and it will become clear that this is the heaven being referred to). In these verses the night and morning brightness are said to be an attribute of the heaven (l-samāu) which Allah built (banāhā) and raised (rafaʿa) as a ceiling (samkahā) and ordered it (fasawwāhā) when he created the heaven and earth.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|79|27|30}}|Are ye the harder to create, or is the heaven that He built? He raised the height thereof and ordered it; And He made dark the night '''thereof''', and He brought forth the morn '''thereof'''. And after that He spread the earth,}}

The possessive hā suffix in laylahā (its night) and ḍuḥāhā (its morning light) relates night and day to the heaven in its entirety. In reality, the night and day we experience is a feature of the earth's rotation on its axis. There is no sense in which the earth's night and day (which happen at the same time) apply across the wider cosmos.

In order to confirm the interpretation of these verses it is important to look at how the significant words are used elsewhere in the Quran. "The night" is a very common word in the Quran, and the morning light is used in the same context in {{Quran-range|93|1|2}} and {{Quran|91|1}} (see also {{Quran|79|46}}).

Indeed, {{Quran-range|91|1|6}} has many of the same Arabic words as {{Quran-range|79|27|30}}: "its morning light" (this time of the sun), "the night", and "the heaven" (singular) "built" by Allah. Putting the two passages together, it seems that the author of the Quran intuitively believed that the night and the sun's morning light were features pertaining to the entire visible heaven.

Other verses are helpful to confirm what is meant by the heaven (singular) in this context. {{Quran|2|29}} states that Allah turned (is'tawā) to the heaven and fashioned them (fasawwāhunna) seven heavens. These are two forms of the same Arabic verb as is translated "ordered" in {{Quran|79|28}} in the above quote.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|29}}|He it is Who created for you all that is in the earth. Then turned He to the heaven, and fashioned it as seven heavens. And He is knower of all things.}}

The word "raised" in {{Quran|79|28}} is similarly used for the creation of the heaven (singular) and earth in {{Quran|88|18}} and the heavens (plural) raised without visible pillars in {{Quran|13|2}}.

The word "he built it" in v. 27 (banāhā) also occurs in {{Quran|50|6}}, which says regarding the heaven (singular) that Allah "built it" and "adorned it" (wazayyannāhā), a word which in other verses refers to the stars adorning the lowest heaven ({{Quran|37|6}}, {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|67|5}}, as discussed in the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Earth created before stars|Earth created before stars]] section above).

====Night and day as moving entities====
As the above section explains, night and day in the Quran are a property of the entire heaven rather than a specific phenomena only occurring on the surface of the Earth as it rotates and orbits the sun. The Qur'anic description extends to the night covering/veiling the day, chasing it rapidly ({{Quran|7|54}}). And god 'strips' the night of the day ({{Quran|36|37}}). The day and night are also said to successively overlap ({{Quran|39|5}}) or enter into each other ({{Quran|35|13}}, {{Quran|3|27}}, {{Quran|22|61}}, and {{Quran|57|6}}). {{Quran|10|27}} says the faces of evil doers will be dark, as though covered by pieces of the night.

In addition, not only the sun and moon, but the day and night too are each (Kullun, which means "all"<ref>[https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000256.pdf Lane's Lexicon supplement p. 3002 كُلّ]</ref>) floating/swimming in an orbit/sphere/hemisphere (fee falakin<ref name="LLFalak" />) in Q. 21:33 and Q. 36:40.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|33}}|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|It is not allowable for the sun to reach the moon, nor does the night overtake the day, but each, in an orbit, is swimming.}}

===The sky/heaven as a ceiling===

{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}

A common myth at the time of the Quran's composition was that the sky or heavens were held up with pillars, which is also a Biblical motif. While classical Muslim scholars often believed in a dome shaped heaven, some academic scholars have argued that the Quranic heavens are flat, stacked expanses (see main article). These heavens are like roofs (saqf {{Quran|21|32}}, {{Quran|52|5}}), a building/edifice/tent (binaan {{Quran|2|22}}, {{Quran|40|64}}), a ceiling (samk {{Quran|79|28}}), in layers ({{Quran|71|15}} and {{Quran|67|3}}), while {{Quran|13|2}} adds that the heavens were raised without visible pillars (perhaps phrased with deliberate ambiguity).

Reinforcing the 2 dimensional imagery, {{Quran|81|11}} adds that the sky is like a covering that can be 'stripped away', while {{Quran|21|104}} states that it will eventually be rolled or folded up like a parchment and {{Quran|39|67}} says that the heavens will then be held in Allah's hand. This will occur after it has been slit (furijat {{Quran|77|9}}; the same Arabic noun is used in {{Quran|50|6}} where the listeners are expected to notice that the heaven has no slits, reinforcing the canopy metaphor), rent asunder with clouds ({{Quran|25|25}}), split (inshaqqat {{Quran|55|37}}, {{Quran|84|1}}, {{Quran|69|16}} with angels appearing at its edges {{Quran|69|17}}).
The heaven will become as gateways ({{Quran|78|19}}, a possibility also alluded to in {{Quran-range|15|13|15}}).

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|22}}|[He] who made for you the earth a bed [spread out] and the sky a ceiling and sent down from the sky, rain and brought forth thereby fruits as provision for you. So do not attribute to Allah equals while you know [that there is nothing similar to Him].}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|15}}|Do you not consider how Allah has created seven heavens in layers}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|78|12}}|And We have built above you seven strong (heavens)}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|13|2}}|
Allah is He Who raised the heavens without any pillars that ye can see}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|81|11}}|
And when the sky is stripped away}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We will fold the heaven like the folding of a [written] sheet for the records. As We began the first creation, We will repeat it. [That is] a promise binding upon Us. Indeed, We will do it.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|25}}|The Day the heaven shall be rent asunder with clouds, and angels shall be sent down, descending (in ranks),-}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|69|15|17}}|Then on that Day, the Resurrection will occur, And the heaven will split [open], for that Day it is infirm. And the angels are at its edges. And there will bear the Throne of your Lord above them, that Day, eight [of them].}}

===The sky/heaven as a guarded ceiling===

{{Quran|21|32}} says Allah made the sky/heaven a guarded ceiling (but is not itself a guard or protection, which is a common misreading). This is most likely related to the verses about devils chased by shooting stars (meteors) that guard the lowest heaven. One of those verses, {{Quran-range|37|6|10}} discussed above, contains a noun meaning "guard" from the same Arabic root (hafiza) as the verb in this verse.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000237.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 601 حفظ]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|32}}|
And We made the sky a protected ceiling, but they, from its signs, are turning away.}}

Interestingly, modern science has revealed that the things by which the sky / heaven is said to be guarded can also pose a threat to living things on Earth - asteroids and meteorites have penetrated the atmosphere and hit the earth throughout the course of history. This includes the [[w:Chicxulub crater|massive meteorite]] that hit near the [[w:Yucatán Peninsula|Yucatán Peninsula]] 65 million years which killed off numerous species, including most dinosaurs.

More recently in 2013, in Chelyabinsk, Russia, a house-sized meteoroid entered the atmosphere at over 11 miles / 18 kilometers per second and blew apart 14 miles / 23 kilometers above the ground, having penetrated the Earth's atmosphere. The explosion released the energy equivalent of around 440,000 tons of TNT and generated a shock wave that blew out windows over 200 square miles (518 square kilometers) and damaged buildings. More than 1,600 people were injured in the blast, mostly due to broken glass.<ref>[https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/meteors-and-meteorites/in-depth/ Meteors & Meteorites] - NASA website</ref>

===The sky/heaven as something that can fall===

The Quran describes the sky/heaven as a roof held up by Allah that can fall or fragments of which may break off and fall upon unfortunate individuals. This is challenging in light of the modern realization that the sky is simply a conglomeration of various gasses.

{{Quote|{{Quran|52|44}}|And if they were to see a fragment of the heaven falling, they would say: A heap of clouds.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|34|9}}|See they not what is before them and behind them, of the sky and the earth? If We wished, We could cause the earth to swallow them up, or cause a piece of the sky to fall upon them. Verily in this is a Sign for every devotee that turns to Allah (in repentance).}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|22|65}}|Hast thou not seen how Allah hath made all that is in the earth subservient unto you? And the ship runneth upon the sea by His command, and He holdeth back the heaven from falling on the earth unless by His leave. Lo! Allah is, for mankind, Full of Pity, Merciful.}}

===Heavens to be rolled up===

{{Quran|21|104}} and {{Quran|39|67}} state that the heavens will be 'rolled up' come the day of judgement, implying their corporeality and two dimensional form.
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|39|67}}|No just estimate have they made of Allah, such as is due to Him: On the Day of Judgment the whole of the earth will be but His handful, and the heavens will be rolled up in His right hand: Glory to Him! High is He above the Partners they attribute to Him!}}

===The gates of the sky/heaven===
The Quran states in many verses that there are gates in the sky/heavens (see: {{Quran|7|40}}, {{Quran|15|14}}, {{Quran|78|19}}, {{Quran|54|11}}), of which Allāh alone holds the keys to {{Quran|42|12}}, and are at least close enough for water to fall to the Earth from, and flood it after Noah's preaching.
{{Quote|{{Quran|54|11}}|Then We opened the gates of the sky with pouring waters}}

===The sky-ways/cords of the heavens===
{{Main|Cosmology of the Quran}}
Similar to other ancient Near-East and West Asian cosmologies, the sky/heavens are equipped with pathways or conduits, called sabab (singular) asbāb (plural),<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 223-224.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref> that are some kind of ropes or cords (as per their literal meaning)<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> that support or run along the high edifice of the heaven, which can be traversed physically by people who arrive at them. Al-Rabīʿ ibn Anas (d. 756), to whom is attributed an early Quran commentary on verse Q38:10 notes: "The asbāb are finer than hair and stronger than iron; it [sic] is in every place although it is invisible.<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 237.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|36-37}}|And Pharaoh said, "O Haman, construct for me a tower that I might reach the ways (asbāb) - The ways (asbāb) into the heavens - so that I may look at the deity of Moses; but indeed, I think he is a liar." And thus was made attractive to Pharaoh the evil of his deed, and he was averted from the [right] way. And the plan of Pharaoh was not except in ruin.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|38|10}}|Or is theirs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them? Then let them ascend through [any] ways (asbāb) of access}}
Despite the existence of space exploration and telescopes these have not been found.

===Stars as something that fall===

The Qur'an says that the stars will fall (inkadarat ٱنكَدَرَتْ) as one of many dramatic events surrounding the last day. The word كدر in the form used in this verse (form VII) meant 'to dart down', as is said of a bird or hawk, or to fall and scatter.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000124.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2596 ٱنكَدَرَتْ]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|81|2}}|And when the stars fall}}

The structure of space-time is such that nothing, not even stars, can move faster than the velocity of light. Even if the stars were to move close to light speed across the sky, their apparent motion would be so slight relative to their distance that it would nonetheless be imperceptible to the naked eye. Moreover, as many visible stars are hundreds of light years away (the nearest star is more than four light years away), the light from such events would take years to reach our eyes. Indeed, many stars still visible in the sky ceased to exist centuries ago and it is only their light which is just now reaching the Earth.

Similarly the stars are said to disperse/scatter (intatharat انْتَثَرَتْ) on judgement day, which classical commentaries have also linked to dispersing/falling on Earth,<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/82.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 82.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/82.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 82.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).

</ref> <ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/82.1 Tafsir ibn Kathir Verse 82.2.]'' Ibn Kathir <abbr>c.</abbr> 1300 – 1373.</ref> along with the above verse 81:2.<ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/81.2 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs Verse 81.2]''. Ibn Abbas. Unknown date.</ref><ref>''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/81.2 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn Verse 81.2.]'' Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864 ah / 1459 ce) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d. 911 ah / 1505 ce).</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|82|2}}|when the stars are scattered,}}

===Moon split in two===
{{Main|Moon Split Miracle}}

The Qur'an (according to a common interpretation) and a hadith tradition state that the moon was miraculously split into two pieces and then, presumably, put back together again. There is, however, no scientific evidence suggesting that the moon was ever been split into two parts. Critics have pointed out that since the moon is visible to half the planet at any given time, there should exist numerous accounts from different parts of the world attesting to the event if it in fact happened. The Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, Persians, Chinese and Indians had avid astronomers who, critics maintain, should have seen this event and recorded it in their histories. The complete absence of any such historical record from other civilizations contemporary to Muhammad is thus presented as a strong indication that the event described in scripture never happened.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|1|3}}|The Hour has come near, and the moon has split [in two]. And if they see a miracle, they turn away and say, "Passing magic." And they denied and followed their inclinations. But for every matter is a [time of] settlement. }}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4864|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn Masud:

During the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) the moon was split into two parts; one part remained over the mountain, and the other part went beyond the mountain. On that, Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Witness this miracle."
}}Some modern Islamic scholars and academic scholars interpret the moon splitting verse as an eschatological prophecy. One reason is that the traditional interpretation contradicts the repeated claims that Muhammad was not sent with miracles, but only to warn people with the message (see also {{Quran|6|109}} and {{Quran|11|12}}):
{{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|The unbelievers say, "Why has God not sent him, (Muhammad), some miracles." (Muhammad), you are only a warner. For every nation there is a guide.}}

===Nature of the moon's light===

Modern Muslim scholars have sometimes argued that the Qur'an predicted the realization that the moon does not emit its own light, but simply reflects light coming from the Sun. The Arabic word for reflected (''in`ikaas'') does not appear in the two Qur'anic verses that say the Moon is a "light". Instead, the word ''noor'' (nooran نُورًا) is used, which simply means "a light", and, in another verse, the word ''muneer'' (''muneeran'' مُّنِيرًا) is used, which means "giving light" and is from the same root as ''noor''. Nonetheless, the usage of these words is vague and appears to permit alternative interpretations.

{{Quote|{{Quran|10|5}}|
He it is Who appointed the sun a splendour and the moon a light, and measured for her stages, that ye might know the number of the years, and the reckoning. Allah created not (all) that save in truth. He detaileth the revelations for people who have knowledge.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|16}}|
And hath made the moon a light therein, and made the sun a lamp?}}

''Noor'' appears again (this time as a participle muneeran مُّنِيرًا) in a similar verse about the moon:

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|61}}|
Blessed be He Who hath placed in the heaven mansions of the stars, and hath placed therein a great lamp and a moon giving light!"}}

{{Quran-range|33|45|46}} most clearly displays the meaning of ''noor'' to be "light" rather than "reflected light". A lamp is described as "shining light" with the same Arabic word used in {{Quran|25|61}} (muneeran مُّنِيرًا):

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|45|46}}|
O Prophet! Lo! We have sent thee as a witness and a bringer of good tidings and a warner. And as a summoner unto Allah by His permission, and as a lamp '''that giveth light'''.}}

In Lane's Lexicon of classical arabic, the word ''muneer'' (مُّنِيرً) is defined as 'Giving light, shining bright, bright, or shining brightly'.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000120.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2866 مُّنِيرً]</ref> ''Noor'' is defined on the previous page as 'Light; whatever it may be; and the rays thereof'.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000119.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2865 نُورًا]</ref> In reference to {{Quran|10|5}} (quoted above) which describe the moon with this word, Lane writes, 'In the Kur. x. 5, the sun is termed ضياء and the moon نور and it is said that ضياء is ''essential'', but نور is ''accidental'' [light]'. The notion of essential and accidental light and its application to the sun and moon originates not from the Arabs at the time of the Qur'an, but rather from the book ''Kitab al-Manazir'', commonly known as 'Optics', published in 1572 by the great polymath and optics pioneer al-Hazen. Lane goes on to say, citing the highly regarded Taj al-Arus classical dictionary, 'it [light] is of two kinds, the light of the present world and that of the world to come; and the former is either perceived sensibly, by the eye, and this is what diffuses itself from luminous bodies, as the sun and moon and stars, and is mentioned in the Kur. x. 5 referred to above'.

The word ''noor'' is also used in {{Quran|24|35}} to show that Allah is the "light" of the universe. The author does not imply that Allah reflects light from another source, but rather that he is the ultimate source of all light.

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|35}}|
Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men: and Allah doth know all things.}}

===Implied similar size and distance of the sun and moon===
{{Main|Geocentrism and the Quran|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

In a passage about events on the day of resurrection, some critics argue that the Qur'an implies that the sun and moon are of comparable size and distance. As already noted, the Quran says that the moon "follows" the sun ({{Quran-range|91|1|2}}), and "It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day." ({{Quran|36|40}}). Verse {{Quran|75|9}} adds that on the last day the sun and moon will be brought together. While such a perspective is intuitive for one in seventh century Arabia viewing the sun and moon with their unaided eye and observing eclipses, modern science has revealed that 64.3 million moons could fit in the sun.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|8|9}}|And the moon darkens And the sun and the moon are joined,}}

The Arabic word translated as "are joined" is ''jumi'a'', a verb which means to collect together, gather together, bring together.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000091.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 455 جُمِعَ]</ref> Critics note that this would involve our moon, which orbits the Earth 93 million miles away from the sun, being brought together with our local star which is over 400 times wider. To say that such mismatched objects will be brought together (jumi'a) in such a scenario would hardly be apt, critics argue, and a very odd apocalyptic event. Rather, the description sits comfortably in the ancient understanding of the cosmos, whereby the sun and moon were assumed to be two roughly equivalent celestial bodies in the sky above the Earth.

It is worth noting that the "darkening" of the moon in verse 8 is an Arabic word which in hadiths refers to a lunar or solar eclipse (in this case lunar). However, for a lunar eclipse to occur (when the earth's shadow is cast upon the moon) the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the earth and thus are not in any sense "brought together". Nor does brought together in verse 9 work as a reference to a solar eclipse (when the sun occasionally casts a shadow of the moon on the earth). The moon is invisible during the portion of a month when it can eclipse the sun since it must be on the daylit side of the earth, and hence the moon does not "darken" or itself become eclipsed (verse 8) as it passes between observers and the sun but rather its silhouette becomes visible.

===The cause of shadows changing length===
Shadows are produced when the sun's light is obstructed. The Earth's rotation causes these shadows to change size and lengthen. {{Quran-range|25|45|46}} states that the reason shadows fluctuate in size rather than being stationary is because Allah has made the sun their guide. This appears to confirm the geocentric outlook widely evidenced elsewhere in the Qur'an, for it is only on a geocentric view that shadows would be of fixed length if the sun (rather than the Earth) were not made to do something.

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|45-46}}|
Hast thou not turned thy vision to thy Lord?- How He doth prolong the shadow! If He willed, He could make it stationary! then do We make the sun its guide; Then We draw it in towards Ourselves,- a contraction by easy stages.}}

Interestingly, {{Quran|25|46}} follows up by stating that Allah 'draws the shadows towards himself'. The exact meaning of this verse is unclear, but if it regards the retraction of an object's shadow 'back onto itself' - that is, to a state where there is no shadow or the shadow is at its shortest - then perhaps it can be interpreted to describe the gradual 'pointing of the shadow towards heaven' or 'upwards towards Allah'. Even this reading is difficult to justify, however, and the verse is perhaps best regarded as having lost intelligibility beyond the vague spiritual sense in which it may be read.

===Disregard of North and South Poles===
{{Main|The Ramadan Pole Paradox}}

In polar regions, the longevity of day and night vary during summer and winter. The day gets shorter and shorter in winter until there are days or weeks of uninterrupted night. At the poles themselves, day and night alternately last for six months and all phases of the moon occur several times between sunrise and sunset. These circumstances render many of the most important Islamic rituals impracticable and suggest that the author(s) of the Qur'an and hadith, in so far as they aspired to produce a religion of global practicability, were not aware of the extreme distortions to the day length that take place near the poles.

{{Quote|{{Quran|36|40}}|
It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit. }}

When reading this verse one may also wonder in what sense day and night each have an orbit (See [[Geocentrism and the Quran]]).

See also the [[Scientific_Errors_in_the_Quran#Fasting_and_prayer_requirements_near_the_Poles|Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles]] section below.

==Biology==

===Evolution===
{{Main|Evolution and Islam}}

The Qur'an takes what is perhaps best described as the creationist view of the origins and history of life on earth. This diverges sharply from the overwhelming scientific evidence that humans have evolved from prior life forms, over the course of millions of years and through natural selection.<ref>https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence</ref> Consequently, while some Muslim scholars reinterpret the Quran in order that they may accept the theory of evolution, most reject it in favor of a creationist world view. Opinion polls show that the majority of Muslims agree Islam and evolution are not compatible.

====First humans created from clay====
{{Main|Creation of Humans from Clay|Evolution and Islam}}

The Qur’an states that the first man was created instantaneously from clay (''salsalin'' صَلْصَٰلٍ) / ''mud'' (hamain حَمَإٍ). There is no indication that the author is aware of the evolution of human life over millions of years or our common ancestry with apes and primates. While some scientists argue over the detailed mechanisms driving evolution, they agree that common descent is an overwhelmingly proven fact.

{{Quote|{{Quran|15|26}}|
We created man from sounding clay, from mud molded into shape; }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|55|14}}|
He created man from clay like [that of] pottery.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|38|71|75}}|[So mention] when your Lord said to the angels, "'''Indeed, I am going to create a human being from clay. So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration.'''" So the angels prostrated - all of them entirely. Except Iblees; he was arrogant and became among the disbelievers. [Allah] said, "O Iblees, what prevented you from prostrating to '''that which I created with My hands?''' Were you arrogant [then], or were you [already] among the haughty?" He said, "I am better than him. '''You created me from fire and created him from clay.'''"}}

====Descent from Adam and Eve====
{{Main|Evolution and Islam|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation}}

The Qur’an contains stories concerning the 'first humans' which detail, among other matters, how all people are descended from Adam and Eve (called ''Hawa'' in Arabic), the two earliest ancestors. These humans were created in a garden (the word for paradise in Arabic is ''jannah'', which literally means 'garden') and then brought to Earth fully formed (Sahih Hadiths say Adam was 60 cubits - or 90 feet - tall). This view of the origins of human life is directly challenged by overwhelming DNA evidence and the numerous fossils of pre-Homo sapiens species that lived on earth for millions of years prior to the evolution modern humans.<ref>http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence</ref> Powerful DNA evidence that humans have common ancestry with other primate families includes endogenous retroviruses in the exact same genetic locations of our respective genomes<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oXfDF5Ew3Gc DNA Evidence That Humans & Chimps Share A Common Ancestor: Endogenous Retroviruses] - Youtube.com</ref> and the fusion of two primate chromosomes to become chromosome 2 in humans<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dK3O6KYPmEw Professor Ken Miller on DNA fusion events] - Youtube.com</ref> (for more detail see the main article).

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|189}}|
It is He who created you from one soul and created from it its mate that he might dwell in security with her. And when he covers her, she carries a light burden and continues therein. And when it becomes heavy, they both invoke Allah, their Lord, "If You should give us a good [child], we will surely be among the grateful."}}

In the above verse the poetic allusion to sex and pregnancy and the couple's invocation to Allah leaves no doubt that the first sentence is a reference to common descent from Adam (in similar verses this is less explicit). All the classical exegetes state that this “single being” (نَّفْسٍ وَٰحِدَةٍ ) refers to Adam. Both classical Sunni and Shia Tafsirs confirm this and there are even mutawatir hadith narrations (mass transmitted reports) implying that all humans descend from Adam (for details, see [[Evolution_and_Islam|Evolution and Islam]]).

Another verse describes the literal descent of humanity from one man with reference to the sexual means by which it was achieved ("despised fluid" i.e. semen) after Allah had created that first man out of clay.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|32|7|8}}|Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay; Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;}}
The word translated “seed” in the Pickthall translation is nasl نسل, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 3032 نسل]</ref>

Other verses address humanity as banī ādama ("children of Adam"), including {{Quran|7|27}} which describe the first couple as "your parents". See also {{Quran|17|70}} and {{Quran|4|1}}.

Some modern Muslim scholars argue that the notion of two ancestral “parents” is consistent with recent scientific findings that show a common female and male ancestor of all modern humans. This results, however, from a confusion with the nicknames (Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam) by which scientists have referred to human's earliest genetic ancestors. These two individuals, however, are distinct from the Quranic characters as they are simply the last common male and female ancestors of everyone alive today and not of all humans in history. More importantly, whereas the Qur'an describes Eve as Adam's wife (who, notably, was created ''after'' him), Mitochondrial Eve lived some 50,000 to 80,000 years earlier than Y-chromosomal Adam.<ref>[http://biologos.org/blog/does-genetics-point-to-a-single-primal-couple Adam, Eve, and Human Population Genetics: Responses to Popular Arguments] - Biologos website</ref> Genetic evidence also overwhelmingly indicates that humans diverged from earlier species as a population rather than as a single couple.<ref>[http://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2011/09/18/how-big-was-the-human-population-bottleneck-not-anything-close-to-2/ How big was the human population bottleneck? Another staple of theology refuted.] - Why Evolution is True website by Professor Jerry Coyne</ref>

===Genetics===
====Noah's ark human population bottleneck====
''Main Article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Noah's%20worldwide%20flood|Historical errors in the Qur'an - Noah's worldwide flood]]''

The Qur'an contains the Biblical worldwide flood story, common to many ancient Near-East and Mesopotamian cultures, whereby Noah escapes on an ark with his family (bar a disbelieving son who attempts to hide up a mountain to avoid the flood),<ref>Reynolds, G. S. (2017). ''[https://eurasia.org.uk/docs/academic/biblical-character/Noahs_Lost_Son_in_the_Quran.pdf Noah’s Lost Son in the Qurʾān]. Arabica, 64 (2), 129-148.'' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-12341452</nowiki></ref> and a pair of all living things. Though not mentioned in the Qur'an, some traditions put eighty people with him,<ref>E.g. Tafsir Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/11.40 Q11:40] who mentions this report comes from Ibn Abbas</ref> including forty men and women.<ref>E.g. Tafsir Al-Jalalyan on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/11.40 Q11:40]</ref> The majority of prominent tafsirs say founders of all contemporary different nations such as the Byzantines, Turks and Persians etc. are descended from a different one of Noah's surviving sons.<ref>E.g. see many English translated classical commentaries/tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/37.77 Q37:33].</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|[So it was], until when Our command came and the oven overflowed, '''We said, "Load upon the ship of each [creature] two mates and your family''', except those about whom the word has preceded, and [include] whoever has believed." But none had believed with him, except a few.}}There is no genetic evidence for a population bottleneck that could match this event whatsoever, of which we would expect.<ref>''David Reich. 2018. Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past.'' Covers the history of modern humans from a genetic POV including notable population bottlenecks - of which none match this story.

[''Chapters 1 to 4'' covers the origins of ancient humanoids into modern humans, effectively debunking Adam and Eve too.]</ref>Including (but not limited to): Genetic diversity analysis (inc. reduced heterozygosity and the loss of rare alleles), runs of homozygosity (ROH) in the genome, the allele frequency spectrum (AFS) showing a skewed distribution: favoring common alleles and reducing the prevalence of rare ones, and with statistical modelling, researchers can compare observed allele frequencies with theoretical expectations under different demographic scenarios. As well as analyzing Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosome DNA with Lineage Tracing, reconstructing genealogies with coalescent models to trace genetic lineages back to common ancestors, the presence of genetic signatures showing; Reduced effective population size (Ne) and/or Linkage disequilibrium (LD) (alleles at different loci may show higher correlations (association of genes) than expected due to the reduced population size and limited recombination events), plus analyzing and directly comparing ancient DNA with modern Ancient DNA (aDNA), and further simulation and modelling, such as using Bayesian Inference Computational methods simulate genetic data under various demographic scenarios to identify the most likely historical events - software such as BEAST and msprime have been made specifically for this.<ref name=":0">Some academic papers discussing these methods for both humans (and ancient pre-human hominins as in the first article) and animals include for example:

''"[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37651513/ Genomic inference of a severe human bottleneck during the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition]"'' Authors: Wangjie Hu, Ziqian Hao, Pengyuan Du, Fabio Di Vincenzo, Giorgio Manzi. Published in: Science, 2023

''[https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2202.08394 Dynamical phases in growing populations: understanding recovery from bottlenecks].'' Emanuele Crosato, Jeffrey N. Philippson, Shashi Thutupalli, Richard G. Morris. 2022. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2202.08394</nowiki>

''[https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article-abstract/107/5/392/2622901?redirectedFrom=fulltext Genetic Evidence of a Population Bottleneck and Inbreeding in the Endangered New Zealand Sea Lion],'' Osborne AJ, Negro SS, Chilvers BL, Robertson BC, Kennedy MA, Gemmell NJ. Phocarctos hookeri. J Hered. 2016 Sep;107(5):392-402. doi: 10.1093/jhered/esw015. Epub 2016 Mar 19. PMID: 26995741.

Li H, Roossinck MJ2004. [https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jvi.78.19.10582-10587.2004 ''Genetic Bottlenecks Reduce Population Variation in an Experimental RNA Virus Population'']. J Virol78:.<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.78.19.10582-10587.2004</nowiki>

Lucena-Perez M, Kleinman-Ruiz D, Marmesat E, Saveljev AP, Schmidt K, Godoy JA. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eva.13302 ''Bottleneck-associated changes in the genomic landscape of genetic diversity in wild lynx populations.''] Evol Appl. 2021 Oct 8;14(11):2664-2679. doi: 10.1111/eva.13302. PMID: 34815746; PMCID: PMC8591332.</ref>

====Animals and plants====
Part of the legend of Noah's Ark is that a pair of every living species was stored on board. Similarly none of this even more extreme bottleneck of two living pairs has been found in animal genetics either (and at the same time across all species and the human bottleneck),<ref name=":0" /> (nor plants, which most traditional Islamic scholars such as Ibn Kathir agree are considered part of these pairs)<ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/11.40 ''verse 11:40'']</ref> of which we would expect to see a notable sudden and extreme bottleneck of two animals, also causing inbreeding being far below the safe level needed for long-term species survival.<ref>Pérez-Pereira, N., Wang, J., Quesada, H. et al. ''[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-022-02456-z Prediction of the minimum effective size of a population viable in the long term]. Biodivers Conserv 31, 2763–2780 (2022).'' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02456-z</nowiki></ref>

This goes without mentioning the practical problems of such a task. While we do not know exactly how many animals Muhammad, or specific 7th century Arabs were aware off, it can be assumed they were aware of local cattle, birds and visible insects etc. in Arabia - where gathering two of every pair was a difficult, but not certainly not impossible task. Modern science has, however, revealed over 2.1 million species identified so far across all taxonomic groups. This includes over a million identified insect species, 110,000 arachnids, 11,000 birds, 11,000 reptiles and 6,500 mammals that live spread across the entire planet and each of which require different climates, habitats, and diets, while a widely cited estimate for the total number of terrestrial species including those as yet undiscovered is 6.5 million.<ref>[https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-species-are-there#:~:text=Species%20that%20we%20have%20identified,million%20species%20on%20the%20planet How many species are there?] - Our World in Data website</ref>Furthermore many animals are a severe risk to the humans on board (e.g. polar bears), gathering them across different parts of the world including isolated islands and keeping the rest alive whilst getting others is essentially impossible, and many are predators of each other so would soon have destroyed the ecosystem if one was eaten by another etc.<ref>Many practical issues of the account are covered in this article on Talk Origins by Mark Isaak ''<nowiki/>'[https://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html Problems with a Global Flood]''', focusing on the biblical version of the story - but with most applicable to the Qur'anic version.</ref>

These discoveries appear to render the idea that all animals could have been kept on board a single ship impossible.

===Embryology===
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|l1=Embryology in the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an contain descriptions regarding bodily fluids and the stages of development of the human embryo. Many of these descriptions are extremely vague and most bear a telling resemblance to [[Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith|similar descriptions]] found in the [[w:Talmud|Jewish Talmud]] as well as the ideas of ancient Greeks, [[History of Embryology|such as Galen]]. These descriptions do not accord with the findings of modern science and are generally considered unremarkable in the seventh-century Arabian context wherein the Quran was first recited.

====Semen originating between the backbone and ribs====
{{Main|Quran and Semen Production|l1=Qur'an and Semen Production}}

The Qur'an states that semen originates from somewhere between the backbone and ribs, though Muslim scholars have proposed a wide range of alternative interpretations. The word for backbone here is ''sulb'' (صلب), meaning the back, particularly the lumbar / loins portion of it.<ref>
[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000436.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1712 - صلب]</ref>. Other verses and hadiths too suggest a reproductive function for the backbone. While this aligns with the views of the physicians of antiquity, modern science has shown that sperm comes from the [[w:testicle|testicles]] and semen from various glands behind and below the bladder, which are not between the backbone and ribs.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|86|6|7}}|
He is created from a drop emitted- Proceeding from '''between the backbone and the ribs''' }}

We see this concept also in another verse using another Arabic word for a man's back, ''thahr'' (ظهر, translated below as loins<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000212.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 197 - ظهر]</ref>) whereby a man's future progeny are somehow in his back before conception, a notion also found in hadiths discussed in the main article.

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|172}}|And [mention] when your Lord took from the children of Adam - from their loins - their descendants and made them testify of themselves, [saying to them], "Am I not your Lord?" They said, "Yes, we have testified." [This] - lest you should say on the day of Resurrection, "Indeed, we were of this unaware."}}

====Embryo formed from semen====
{{Main|Greek and Jewish Ideas about Reproduction in the Quran and Hadith}}

The Qur'an describes the initial formation of a human embryo out of fluid emanating from the man, which has been placed in the womb (and possibly mixed with a female fluid). This reflects the widespread contemporary view at that time that semen is the material from which the embryo is initially formed, as taught by Hippocrates, Galen, and the Jewish Talmud. It is also very evident in hadiths. By contrast, modern science has shown that semen is the vehicle for the sperm cells, one of which fuses with a woman's [[w:ovum|ovum]] in her [[w:fallopian tube|fallopian tube]], and that the resulting cell divides (rather than the seminal medium) and travels back into the womb for implantation.

While many English translations mention a "drop of seed", or "drop of sperm", the Arabic word used in the Quran is ''nutfah'', which literally means a small amount of liquid and was a euphemism for semen.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|77|20|22}}|
Did We not create you from a '''liquid disdained'''[ma-in maheenin]? And '''We placed it in a firm lodging''' For a known extent.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|13|14}}|'''Then We placed him''' as a sperm-drop [nutfatan] '''in a firm lodging.''' Then We made the sperm-drop [nutfata] into a clinging clot […]}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|80|18|19}}|
From what substance [shay-in, which means “thing”] did He create him? From a sperm-drop [nutfatin] He created him and destined for him;}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|76|2}}|Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture [nutfatin amshajin] that We may try him; and We made him hearing and seeing.}}

====Disregard of female ovum====

The Quran, in all its discussion of human reproduction, does not mention the role of the ovum, implying instead that reproduction is caused simply by storage and mingling of the male semen in the female womb. Although visible to the human eye, the female ovum is very small and unknown in the 7th century - this appears to explain its omission in the Quran.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|86|6|7}}|He was created from a fluid, ejected, Emerging from between the backbone and the ribs.}}

====Humans created from a clot of blood====
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|l1=Embryology in the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an describes humans as being formed from a clot of blood after an initial semen stage. By contrast, modern science has revealed that there is no stage in embryonic development where the relevant material is a clot of blood. The Quranic description is likely influenced by a simplistic attempt at explaining human reproduction based on unaided-eye observations of an early-term miscarriage and a woman's menstrual cycle. While in modern times some Muslims scholars have advanced alternative meanings for the relevant word, the historical certainty that the word can mean clotted blood (also the unanimous understanding in the classical tafsirs), which has a clear biological meaning, while being used in the Qur'an in the context of a biological description (formation of a baby), renders the modern reinterpretations extremely challenging.

{{Quote|{{Quran|23|14}}|
Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood...}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|96|2}}|
Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood: }}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3208|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin Mus'ud:

“Allah's Apostle, the true and truly inspired said, "(The matter of the Creation of) a human being is put together in the womb of the mother in forty days, and then he becomes a '''clot of thick blood for a similar period''', and then a piece of flesh for a similar period.”}}

====Gender decided at clot stage====
The Qur'an states that an embryo is transformed from semen into a clot, shaped (presumably into a human mold), and then determined into either the male or female sex. Modern genetics, on the other hand, has shown that the sex of a human is decided at the moment of conception.<ref>{{cite book|first=eds.: Anthony S. Fauci [et al.] ; eds. of previous ed.: T. R. Harrison [et al.]|title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine.|date=2008|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York [etc.]|isbn=978-0-07-147693-5|pages=2339–2346|edition=17th ed.}}</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|75|37|39}}|Was he not a drop of fluid which gushed forth? Then he became a clot; then (Allah) shaped and fashioned And made of him a pair, the male and female.}}

While translators mostly use "And" in verse 39, the Arabic particle is ''fa'', as also in the previous conjunction, which indicates sequence (i.e. 'and then').<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000105.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2321 ف]</ref> Classical tafsirs share this reading, and the same reading is reflected in a sahih hadith found in both Bukhari and Muslim:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||318|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said, "At every womb Allah appoints an angel who says, 'O Lord! A drop of semen, O Lord! A clot. O Lord! A little lump of flesh." Then if Allah wishes (to complete) its creation, the angel asks, (O Lord!) Will it be a male or female, a wretched or a blessed, and how much will his provision be? And what will his age be?' So all that is written while the child is still in the mother's womb."}}

====Bones formed before flesh====
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|l1=Embryology in the Qur'an}}

The Qur'an states that the bones of a human embryo are formed first and then covered up with flesh. By contrast, modern science has shown that muscles and the cartilage 'models' of the future bones start to form at the same time and in parallel. Muscles have started to form before the cartilage models start to be replaced with actual bone.

{{Quote|{{Quran|23|14}}|
Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood; then of that clot We made a (foetus) lump; then we made out of that lump bones then (not and) clothed the bones with flesh; then we developed out of it another creature. So blessed be Allah, the best to create!}}

The Qur'an again parallels the influential Greek physician Galen, who says:

{{Quote|1=Galen, ''On semen'', p.101|2=And now the third period of gestation has come. After nature has made outlines of all the organs and the substance of the semen is used up, the time has come for nature to articulate the organs precisely and to bring all the parts to completion. Thus it caused flesh to grow on and around all the bones...}}

===All organisms created in pairs===
The Quran states that all beings are created in pairs. However, modern science has revealed that not every creature procreates or reproduces through a male and female sexual relationship.

The [[w:Desert grassland whiptail lizard|whiptail lizard]] in the U.S. Southwest, Mexico, and South America, for instance, is an all-females species which reproduces by [[w:parthenogenesis|parthenogenesis]].

[[w:virus|Viruses]] (if considered a life form) reproduce using a host's DNA and are neither female nor male. [[w:Bacteria|Bacteria]] reproduce by cell division.

[[w:Fungus|Fungus]] can reproduce either asexually or sexually with thousands of genders.

Many species of plants also reproduce either asexually or through [[w:Pollination|pollination]].

Those who are [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex intersex] (including those people with both male and female sexual organs and body types) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite hermaphrodites] of all species also do not appear to fit in to this dichotomy. This has led to discriminatory rulings from Islamic scholars, not allowing those with ambiguous sexes to get married for example, due to the unknowingness of breaking a gender-based rule.<ref>See for example rulings from sheiks and scholars listed on IslamQA in response to the question: ''[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/114670/ruling-on-marrying-a-man-who-is-intersex-or-impotent-and-the-difference-between-them Ruling on marrying a man who is intersex or impotent, and the difference between them]'' </ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|49}}|
And of '''every thing''' We have created pairs: That ye may receive instruction. }}
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|36}}|
Glory to Allah, Who created in pairs '''all things''' that the earth produces, as well as their own (human) kind and (other) things of which they have no knowledge. }}{{Quote|{{Quran|92|3}}|by Him who created the male and the female:}}{{Quote|{{Quran|75|39}}|Then He made of him two kinds, the male and the female.}}

===Fetus in three layers of darkness===

The word ''butun'' (بطن) means belly/abdomen/midriff, though some translators have opted to use the more specific (and evocative) word "womb".<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000257.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 220 بطن]</ref> Classical tafsirs interpreted the "three darknesses" as the placenta, womb (uterus), and belly. Modern science has revealed there to be many more such layers in the human body, such as the endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium, peritoneum, besides the cervix uteri, corpus uteri, abdomen (with walls), and placenta (with layers). In terms of extra-embryonic membranes, there is also the allantois, which is a sac-like structure and does not surround the embryo, but becomes part of the umbilical cord and is not in any real sense 'a darkness' viz-a-viz the embryo. The other two membranes, the chorion and amnion, together form the [[w:Amniotic_sac|amniotic sac]], which is quite thin and transparent. The idea of three membranes around the fetus ([[w:Chorion|chorion]], [[w:Allantois|allantois]], and [[w:Amnion|amnion]]) was taught by the highly influential Greek physician, Galen, and the description found in the Quran in all likelihood draws on Galen's widespread influence in the late antique world.

{{Quote|{{Quran|39|6}}|
He created you from one soul. Then He made from it its mate, and He produced for you from the grazing livestock eight mates. He creates you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, within three darknesses. That is Allah, your Lord; to Him belongs dominion. There is no deity except Him, so how are you averted?}}

===Functions of the heart (cardiocentrism)===
The Quran describes the literal heart as a locus of contemplation and thought, an ancient concept known as [[w:Cardiocentric hypothesis|cardiocentrism]], as opposed to the modern scientific understanding of our brain controlling thought, memory and emotion (alongside other physical processes).<ref>''[https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-brain Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works.]'' Brain, Nerves and Spine. Home. Health. Conditions and Diseases. Johns Hopkins Medicine.</ref>

The concept of the heart as the seat of the intellect, spiritual contemplation, and the eye of the heart/mind/soul was a common one in East-Syriac Christianity in the centuries before Islam, seen in the writings for example of Pseudo-Macarius, Issac of Nineveh, and Ephrem,<ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), ''[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110794083/html?lang=en Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background]'', Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 95 -102</ref> in contrast to certain scholars more closely influenced by Greek philosophy which associated the mind with the brain (encephalocentrism).<ref>Enrico Crivellato, Domenico Ribatti, ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S036192300600298X Soul, mind, brain: Greek philosophy and the birth of neuroscience]'', Brain Research Bulletin, Volume 71, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 327-336, ISSN 0361-9230, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.09.020.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S036192300600298X)</nowiki></ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|22|46}}|So have they not traveled through the earth and '''have hearts by which to reason''' and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are '''the hearts which are within the breasts'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|11|5}}|Lo! now they fold up their breasts that they may hide (their thoughts) from Him. At the very moment when they cover themselves with their clothing, Allah knoweth that which they keep hidden and that which they proclaim. Lo! He is Aware of what is in the breasts (of men). }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|179}}|And We have certainly created for Hell many of the jinn and mankind. '''They have hearts with which they do not understand''', they have eyes with which they do not see, and they have ears with which they do not hear. Those are like livestock; rather, they are more astray. It is they who are the heedless.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|46}}|And We place '''upon their hearts veils lest they should understand''' it, and in their ears a deafness; and when thou makest mention of thy Lord alone in the Qur'an, they turn their backs in aversion. }}

===Characteristics of Milk===
The Qur'an states that milk is produced in the body somewhere between excretions and blood. The mammary glands, where milk is produced and stored, are not, however, located near the intestines, which is where excrement is stored. Sometimes cattle and goat milk needs processing or pasteurization before it can safely be consumed; the milk is often infected with bacteria and other micro-organisms. A significant number of humans are [[w:Lactose_intolerance|lactose intolerant]], especially in some regions of the world, and are unable to digest much milk without experiencing abdominal bloating and cramps, flatulence, diarrhoea, nausea, or vomiting. This occurs in adults who lack genes for lactase enzyme persistance which maintains lactose tolerance beyond childhood and is a relatively recent evolutionary development. These realities challenge the Qur'anic notion that milk is 'pure' and 'agreeable' to anyone who drinks it.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|66}}|
And verily in cattle (too) will ye find an instructive sign. From what is within their bodies '''between excretions and blood''', We produce, for your drink, milk, '''pure and agreeable''' to those who drink it. }}

==Geology and meteorology==

===Flat Earth===
{{Main|Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth}}The Qur'an assumes and describes a flat-Earth cosmography according to multiple academic studies. The later idea that Islamic scriptures themselves indicated a spherical Earth was a creative act of reinterpretation when Islamic scholars encountered advances in astronomy. Attempts to explain Quranic verses about the Earth only in terms of local flatness at a human level, non-literal readings, and/or by ignoring context, are often challenged by critics, as discussed in the [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth|main article]], which also contains further evidence and verses beyond those listed here.

====Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles====
{{Main|The Ramadan Pole Paradox}}

The Qur'an instructs Muslims to fast by abstaining from food and drink from sunrise till sunset during Ramadan. In the polar regions there are six months of sunlight and six months of perpetual night during Summer and Winter. Such fasting is not practicable for anyone living in the polar regions, and very easy (depth of Winter) or extremely hard (height of Summer) in places within around 40 degrees latitude of the poles. Various rules have been contrived by Muslim scholars for people at such latitudes to try to accommodate the (here inconvenient) fact that we live on a round Earth.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|187}}|
...Then strictly observe the fast till nightfall...}}

A similar issue emerges for the five daily prayers. Persons living in the polar region would not be able to make a sunset or sunrise prayer for much of the year. Even in less extreme contexts, for cities further south like Aberdeen in Scotland, the gap between the night prayer (Isha) and the dawn prayer (Fajr) is still around 4 and a half hours in June, so a person praying five times a day is required to interrupt their sleep around 3.20am, then go back to sleep before getting up for the day. These challenges would likely not have been on the mind of the author of the Quran during the 7th century in Arabia.

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|78}}|
Establish regular prayers - at the sun's decline till the darkness of the night, and the morning prayer and reading: for the prayer and reading in the morning carry their testimony.}}

====Facing toward Mecca====

The Qur'an instructs Muslims to face the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca when they pray. In consideration of the roundness of the Earth, scholars developed the great circle method to carry out this instruction. However, a number of problems have been suggested: one facing Mecca also necessarily has their back turned to it (a display of disrespect which is roundly prohibited in Islam), and one directly opposite Mecca on the globe may pray in any direction.

Another issue leads many North American Muslims, who live in the hemisphere of this antipode of Mecca, to instead prefer the rhumb-line technique (i.e. a straight line on a standard Mercator flat map projection). This is in disagreement with those who follow the great circle method, which causes people north and south in the Americas to face away from each as they pray (great circle lines from this antipode diverge cross the Americas before they start to converge again when they enter the hemisphere of Mecca), and requires much of North America to pray northwards, which to many people feels awkward. Finally, Astronauts in Earth's orbit or on the Moon or Mars are essentially unable to follow these instructions (suggesting that the author of the Qur'an did not have such future realities in mind).

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|149}}|
From whencesoever Thou startest forth, turn Thy face in the direction of the sacred Mosque; that is indeed the truth from the Lord. And Allah is not unmindful of what ye do.}}

====Earth as spread out and flat====

The author of the Qur'an mentions that the Earth is 'spread out' and laid flat. The Arabic word here (sataha) was used to describe making the flat top or roof of a house or chamber and making a top surface flat.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000081.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1357 سُطِحَ]</ref> Words from the same root mean the flat top surface or roof of a house or chamber, a bounded flat plane in geometry, a level place upon which dates can be spread, a rolling pin (which expands the dough), plane or flat.

{{Quote|{{Quran|88|20}}|And at the Earth, how it is spread out?}}

Despite Muslim encounters with Greek astronomy in the 8th century CE (see [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]]), a flat earth interpretation persisted for many more centuries in some circles.

For example, the Qur'anic commentary of al-Jalalayn (composed by the two “Jalals”; Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d.1459 CE) and his pupil Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (d.1505 CE) - i.e. the 15th/16th century) agrees with this understanding of the verse, saying that legal scholars at his time agree that the earth is flat and not spherical.

{{Quote|1=[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=88&tAyahNo=20&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 88:20] (See [https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/88/20 here] for the Arabic)|2=And the earth how it was laid out flat? and thus infer from this the power of God exalted be He and His Oneness? The commencing with the mention of camels is because they are closer in contact with it the earth than any other animal. '''As for His words sutihat ‘laid out flat’ this on a literal reading suggests that the earth is flat which is the opinion of''' most [the word "most" is not included in the original Arabic: "وعليه علماء الشرع"; see citation for full text] '''of the scholars of the revealed Law and not a sphere as astronomers ahl al-hay’a have it''' even if this latter does not contradict any of the pillars of the Law.}}

====Earth as like carpet====

The Arabic word (''bisaatan'') used here means a thing that is spread or spread out or forth, and particularly a carpet.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000241.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 204 بِسَاطًا]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|71|19}}|And Allah has made the earth for you as a carpet (spread out)}}

====Earth as like a couch====

The Earth is described using an Arabic word (''firashan'') that means a thing that is spread on the ground to sit or lay upon.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000155.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2371 فِرَٰشًا]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|22}}|
[He] who made for you the earth a bed [spread out] and the sky a ceiling and sent down from the sky, rain and brought forth thereby fruits as provision for you. So do not attribute to Allah equals while you know [that there is nothing similar to Him].}}

The same root word for couch in {{Quran|2|22}} is used as a verb in {{Quran|51|48}} in the sense of to spread (the first word translated spread here).

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|And the earth, '''We have spread it'''; how excellent (are) the Spreaders!}}

====Earth as like a bed====

The Earth is described as a 'bed' (or 'carpet' in the Yusuf Ali translation) in verse {{Quran|20|53}}, and similarly {{Quran|43|10}}. The Arabic word (''mahdan'') suggests something completely flat and spread out on the ground (and not, for instance, 'rolled up' for storage).<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000267.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2739 مَهْدًا]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|53}}|
Who hath appointed the earth '''as a bed''' and hath threaded roads for you therein and hath sent down water from the sky and thereby We have brought forth divers kinds of vegetation}}

Sometimes the same Arabic word is translated as expanse, as in {{Quran-range|78|6|7}}. Together with the next verse, the Earth is here a thing spread out and pegged down by mountains.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth as a '''wide expanse''', And the mountains as pegs?}}

The same root word is used as a participle at the end of {{Quran|51|48}}.

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|And the earth, We have spread it; how excellent (are) '''the Spreaders!'''}}

====Earth stretched out====

In the verse below, as also in {{Quran|13|3}} and {{Quran|50|7}}, the Qur'an uses a verb (''madadna'') that meant to extend by drawing or pulling, stretch out, expand.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000223.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2695 مدد]</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|15|19}}|And the earth We have spread out (like a carpet); set thereon mountains firm and immovable; and produced therein all kinds of things in due balance.}}

====Earth as a level plain====

The Qur'an describes a time in the future when mountains will be removed. {{Quran|18|47}} uses an Arabic word (''baarizatan'') that means "entirely apparent" to describe the Earth at this time.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000224.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 187 بَارِزَةً]</ref> {{Quran|20|106}} uses words (''qa'an'' and ''safsafan'') that mean a level plain.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000248.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 2994 قَاعًا], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000418.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1694 صَفْصَفًا]</ref> This description implies the Earth is flat and level and that it is the mountains which give it shape.

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|47}}|And (bethink you of) the Day when we remove the hills and ye see the earth emerging, and We gather them together so as to leave not one of them behind.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|20|105|107}}|They will ask thee of the mountains (on that day). Say: My Lord will break them into scattered dust. And leave it as '''an empty plain''', Wherein thou seest neither curve nor ruggedness.}}

===Permanent barrier between "the two seas" of fresh and salt water===
{{Main|A Barrier Between Two Seas and the Cosmic Ocean}}
When a fresh water river flows into the sea or ocean, there is a transition region in between. This transition region is called an estuary where the fresh water remains temporarily separated from the salt water. However, this separation is not absolute, is not permanent, and the different salinity levels between the two bodies of water eventually homogenize. The Qur'an, by contrast, suggests that there is a separation between two seas, one salty and one fresh water, maintained by some sort of divine barrier placed between them.

Furthemore, {{Quran|55|20}} quoted below states that coral emerge from both seas. However, coral are found only in salt water oceans, and exposure to freshwater leads to coral bleaching.<ref>[https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/corals-and-coral-reefs Corals and Coral Reefs] - Smithsonian Institution website</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|53}}| It is He Who has let free the two bodies of flowing water: One palatable and sweet, and the other salt and bitter; yet has He made a barrier between them, '''a partition that is forbidden to be passed'''. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|61}}|Is He [not best] who made the earth a stable ground and placed within it rivers and made for it firmly set mountains and placed between the two seas a barrier? Is there a deity with Allah? [No], but most of them do not know.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|19|22}}|He released the two seas, meeting [side by side]; Between them is a barrier [so] neither of them transgresses. So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? From both of them emerge pearl and coral.}}

Another reference to "the two seas" (bahrayn) is found in the story of Moses and his servant.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|60|61}}|And [mention] when Moses said to his servant, "I will not cease [traveling] until I reach the junction of the two seas or continue for a long period." But when they reached the junction between them, they forgot their fish, and it took its course into the sea, slipping away.}}

The story of Moses and his servant is one of four stories in Surah al-Kahf. Modern academic scholarship has identified antecedants of each story in the lore of late antiquity. This particular story is almost unanimously considered to derive from a legend about Alexander the Great and his search for the water of life. For details see the section on the four stories in Surah al-Kahf in the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

It may further be compared to the ancient Akkadian myth of the Abzu, the name for a fresh water underground sea that was given a religious quality in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology. Lakes, springs, rivers, wells, and other sources of fresh water were thought to draw their water from the Abzu underground sea, while the Ocean that surrounded the world was a saltwater sea. This underground sea is called Tehom in the Hebrew Bible. For example, Genesis 49:25 says, "blessings of the heavens above, and Tehom lying beneath".<ref>Wensinck, Arent Jan (1918). "The Ocean in the Literature of the Western Semites". Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks. dl. 19. no. 2. page 14</ref> Wensinck explains, "Thus it appears that the idea of there being a sea of sweet water under our earth, the ancient Tehom, which is the source of springs and rivers, is common to the Western Semites".<ref>ibid. page 17</ref> Similarly in Greek mythology, the world was surrounded by Oceanus, the world-ocean of classical antiquity. Oceanus was personified as the god Titan, whose consort was the aquatic sea goddess Tethys. It was also thought that rainfall was due a third ocean above the "Firmament of the Sky" (a vast reservoir above the firmament of the sky is also described in the Genesis creation narrative).

Whether the two seas mentioned in the Qur'an referred to these mythological seas or a more general inviolable barrier between bodies of salt and fresh water, critics argue that the verse in question is scientifically wrong.

===Mountains as pegs which prevent the earth from shifting===
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
Modern geology has discovered that large plates in the crust of the Earth are responsible for the formation of mountains. Called plate tectonics, the slow movement of these massive plates meet and the pressure between them pushes up the crust, forming mountains while also causing earthquakes and faults in the Earth's surface. The formation of mountains and occurance of earthquakes are thus both largely the result of destabilizing tectonic activity. They are part of the same ongoing process and one cannot exist without the other.

The Qur'an, by contrast, holds that mountains are like pegs in the ground. Mountain formation can involve a thickening of the continental crust beneath them, which some modern Muslim scholars attempt to compare as peg-like, though mountains form in various other ways too (see main article for details and for many further problems with this claim).

The Qur'an further claims that mountains were created to prevent the Earth from shifting or swaying with its inhabitants. This is most commonly interpreted by modern Islamic scholars as a reference to earthquakes.

However, in early or pre-Islamic poetry mountains are mentioned in terms of stopping the Earth as a whole swaying/convulsing. This seems to support a more straightforward reading of the Quranic verses, backed also by a hadith - that shifting/convulsing (tamīda<ref>تَمِيدَ tamīda [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000274.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2746</ref>) does not refer to earthquakes, which have occured throughout history including in Muhammad's era and whose seismic waves can actually be amplified in certain locations by mountains, but rather to a movement of the entire Earth (see main article for details on all of these points and criticism of a few other interpretations).

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth as a wide expanse, And the mountains as pegs?}}

===Mountains cast upon Earth===
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
Mountains are usually formed through the movement and collision (or in the case of fault-block mountains, separation) of lithospheric (tectonic) plates, as well as by a number of other processes (see main article). This is an ongoing process which continues to this day as the plates slowly move. The Quran, by contrast, states that the mountains on Earth's surface were cast upon it by God. Other verses state that creation of mountains occurred during the first four days, as discussed in the section above on creation of earth and heaven in six days. The imagery is clear when one considers the above verses which describe the Mountains as 'pegs' which stabilize the Earth (which is itself compared to a carpet and bed matt in other verses).

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|15}}|
And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}

The word 'he has cast' is ''alqa'' (lam-qaf-ya), which in this form (Arabic verb form IV) is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran to mean throw or cast.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000266.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3012 أَلْقَىٰ] See paragraph number 4 for the form IV verb definition.</ref> It is the same word as is used in {{Quran|3|44}} when lots are cast using pens (it would be easy to imagine that mountains were similarly scattered, though perhaps it should not be taken too literally in this context), and {{Quran|12|10}} when the prophet Yusuf is cast down into the well, and in {{Quran|20|20}} when Moses casts down his staff, which becomes a snake. The implication of such verses is that mountains were a special act of creation rather them being a byproduct of a larger and ongoing process (tectonic plate movement).

===Chests contract with altitude===
{{Quran|6|125}} states that a person's chest cavity gets smaller at higher altitudes; which is an understandable belief for people to have as oxygen decreases as one travels higher, which in turn leads to hypoxemia (lower oxygen levels in the blood) causing the body to take short, shallow, fast breaths<ref>[https://www.healthline.com/health/hypoxemia What Is Hypoxemia?] ''What are the symptoms of hypoxemia?''

Healthline. Medically reviewed by Avi Varma, MD, MPH, AAHIVS, FAAFP — Written by Jill Seladi-Schulman, Ph.D. — Updated on April 26, 2023</ref> - which feels like the chest is constricted. Modern science, by contrast, has revealed that the opposite is the case.<ref>Callison, W.É., Kiyamu, M., Villafuerte, F.C. et al. ''[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-13263-5#:~:text=Individuals%20living%20in%20a%20hypoxic,partially%20a%20population%2Dlevel%20adaptation. Comparing high versus low-altitude populations to test human adaptations for increased ventilation during sustained aerobic activity.]'' Sc''i'' Rep ''1''2, 11148 (2022). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13263-5</nowiki></ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|125}}|Those whom Allah (in His plan) willeth to guide,- He openeth their breast to Islam; those whom He willeth to leave straying,- He maketh their breast close and constricted, as if they had to climb up to the skies: thus doth Allah (heap) the penalty on those who refuse to believe.}}

===Earthquakes as a punishment===
The Quran describes Earthquakes, blizzards, hurricanes, and other destructive natural activity as being a sort of punishment for the people they inflict. Research, however, has not found any correlation between civilizations' irreligiosity and their susceptibility to these or other type of natural disaster.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|45}}|
Do then those who devise evil (plots) feel secure that Allah will not cause the earth to swallow them up, or that the Wrath will not seize them from directions they little perceive?}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|29|37}}|
But they denied him, and the dreadful earthquake took them, and morning found them prostrate in their dwelling place. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|68}}|
Do ye then feel secure that He will not cause you to be swallowed up beneath the earth when ye are on land, or that He will not send against you a violent tornado (with showers of stones) so that ye shall find no one to carry out your affairs for you}}

===Disregard of evaporation in water cycle===
Some modern Muslim scholars argue that the water cycle is described in the Qur'an. Every verse about rain in the Qur'an implies that rain comes either directly from the sky or from Allah. The crucial step of evaporation of water into the air is never mentioned. That Quran describes a linear process orchestrated by Allah rather than a cyclical process (as with the water cycle) renders these modern reinterpretations challenging.

{{Quote|{{Quran|43|11}}|
That sends down (from time to time) rain from the sky in due measure;- and We raise to life therewith a land that is dead; even so will ye be raised (from the dead)}}

===Mountains of hail in the sky===

Hail forms in cumulonimbus clouds when updrafts raise water droplets to an altitude where they freeze. The Qur'an, by contrast, describes mountain-like masses of hail in the sky / heaven.

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|43}}|
Hast thou not seen how Allah wafteth the clouds, then gathereth them, then maketh them layers, and thou seest the rain come forth from between them; '''He sendeth down from the heaven mountains wherein is hail''', and smiteth therewith whom He will, and averteth it from whom He will. The flashing of His lightning all but snatcheth away the sight.

'''Transliteration:''' wayunazzilu (and he sends down) mina (from) alssamai (the sky) min (from) jibalin (mountains) feeha (in it ['it' is feminine here so must refer to the sky]) min (of) baradin (hail)
}}

Tafsirs such as al-Jalalayn and the one attributed to Ibn Abbas say that this means mountains in the sky.<ref>[https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/24/43 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 24:43]</ref> Ibn Kathir notes two views, that these are literally mountains of hail in the sky, or that they are a metaphor for clouds.<ref>[https://tafsir.app/ibn-katheer/24/43 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 24:43]</ref> Clouds could poetically be described as mountains in the sky, but the verse says "mountains of hail in the sky", which critics would say strongly suggests large masses of ice (in the clouds or otherwise), and it was sometimes understood in this literal way as evidenced in tafsirs.

===Allah smites with thunderbolts===

The Quran describes thunder and lightning in a manner typical of ancient mythology. Allah, in a manner evocative of the legends most famously regarding Zeus, smites persons he wishes to punish with thunderbolts. A hadith, graded hasan (good) by Dar-us-Salam, further states that Muhammad believed the sound of thunder was an angel striking the clouds, which the angel drives along with a piece of fire (evoking the image of a whip of fire).

{{Quote|{{Quran|13|13}}|
And the thunder declares His glory with His praise, and the angels too for awe of Him; and He sends the thunderbolts and smites with them whom He pleases, yet they dispute concerning Allah, and He is mighty in prowess.}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi|44|5|44|3117}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:
"The Jews came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said: 'O Abul-Qasim! Inform us about the thunder, what is it?' He said: 'An angel among the angels, who is responsible for the clouds. He has a piece of fire wherever that he drives the clouds wherever Allah wills.' They said: 'Then what is this noise we hear?' He said: 'It is him, striking the clouds when he drives them on, until it goes where it is ordered.' They said: 'You have told the truth.'}}

==Zoology==

===Ants converse and recognize humans===

Ants primarily communicate with each other using pheromones (chemical signals). While scientists have discovered that ants make some noises, nothing has ever indicated that the brains of ants could produce anything approximating complex speech. By contrast, the Qur'an recounts the story of an ant warning her fellow ants of the approach of Solomon's large army of humans. Solomon is able to understand her speech and proceeds, presumably, to leave the ants be.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|27|18|19}}|
At length, when they came to a (lowly) valley of ants, '''one of the ants said: "O ye ants, get into your habitations, lest Solomon and his hosts crush you (under foot) without knowing it." So he smiled, amused at her speech;''' and he said: "O my Lord! so order me that I may be grateful for Thy favours, which thou hast bestowed on me and on my parents, and that I may work the righteousness that will please Thee: And admit me, by Thy Grace, to the ranks of Thy righteous Servants." }}

===Four types of cattle===

The Qur'an states that Allah has provided four kinds of cattle (eight including male and female). There exist, however, many more than four species of cattle. The word "cattle" in {{Quran|39|6}} is ''al-ana'ami'', from a root meaning plentiful subsistence and in this form meant pasturing (i.e. grazing) animals.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000289.pdf Lane's Lexicon, Suppliment p. 3035 أَنْعَٰمِ]</ref> The word ''azwajin'' ("kinds" in the translation of 39:6 below) generally means "mate" or "member of a pair".<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000432.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1266 أَزْوَٰجٍ]</ref> {{Quran|6|143-144}} clarifies that this refers to male and female pairs of sheep, goats, oxen, and camels, suggesting that the author of the Qur'an was aware of four kinds of grazing animals useful for humans (horses, mules and donkeys are considered a separate category from al-ana'ami, see {{Quran-range|16|5|8}}). This does not include many other types of cattle from the regions outside of Arabia, such as reindeer, which were and remain important to people in northern latitudes.

{{Quote|{{Quran|39|6}}|
He created you from one being, then from that (being) He made its mate; and He hath provided for you of '''cattle eight kinds'''. He created you in the wombs of your mothers, creation after creation, in a threefold gloom. Such is Allah, your Lord. His is the Sovereignty. There is no Allah save Him. How then are ye turned away}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|142-144}}|'''And of the cattle (He produceth) some for burdens, some for food.''' Eat of that which Allah hath bestowed upon you, and follow not the footsteps of the devil, for lo! he is an open foe to you. '''Eight pairs: Of the sheep twain, and of the goats twain.''' Say: Hath He forbidden the two males or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females contain? Expound to me (the case) with knowledge, if ye are truthful. '''And of the camels twain and of the oxen twain.''' Say: Hath He forbidden the two males or the two females, or that which the wombs of the two females contain; or were ye by to witness when Allah commanded you (all) this? Then who doth greater wrong than he who deviseth a lie concerning Allah, that he may lead mankind astray without knowledge. Lo! Allah guideth not wrongdoing folk.}}

===Horses created as transportation===

After thousands of years of domestication and cross-breeding, horses were domesticated approximately 4,000 years ago in East Europe and Central Asia. Prior to this, horses were wild animals not yet suitably bred for this purpose. Today feral horses are descendants of once domesticated horses that aren't tamed or used for human transportation. By contrast, the Qur'an appears to suggest that horses were created by Allah already prepared to serve human purposes.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|8}}|
And (He has created) horses, mules, and donkeys, for you to ride and use for show; and He has created (other) things of which ye have no knowledge.}}

===All animals live in communities===

The Qur'an emphatically states that all animals live in "communities". Many animals, such as the jaguar or leopard, are however well known for being solitary creatures, rarely meeting in pairs and then only to mate. Animals of these kinds do not live in communities and rather tend to resort to violence when their solitude is disturbed (the opposite, some argue, of what it means to live in a community). There also exist species whose young are not raised as family and which lay eggs and abandon them before hatching. Sea Turtles, for instance, bury their eggs on a beach and leave them. When an egg hatches the baby turtle must dig to the surface and make a sprint to the sea or perish. Some reptiles behave similarly. The Carolina anole, which is a lizard species, is another such example. These anoles lay a single egg every 2 weeks, around 10 in total, each taking 5 to 7 weeks to hatch. Anole hatchlings must fend for themselves and are by nature solitary creatures from birth.

One modern translation of the Quran interprets ''umamun'' (community / nation) to mean "genus" (group of species, plural: genera). This interpretation appears difficult, however, for while today we categorize species into genera, families, and other taxonomic ranks within evolutionary tree (phylogenetic) models, such categories are understood as an evolutionary process in which, even now, sub-groups of many species are diverging and gradually evolving into new species.

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|38}}|
'''There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you. Nothing have we omitted from the Book''', and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end.}}

===Bird flight as a miracle===

Modern science has revealed the aerodynamic properties of birds' anatomy which enable them to fly. Bird flight essentially functions by creating a difference in the air pressure between the lower and upper part of the wing and this creates lift that pushes the bird upward. The wings of birds have evolved over millions of years and have thereby refined birds' flight abilities. By contrast, the Quran states that 'nothing' holds birds in the air, except for the miraculous power of Allah.

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|79}}|
Do they not look at the birds, held poised in the midst of (the air and) the sky? Nothing holds them up but (the power of) Allah. Verily in this are signs for those who believe}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|67|19}}|Do they not see the birds above them with wings outspread and [sometimes] folded in? None holds them [aloft] except the Most Merciful. Indeed He is, of all things, Seeing.}}

The same verb for holding (amsaka) appears in {{Quran|22|65}} and {{Quran|35|41}} with regard to Allah holding the sky from falling to earth. As so often with the Quran, modern academic scholarship has found a close parallel in 6th century CE Syriac literature. Joseph of Sarugh (d. 521 CE) similarly stated that only the action of God held up the sky and repeatedly used birdflight as another illustration of the same divine action in words very similar to the Quranic verse. For details, see [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Allah_keeps_the_heavens_and_the_birds_from_falling|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].
==History==
{{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}}
Below are a selection of historical errors found in the Quran, a more complete list is located in the article dedicated to [[Historical Errors in the Quran|historical errors in the Quran]].

===Massive wall of iron built to trap Gog and Magog until judgement day===
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}

The Qur'an states that two dangerous tribes, Gog and Magog, were trapped behind a massive wall of Iron erected by Dhu'l-Qarnayn and will only be let free on the day of Judgement. However, no such wall or tribes have ever been found despite the advent of global satellite imagery.

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|96-101}}|Bring me pieces of iron!’ When he had levelled up between the flanks, he said, ‘Blow!’ When he had turned it into fire, he said, ‘Bring me molten copper to pour over it.’
So they could neither scale it, nor could they make a hole in it. He said, ‘This is a mercy from my Lord. But when the promise of my Lord is fulfilled, He will level it; and my Lord’s promise is true.’
That day We shall let them surge over one another, the Trumpet will be blown, and We shall gather them all, and on that day We shall bring hell into view visibly for the faithless.
Those whose eyes were blind to My remembrance and who could not hear.}}

The trumpet blowing in {{Quran|18|99}} is referred to many other times in the Qur'an as happening on judgement day (see {{Quran|27|87}}, {{Quran|69|13}} and {{Quran|39|68}}), with the word 'yawm' يوم being used in Q18:99 and 18:100, meaning on that ''day''<ref>[http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85?cat=50 Lane's Lexicon dictionary - يوم]</ref> specifically. Another passage confirms that this wall was supposedly still intact and that its future opening will be associated with other apocalyptic events.

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|95-97}}|But there is a ban on any population which We have destroyed: that they shall not return,
Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.
Then will the true promise draw nigh (of fulfilment): then behold! the eyes of the Unbelievers will fixedly stare in horror: "Ah! Woe to us! we were indeed heedless of this; nay, we truly did wrong!"}}

===Mary as part of the Trinity===

Mainstream Christian doctrine has never held Mary to be a part of the Trinity. The Qur'an, however, apparently implies as much, leading many to conclude that Muhammad misunderstood Christian doctrine.

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|116}}|
And behold! Allah will say: "O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, '''worship me and my mother as gods''' in derogation of Allah'?" He will say: "Glory to Thee! never could I say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thou knowest what is in my heart, Thou I know not what is in Thine. For Thou knowest in full all that is hidden}}

This alternative formulation of the trinity is present even more clearly in {{Quran-range|5|72|75}}, which makes no mention of the holy spirit and takes measure to disprove the divinity of Jesus and his mother by pointing out that they, like normal human beings, also ate food.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|72|75}}|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}

A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible interpretation proposed so far by academic scholars interprets these verses as a response to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (or a misunderstanding thereof, in the view of critics). For details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

For further Christology in the Quran, see [[Qur'anic Christology]] and [[Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)]].

===Mary as Miriam===
{{main|Mary the sister of Aaron in the Quran}}

Mary the mother of Jesus was born in the first century BCE and was not related to Moses and his family whose story is set 1500 years earlier. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaron and daughter of Amram (Imran). The Quran appears to confuse these two characters, as it describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "Sister of Aaron" and her mother as the "wife of Imran" in context where the "Imran" being discussed is evidently Miriam's father. A possible source of this confusion is the fact that both Miriam and Mary had the same name in Arabic, or were at least similar enough sounding for the original distinction to have been lost or neglected (the word used in either case in the Quran is the same and is pronounced ''maryam'').

{{Quote|{{Quran|19|27-28}}|Then she brought him to her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an amazing thing. '''O sister of Aaron!''' Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|66|12}}|And Mary, '''daughter of 'Imran''', whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|33-36}}| Lo! Allah preferred Adam and Noah and the Family of Abraham '''and the Family of 'Imran''' above (all His) creatures. They were descendants one of another. Allah is Hearer, Knower. (Remember) when the '''wife of 'Imran''' said: My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! I have named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.}}

"Wife of 'Imran" is here im'ra-atu ʿim'rāna, literally woman of Imran, though the same construction certainly means "wife" a few verses later ({{Quran|3|40}}), and in several other verses.

Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements. {{Muslim||2135|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed customarily as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.

==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===

Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, describes the Jews as calling a certain ''ʿUzayr'' as the son of God. This is compared directly with the Christians calling Jesus the son of God.

{{Quote|{{Quran|9|30}}|The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?}}

ʿUzayr has traditionally been interpreted as the Biblical Ezra. Academic scholarship has tended to concur, noting that Ezra was held in high esteem (though not the "son of god") in the Talmud.

More recent academic work in 2025 found a more likely identification of ʿUzayr as the 2nd century CE Rabbi, Eliezar ben Hurcanus. For details see [[Historical_Errors_in_the_Quran#'Uzayr_as_the_son_of_God_in_Jewish_doctrine|Historical Errors in the Quran]]. To critics, the Quran appears to misunderstand the reverence in which R. Eliezar was held in rabbinic circles since god describes him as "Eliezer, my son" in certain texts, language which is actually common in the Hebrew Bible and is applied to multiple rabbis in the Talmud.

===David invented coats of mail===

Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.

In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|34|10|11}}| And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him, Saying: Make thou long coats of mail and measure the links (thereof). And do ye right. Lo! I am Seer of what ye do. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|21|79|80}}| And We made Solomon to understand (the case); and unto each of them We gave judgment and knowledge. And we subdued the hills and the birds to hymn (His) praise along with David. We were the doers (thereof). And We taught him the art of making garments (of mail) to protect you in your daring. Are ye then thankful?}}

Chainmail seems to have been familiar to the early Muslims. Muhammad is narrated as using a metaphor of two coats of iron (junnataani min hadeedin جُنَّتَانِ مِنْ حَدِيدٍ), one owned by a generous person and the other by a miser in whose coat every ring (halqat حَلْقَةٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000265.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 629 حلقة]</ref>) becomes close together ({{Muslim||1021c|reference}}). Ibn Kathir [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/34.11 in his tafsir for 34:11] has narrations in which Mujahid and Ibn Abbas use that same arabic word meaning rings (الحلقة) to explain the Quranic verse<ref>[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=34&tAyahNo=11&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for 34:11 (Arabic)]</ref>.

===Crucifixions in ancient Egypt===

The first historical reference to crucifixion as a method of execution is from 500 BCE, when the technique began being used in several middle eastern cultures. The Qur'an, by contrast, tells of crucifixions at the time of Moses (approximately 1500 BCE) as well as Joseph (approximately 2000 BCE).

{{Quote|{{Quran|12|41}}|
O two companions of prison, as for one of you, he will give drink to his master of wine; but as for the other, he will be crucified, and the birds will eat from his head. The matter has been decreed about which you both inquire." }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|71}}|
(Pharaoh) said: Ye put faith in him before I give you leave. Lo! he is your chief who taught you magic. Now surely I shall cut off your hands and your feet alternately, and '''I shall crucify you on the trunks of palm trees''', and ye shall know for certain which of us hath sterner and more lasting punishment.}}

Ancient Egypt has been subjected to extensive study by archaeologists. While there exists hieroglyphic evidence of people impaled by upright wooden stakes through their torsos in ancient Egypt, this remains distinct from crucifixions "on the trunks of palm trees" described in the Quran, as palm trees are of too great girth to be used to vertically impale an individual. Nor is there any evidence that the Arabic verb for crucifixion (salaba) could also mean "to impale".<ref>salaba [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000435.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1711-1713 - صلب]</ref>

The same verb for crucifixion is used in {{Quran|4|157}} regarding Jesus. It appears again in {{Quran|5|33}} which lists killing and crucifixion as distinct punishments, probably as the latter is a long, drawn out death (impalement would not be). Two other verses, {{Quran|38|12}} and {{Quran|89|8}}, use another word to call Pharaoh "owner of the pegs" or "stakes". Sometimes this is claimed to refer to impalement and even mistranslated as such. However, the context in {{Quran-range|89|6|11}} shows that it refers to unspecified and lasting rock-hewn monuments (most likely columned temples, obelisks or possibly even the pyramids).

Moreover, there is no ancient Egyptian evidence of cross amputation (punitive removal of a single hand and foot on opposite sides). It seems that here again a contemporary punitive practice has been transferred in the Quran to ancient Egypt. A parallel using the same Arabic words occurs in {{Quran|5|33}}, which commands crucifixion or cross amputation among a range of punishment options (both of which became part of Islamic jurisprudence). In the exceptionally cruel combination of both punishments put in the mouth of Pharaoh in 20:71 quoted above (see also {{Quran|7|124}} and {{Quran|26|49}}), the victim would need to be fastened to the palm tree by what remains of their limbs. In Roman crucifixion, ropes were typically used, though nails were sometimes driven through the heel bones and perhaps between the ulnar and radius above each wrist. Sometimes a crossbeam (patibulum) was added, though other times just a tree or upright post (''crux simplex'', or ''stipes''), which is likely what the Quranic author had in mind.<ref>[https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion Dispelling Some Myths: Crucifixion] - Tastes of History, March 31, 2024 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20250619085601/https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion archive])</ref>

===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===

{{Main|Historical Errors in the Quran}}
One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For further discussion see the main article.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|28|8|9}}|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}

===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===

The Qur'an frequently lists destroyed peoples of the past, particularly the peoples of Noah, Lot, Pharaoh's army, Midian, Aad and its successor, Thamud. The destruction of Thamud after they disbelieved their prophet Salih is mentioned many times, either by an earthquake {{Quran|7|78}} or a thunderous blast (for example {{Quran|54|31}}).

Its destruction is also alluded to by a believer from the family of Pharaoh:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|40|28|31}}|And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}

The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in {{Quran-range|38|12|14}}.

[[w:Thamud|Thamud]] is a term used by experts for a people or peoples of a particular region over a number of centuries (8th century BCE to the 4th century CE), but the Qur'an speaks only of a particular destruction of Thamud after the warnings of their prophet Salih went unheeded. It describes them as the builders of well known palaces and homes, skillfully carved from the mountains, clarified in the Quran and hadith as a place in Arabia known as al Hijr (the rocky tract), or Mada'in Salih today.

The errors in the Quran here are two-fold: It is now known that these were actually elaborately carved tombs, not homes or palaces, and that they were made by the Nabateans from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE, not before the time of the Pharaohs<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ) - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)]</ref>. Petra in Jordan was the Nabateans' more famous city before al Hijr and both share a common style of construction and carving. There are over 100 tombs at al-Hijr, some very large, and many of them small, believed even by a 14th Century CE Arab traveller to contain the bones of the people of Thamud in their houses.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>. Nabatean inscriptions forbid opening the tombs, reusing them or moving the bodies. The town of al-Hegra where the people lived some distance from the surrounding rock tombs was built of mud-brick and stone.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref>

The Quran says Thamud carved palaces from its plains, and homes from its mountains:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|73|74}}|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|26|149}}|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}

These ruins were well known to Muhammad's listeners:

{{Quote|{{Quran|29|38}}|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|89|9}}|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}

Al-Hijr is widely accepted as this location. It is also mentioned once by name in {{Quran-range|15|80|83}} ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|80|83}}|And certainly did the companions of Thamud [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}

Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3379|darussalam}}|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}
===Samarians in ancient Egypt===
The Qu'ran states that Moses dealt with a Samarian during his time. However the Samarians did not exist until well over half a millennium after Moses is supposed to have existed.

Oxford Bibliographies (an academic website) says the following:

{{Quote|[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0176.xml Oxford Bibliographies - Samaria/Samaritans]|Samaria (Hebrew: Shomron) is mentioned in the Bible in 1 Kings 16:24 as the name of the mountain on which Omri, ruler of the northern Israelite kingdom in the 9th century BCE, built his capital, naming it also Samaria. After the conquest of the Northern Kingdom by the Assyrians in 722/721 BCE, the district surrounding the city was likewise called Samaria (Assyrian: Samerina). The Bible presents an etiology or folk etymology when it claims that the city was named after Shemer, the original owner from whom Omri bought the hill. It is more likely that the name is derived from the root šmr, to “watch, to guard”; that is, the hill was a point from which particularly the north–south route could be watched and guarded.}}

The likely root of the Quranic confusion is the story in the Bible, [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hosea%208&version=NIV Hosea 8:5-8] or [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2012&version=NIV 1 Kings 12:25-29] where there is mentioned a golden calf (or two of them) created in Samaria after the time of Solomon. One modern perspective holds that the Qur'an might be referring to Zimri, son of Salu (Numbers 25:14). However, the Quranic character is referred to three times in {{Quran-range|20|85|88}} as l-sāmiriyu with the definite article, "the Samiri", so this is a descriptive title rather than a proper name.

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|85}}|“( Allah) said; ‘We have tested thy people in thy absence: the Samiri has led them astray’.” }}{{Quote|{{Quran|20|95}}|“( Moses) said, ‘What then is thy case, O Samiri?’”}}

===Noah's worldwide flood===

''Main article: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Noah's worldwide flood|Historical Errors in the Quran - Noah's worldwide flood]]''

The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place, some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Several elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them. Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|11|12}}|Then opened We the gates of heaven with pouring water And caused the earth to gush forth springs, so that the waters met for a predestined purpose.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|[So it was], until when Our command came and the oven overflowed, We said, "Load upon the ship of each [creature] two mates and your family, except those about whom the word has preceded, and [include] whoever has believed." But none had believed with him, except a few.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|71|26}}|And Noah, said: "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers, a single one on earth!}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|43}}|The son replied: "I will betake myself to some mountain: it will save me from the water." Noah said: '''"This day nothing can save''', from the command of Allah, any but those on whom He hath mercy! "And the waves came between them, and the son was among those overwhelmed in the Flood.}}

===Countable currency in ancient Egypt===
Surah Yusuf mentions that the caravan that rescued the eponymous prophet from the pit sold him to an Egyptian "for a low price, a few dirhams". Leaving aside the fact that dirham coins did not exist in ancient Egypt, a more fundamental problem is that the price is indicated as having been some kind of discreetly countable currency: darāhima maʿdūdatin ("dirhams counted"). The word maʿdūdatin occurs throughout the Quran denoting something discreetly numbered, for example "[Fasting for] a limited number of days" in {{Quran|2|184}}. Thus, it is not describing a weight of valuable material, but a countable currency. Such a thing did not exist in ancient Egypt. Rather, there were stone weights, particularly the denben, for measuring amounts of precious metals and to price other goods that could be barter traded, but not itself nor units of metal used as a means of exchange.<ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1079/trade-in-ancient-egypt/ Trade in ancient Egypt] - World History Encyclopedia</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|12|20}}|And they sold him for a reduced price - a few dirhams - and they were, concerning him, of those content with little.}}

==Sociology==

===Linguistics===

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|31}}|And He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, "Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful."}}

{{Quran-range|55|3|4}} states that Allah created man and taught him clear speech, while {{Quran|2|31}} quoted above states that Allah taught Adam the names of everything. Adam and his wife are both spoken to and speak articulate sentences with complex symbolic thought, for example {{Quran|7|23}}, and their sons have a fully articulate conversation in {{Quran-range|5|27|31}}.

While the species Homo sapiens arose c. 300,000 years ago, the [[w:Origin_of_language|earliest use of language]] is extremely uncertain and may even predate this. However, the earliest evidence for symbolic thought (necessary for complex utterances) dates to c. 100,000 years ago, consisting of very simple engraved markings on pieces of orche and egg shells,<ref>Tylén, K. et al. (2020) [https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1910880117 The evolution of early symbolic behavior in Homo sapiens] Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume 117, Issue 9, p.4578-4584</ref> and an explosion of symbolic thought occured around 40,000 years ago.<ref>[https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/humans/symbolic-thinking Thinking in Symbols] American Museum of Natural History website, 2012</ref>

Some 1.9 million species of plants and animals have been identified and named, out of some 8.7 million that may actually exist<ref name="plos">{{cite journal | author= Mora, C.| title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?|journal=[[PLoS Biology]]|date=August 23, 2011|url=http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |pmid=21886479 |pmc=3160336 |volume=9 |pages=e1001127|display-authors=etal}}</ref>. Millions more have become extinct. Far more numerous are the living objects, galaxies, the countless stars and planets of the universe. In light of this, it is not clear what is meant by the idea that Allah taught Adam 'all the names', especially since the first humans do not appear to have been extremely knowledgeable.

Incidentally, the element in the Quranic verse in which the angels could not name animals after Adam had done so was a tale invented by a Rabbi. See the relevant section on that topic in the article [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#The_angels_could_not_name_animals_when_Adam_was_created|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

===Arabic as eminently accessible===

Fewer than 4% of the world's population grows up speaking Arabic. The Arabic of this 4%, however, is not the Arabic of the Quran and is instead comprised of various regional dialects of modern colloquial Arabic. The text of the Quran is thus directly accessible only to a small portion of the world's population. Additionally, there are present in the Quran many words, phrases, and references whose original 7th century Arabic meaning, being unrecorded, has been entirely lost to history or, in some cases, has remained subject to inconclusive debates. Consequently, while Muslims are obligated to pray and recite the Quran in Arabic, it is only a small proportion of the Muslim population that can claim to have some sense of what they recite on a daily basis. These circumstances are difficult to reconcile with the Quran's assertion that the Quran was 'revealed in Arabic so that people may understand it'.

{{Quote|{{Quran|43|3}}|
We have made it a Qur'an in Arabic, that ye may be able to understand (and learn wisdom). }}

===The people of Lot as the first homosexuals===
{{Main|Lut}}

Despite the overwhelming evidence (listed in the main article) that homosexuality occurs naturally in all populations, the Quran claims the first people to commit the act were in a town to which the prophet Lut was sent.

This is set long after the first humans (who appeared ~300,000 years ago),<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/essential-timeline-understanding-evolution-homo-sapiens-180976807/ An Evolutionary Timeline of Homo Sapiens] - Smithsonian Institution magazine - 2 February 2021</ref> with the town described in the story being too advanced for a [[w:Hunter-gatherer|hunter-gatherer]] tribe society, so at the earliest is set after the first [[w:Neolithic_Revolution|Agricultural Revolution]] in the following [[w:Neolithic|Neolithic]] period where these kind of settlements began to occur, beginning ~12,000 years ago.<ref>[https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/neolithic-revolution Neolithic Revolution] - History.com</ref> Yet we are told:
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|80|81}}|And [We had sent] Lot when he said to his people, "Do you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds? Indeed, you approach men with desire, instead of women. Rather, you are a transgressing people."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|28|29}}|And [mention] Lot, when he said to his people, "Indeed, you commit such immorality as no one has preceded you with from among the worlds. Indeed, you approach men and obstruct the road and commit in your meetings [every] evil." And the answer of his people was not but they said, "Bring us the punishment of Allah, if you should be of the truthful."}}

===The witness of a woman is worth half that of a man===
''Main Articles: [[Islam and Women|Islam and Women - WikiIslam]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Women]]''

There is no proof that women lie more than men. In fact, to the contrary there is research showing that while dishonesty or intelligence is not caused by the sex of a person, certain studies suggest that men tend to lie more on average as a group than women.<ref>''[https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923 Frontiers | Face-to-Face Lying: Gender and Motivation to Deceive (frontiersin.org)]''. Pekka Santtila. Judee K Burgoon. Norah E. Dunbar. 2022. Front. Psychol., 22 March 2022 Sec. Forensic and Legal Psychology Volume 13 - 2022 | <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.820923</nowiki>

This research article written and reviewed by three university professors covers previous academic studies on this topic, they quote e.g. a meta-analysis on honesty where men were 4% more dishonest than women (Gerlach et al., 2019), and see the General Discussion section for an overview of their findings (confirming men lie more on average) on this topic and it's nuances. </ref> Men also commit crime in much higher rates than women across the world,<ref>''[https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/gender-and-crime Gender and Crime | Encyclopedia.com].'' Gender and Crime. Law. Legal and political magazines.

Article written by Professors Darrell Steffensmeier and Emilie Allan.</ref> and this is not just limited to violent crime.<ref>E.g. Fraud: [https://www.statista.com/statistics/461354/distribution-of-perpetrators-of-fraud-cases-by-gender/ ''Distribution of perpetrators of fraud cases worldwide in 2020 and 2021, by gender'']. Statica. Einar H. Dyvik, Aug 5, 2022.

And white collar crime inc. corporate fraud: [https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-do-men-commit-more-crimes-than-women-prof-k-jaishankar-ps45c ''Why do men commit more crimes than women?''] Prof (Dr.) K Jaishankar. Principal Director & Professor of Criminology - IIJPS. Jan 13 2024.</ref> Women are also not less intelligent than men.<ref>E.g. There is no difference between men and women in general intelligence: Hunt, Earl B. (2010). [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Human_Intelligence/DwO4TtKAiCoC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA389&printsec=frontcover ''Human Intelligence''.] Cambridge University Press. p. 389. ISBN <bdi>978-1139495110</bdi>.

Similarly ''<nowiki/>'"there are both differences and similarities in the cognitive abilities of women and men, but there is no data-based rationale to support the idea that either is the smarter or superior sex."''' Halpern, Diane F. (2001). "[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_Women_and_Gender_Two_Vol/guzbKF8vTVcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA964&printsec=frontcover ''Sex Difference Research – Cognitive Abilities'']". In Worell, Judith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Women and Gender. Elsevier Science. p. 964. <nowiki>ISBN 0080548490</nowiki>. ''For a summary see pp 963 - 967.''

Women consistently beat men on average in grades at school: [https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/09/why-girls-get-better-grades-than-boys-do/380318/ ''Why Girls Tend to Get Better Grades Than Boys Do''] - The Atlantic. Education. Enrico Gnaulati. 2014
</ref> The Quran, however, rules that two women are needed to substitute for a man when witnessing financial contracts (a hadith, {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}, explains this as a deficiency in the intelligence of women).
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|282}}|O you who have faith! When you contract a loan for a specified term, write it down. Let a writer write with honesty between you, and let not the writer refuse to write as Allah has taught him. So let him write, and let the one who incurs the debt dictate, and let him be wary of Allah, his Lord, and not diminish anything from it. But if the debtor be feeble-minded, or weak, or incapable of dictating himself, then let his guardian dictate with honesty, and take as witness two witnesses from your men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women—from those whom you approve as witnesses—so that if one of the two defaults the other will remind her. The witnesses must not refuse when they are called, and do not consider it wearisome to write it down, whether it be a big or small sum, [as a loan lent] until its term. That is more just with Allah and more upright in respect to testimony, and the likeliest way to avoid doubt, unless it is an on-the-spot deal you transact between yourselves, in which case there is no sin upon you not to write it. Take witnesses when you make a deal, and let no harm be done to the writer or witness, and if you did that, it would be sinful of you. Be wary of Allah and Allah will teach you, and Allah has knowledge of all things.}}
Apologists typically argue that the scope of the rule is limited and contextualise it to the needs of women in 7th century Arabia, or argue that this is a command from God, and so human ideas of logic or fairness may not apply, making it not an 'error'. Critics contend that the verse reveals a misogynistic view of women, evidence of its human authorship from a highly patriarchal society of 7th century Arabia, rather than an all-knowing and just God.

==Miracles and myths==
{{Main|Magic, Miracles, and the Supernatural in the Qur'an}}
While miracles by definition are supposed to defy the laws of nature and scientific explanation, the examples of myths and legends briefly listed in this section illustrate the pre-scientific worldview with which the Quran was composed.

===Humans turned apes===

The Qur'an records a miraculous event where Sabbath breakers are transformed into apes.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|65}}|
And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath: We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected." }}

===Mooing statue===

The Qur'an describes a statue of a calf that was capable of mooing.
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|88}}|So he brought forth for them a calf, a (mere) body, which had a mooing sound, so they said: This is your god and the god of Musa, but he forgot.}}

===Supernatural food===
The Qur'an states that Jesus received a feast sent down from heaven.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|114|115}}|
Jesus, son of Mary, said: O Allah, Lord of us! '''Send down for us a table spread with food from heaven, that it may be a feast for us''', for the first of us and for the last of us, and a sign from Thee. Give us sustenance, for Thou art the Best of Sustainers. Allah said: Lo! I send it down for you. And whoso disbelieveth of you afterward, him surely will I punish with a punishment wherewith I have not punished any of (My) creatures.}}

===Stick turned serpent===
The Quran states that Moses' staff transformed into a serpent.

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|107}}|
Then (Moses) threw his rod, and behold! it was a serpent, plain (for all to see)! }}

===The existence and attributes of Jinn===
{{Main|Jinn}}

The Quran, Hadith and Sira all support the existence of supernatural, generally invisible creatures known as Jinn (جن‎ ''ǧinn'', singular جني ''ǧinnī'' ; variant spelling ''djinn'') living among us. In the [[Qur'an]], satan/devil(s) are also jinn ({{Quran|18|50}}), which like humans are sent prophets and have (at least some: ''see [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Predestination]]'') free-will and will be judged accordingly alongside mankind ({{Quran|6|130}}). They can interact with us ({{Quran|6|128}}) and even possess humans ({{Quran|2|275}}) (which the main article elaborates on), and cause people to forget things ({{Quran|18|63}}). As well as create buildings/structures ({{Quran|34|12-13}}). There is no evidence that these exist.

{{Quote|{{quran|72|1}}|Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.}}

===Solomon's Army of jinn and birds===

A story in the Qur'an, drawing on Jewish folklore, states that Solomon commanded a massive army comprised of 'Jinns and men and birds'. Solomon is described as speaking with a Hoopoe bird and thereafter desiring to execute the bird when it is tardy to his assembly. The Hoopoe bird, it is then revealed, was only delayed because it had been spying on a beautiful female ruler, Queen Sheba, who Solomon subsequently insists is misguided and must be conquered. At this point, Solomon assigns a Jinn from his assembly the task of stealing Queen Sheba's magnificent throne. There is, however, no scientific evidence that Jinn exist, that birds can be commanded as soldiers, or that birds can engage in elaborate conversations with humans.

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|16-17}}|
And Solomon was David's heir. He said: "O ye people! We have been taught the speech of birds, and on us has been bestowed (a little) of all things: this is indeed Grace manifest (from Allah.)And before Solomon were marshalled his hosts― of Jinns and men and birds, and they were all kept in order and ranks.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|20-23}}|
And he took a muster of the Birds; and he said: "Why is it I see not the Hoopoe? Or is he among the absentees? I will certainly punish him with a severe Penalty, or execute him, unless he bring me a clear reason (for absence). But the Hoopoe tarried not far: he (came up and) said: "I have compassed (territory) which thou hast not compassed, and I have come to thee from Saba with tidings true. I found (there) a woman ruling over them and provided with every requisite; and she has a magnificent throne.}}

===The existence of magic and sorcerers===
''Main article: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult]]''

No evidence has ever proven that magic is real. However, {{Quran|113|4}} ("evil of those who blow on knots") is reported in commentaries as referring to those who practice magic.<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/113.4 Tafsirs for Quran 113:4]</ref> Knots were commonly associated with magic in antiquity.<ref>Day, C. L. (1950). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1520741 Knots and Knot Lore. Western Folklore], 9(3), 229–256</ref> The next verse, {{Quran|113|5}} ("evil of the envious when he envies), is said to refer to a superstitious belief known as 'The Evil Eye', a physical and mental supernatural condition that affects those who envy. For further explanation see the [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Witchcraft and the Occult|main article]].
{{Quote|{{Quran|113|1-5}}|1. Say: I seek refuge in the Lord of the dawn 
2. From the evil of what He has created 
3. And from the evil of the utterly dark night when it comes 
4. And from the evil of those who blow on knots 
5. And from the evil of the envious when he envies}}

At least once, humans are taught magic by satans (believed to be jinn) and angels ([[w:Harut and Marut|Harut and Marut]] are named in this verse):
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|102}}|and they follow what the Satans recited over Solomon's kingdom. Solomon disbelieved not, but the Satans disbelieved, teaching the people sorcery, and that which was sent down upon Babylon's two angels, Harut and Marut; they taught not any man, without they said, 'We are but a temptation; do not disbelieve.' From them they learned how they might divide a man and his wife, yet they did not hurt any man thereby, save by the leave of God, and they learned what hurt them, and did not profit them, knowing well that whoso buys it shall have no share in the world to come; evil then was that they sold themselves for, if they had but known.}}

===Living inside a big fish===

The Quran presents a version of the Biblical tale in which Jonah is swallowed by a whale ('the big Fish') and then lives in the whale for some time while praying. Scientific research, however, suggests that a person could not persist long inside a whale's digestive tract and, if not crushed by the whale or by water pressure, would almost immediately suffocate.

{{Quote|{{Quran|37|142}}|Then the big Fish did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame. Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified Allah, He would certainly have remained inside the Fish till the Day of Resurrection. But We cast him forth, on the naked shore in a state of sickness}}

===Buraq, the winged horse===
{{Main|Buraq}}

While it took one week to travel from Mecca to Jerusalem (the location of the alleged 'farthest Mosque') by camel, the Qur'an states that a magical winged horse, called the Buraq, transported Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem in a matter of minutes. Creatures like the Buraq were common characters in near Easter myths.

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|1}}|
Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). }}

===Speaking body parts===

The Quran states that human organs will, on the Day of Judgement, testify against their own persons.

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|24}}|
On the Day when their tongues, their hands, and their feet will bear witness against them as to their actions. }}

===Sea split in half===

The Quran present a version of the Biblical story where Moses splits the sea and crosses it with the Israelites. There is no historical or other evidence that such an event occured.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|50}}|
And remember '''We divided the sea for you''' and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people within your very sight. }}

===Manipulating the wind===

The Quran says that Solomon had the power to control the wind and traditional sources elaborate that Solomon could use this wind to fly upon a gigantic wooden carpet to wherever he pleased.

{{Quote|{{Quran|38|36}}|
Then We subjected the wind to his power, to flow gently to his order, Whithersoever he willed }}

{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn-Kathir on 21:81 | A flying carpet made from wood, on top of which he could carry everything in his kingdom including chairs, to wherever Solomon wants to go, whilst flocks of birds would fly over to give shade }}

===Testimony of a dead man===

The Quran states that Allah instructed a group of people to strike a murdered man with a piece of a heifer (young female cow that has not yet borne a calf) in order to temporarily resurrect him and discover the identity of the murderer.
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|73}}|
And We said: Smite him with some of it. Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His portents so that ye may understand. }}

===Mountains and birds sing psalms===
The Qur'an states that hills and birds would sing the psalms with David.
{{Quote|{{Quran|34|10}}|
And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him}}

==Other==

===Unmathematical inheritance laws===
{{Main|Contradictions in the Quran}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|11-12}}|
4.11: Allah (thus) directs you as regards your Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise.

4.12: In what your wives leave, your share is a half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to any one). Thus is it ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Most Forbearing. }}
In a variety of situations, the shares of inheritance outlined in the Quran leave ambiguities or add up to more than one.<ref>http://www.answering-islam.org/Quran/Contra/i001.html</ref>

*Wife: 1/8 = 3/24,
*Daughters: 2/3 = 16/24,
*Father: 1/6 = 4/24,
*Mother: 1/6 = 4/24,
*'''Total''' = 27/24=1.125

To deal with situations where the total shares exceed one, Caliph Umar innovated the [https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/222526/the-origion-of-awl-in-inheritance-law post-Quranic 'awl system] whereby the shares are all reduced by the same proportion so that they add up to one. This is often falsely presented in online discourse as the agreed solution for all such scenarios.

In fact, yet another post-Quranic approach was invented when there are no children and the share for the spouse in verse 12 and for the parents in verse 11 was thought to exceed one.

If the deceased is survived only by a spouse and both parents, the spouse receives their full Quranic share (a quarter for a widow, or a half for a widower). Then the shares for the deceased's parents are calculated from the remainder of the estate (a third of the remainder for the mother, two thirds of the remainder for the father). This procedure too is credited to Umar and is used in online inheritance calculators.

Some companions such as Ibn Abbas and Ali advocated a different approach in this scenario: both the spouse and the mother receive their full Quranic shares of the original estate (a quarter / half, and a third, respectively). Then the remainder after that goes to the father. This was rejected by the majority, who assumed the father cannot inherit less than the mother and interpreted the inheritance for parents in verse 11 as though the word "only" was present (seen in brackets in the above translation).<ref>A. Hussain, ''The Islamic Law of Succession'', Maktaba Dar-us-Salam, 2005, pp. 169-173</ref>

Critics also note that an inheritance contradiction occurs between the above verses and {{Quran|4|176}}, a verse oddly appended to the end of the surah (see discussion at end of the main article).

==See Also==

*[[Islam and Science]]
*[[Scientific Miracles in the Quran]]

==References==
{{reflist}}\
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Reproductive sciences]]
[[ar:أخطاء_علمية_في_القرآن]]

Scientific Miracles in the Quran

2026-03-20T23:26:41Z

Lightyears: /* Title of Malik (King) vs Pharaoh in the stories of Joseph and Moses */

[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}
In recent times, many Muslim scholars have sought to match [[Qur'an|Quranic]] verses about the natural world with modern scientific discoveries, or verses about the distant past with historical facts only rediscovered in the modern age. These are then presented as miraculous evidence of the Quran's divine origin. Critics question the overall methodology as well the specific interpretations of such verses and underlying assumptions. Muslims themselves increasingly reject the scientific miracles concept, agreeing with historians that the Quran points to the natural world as 'signs' and makes no pretensions of revealing new knowledge about it. This article examines the history, methodology, then many of the most popular claims of miraculous knowledge.

==History of the scientific miracles movement and statements by Western Scientists==
{{Main|Bucailleism}}
In 1976 the book ''The Quran, the Bible, and Science'', by Dr. Maurice Bucaille was published. It purports to prove that the Qur'an, in contrast to the [[Taurat|Bible]], has always been in agreement with modern scientific discoveries. It was immensely popular "across the Muslim world" where it "sold millions of copies" and was "translated into several languages." <ref name="SubvHoodb"> [http://www.zmag.org/ZMag/articles/oct01hoodbhoy.htm When Science Teaching Becomes A Subversive Activity By Pervez Hoodbhoy]</ref>

During the 1980s and 1990s a Muslim scholar named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Majeed_al-Zindani Abdul Majeed al-Zindani] organized various events to which scientists from around the world (mainly the west) were invited to talk. The ultimate result of these events was a documentary by Zindani, This is the Truth, in which some of these scientists were shown to be confirming the miraculous nature of the Quran, or were quoted as making statements off camera. This documentary was followed up in 1998 by a book of the same name, authored by Abdullah M al-Rehaili, which is now in its 3rd edition.

In a 2002 ''Wall Street Journal'' article and further interviews posted on Youtube in 2011, some of these scientists explained that they had been misled and manipulated by Zindani and do not endorse the Quran as scientifically accurate (see main article as well as the external links section of this article).

The most popular Islamic voices who have argued for the existence of scientific miracles in the Quran in the West include [[Harun Yahya]], [[Zakir Naik]], I.A. Ibrahim, and Hamza Tzortzis. Notably, in 2013, Hamza Tzortzis published an essay withdrawing his case for scientific miracles in the Quran and stating that the entire endeavor to prove such miracles "has become an intellectual embarrassment for Muslim apologists" and "has exposed the lack of coherence in the way they have formulated" their arguments, noting that "many Muslims who converted to Islam due to the scientific miracles narrative, have left the religion".<ref>{{Citation|author=Hamza Andreas Tzortzis|url=https://www.hamzatzortzis.com/does-the-quran-contain-scientific-miracles-a-new-approach/|publication-date=8/21/2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416194024/https://www.hamzatzortzis.com/does-the-quran-contain-scientific-miracles-a-new-approach/|chapter=Does the Quran contain scientific miracles?}}</ref> Zakir Naik's preaching has been banned in India, Bangladesh, Canada, the UK, and Malaysia under anti-terrorism and anti-hate laws.<ref name="lmzn2">{{cite web|work=Livemint|title=Zakir Naik's colourful, controversial past|url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/nEgC4RcrRkydW33OMxbvdN/Zakir-Naiks-controversial-past.html|accessdate=16 July 2016|date=7 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160710003129/http://www.livemint.com/Politics/nEgC4RcrRkydW33OMxbvdN/Zakir-Naiks-controversial-past.html|archive-date=10 July 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|work=NDTV|title=Foreign Media On Zakir Naik, 'Doctor-Turned-Firebrand Preacher'|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/foreign-media-on-zakir-naik-doctor-turned-firebrand-preacher-1431875|accessdate=16 July 2016|date=15 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160716133126/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/foreign-media-on-zakir-naik-doctor-turned-firebrand-preacher-1431875|archive-date=16 July 2016|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> On January 11th, 2020, Harun Yahya was sentenced to 1,075 years in prison for, among other charges, operating a sex cult, sexual assault, blackmail, and money laundering.<ref>{{Citation|chapter=Turkish court sentences TV preacher to more than 1,000 years in jail - state media|newspaper=Reuters|publication-date=1/11/2021|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/turkey-court-preacher-idUSL4N2JM23C|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131004740/https://www.reuters.com/article/turkey-court-preacher-idUSL4N2JM23C|editor=Reuters Staff}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-11/turkey-sex-cult-chief-sentenced-to-more-than-1-000-years-in-jail|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111124141/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-11/turkey-sex-cult-chief-sentenced-to-more-than-1-000-years-in-jail|publication-date=1/11/2021|newspaper=Bloomberg|author=Taylan Bilgic|chapter=Turkey Sex Cult Chief Sentenced to More Than 1,000 Years in Jail}}</ref>

==Methodology of Islamic theologians==
A variety of theological methods are employed by modern Islamic scholars in making the case for any given scientific miracle in the Quran. These methods include what can be described and categorized as mistranslation, dehistoricization, pseudo-correlation, reinterpretation, disambiguation, elective literalism, elective esotericism, and data mining. While there exist any number of alternative approaches and combinations thereof to making the case for any given scientific miracle, the aforementioned methods are, in roughly descending order, the most common. These methods are not mutually exclusive and tend to employed in conjunction with one another in order to strengthen the case being made.

===General criticisms===
No verse contained in the Quran has ever prompted a scientific discovery, and modern Muslim scholars have also generally not tried to argue that this has ever been the case. As such, all the purported instances of miraculous scientific foreknowledge in the Quran have been identified as such ''only'' ''after'' the science they are alleged to describe has been discovered. Critics often note this as a weakness and generally hold these so-called scientific miracles to be the product of crude pattern-matching sophistry whereby science is ''read back into'' the Quran upon discovery.

Even when the Islamic empires led the world in science in parts of the middle ages,<ref>''[https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/30/science/how-islam-won-and-lost-the-lead-in-science.html How Islam Won, and Lost, the Lead in Science.]'' Dennis Overbye. 2001. New York Times.

''Astronomy and medicine (two fields that are particularly relevant to 'scientific miracles') were relatively advanced for their time (especially astronomy) during the Islamic Empire's, which scientists never credited the Qur'an with prompting discoveries.''</ref> classical Islamic scholars/exegetes on the Quran aware of these facts never put forward theories of scientific foreknowledge.<ref>[https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300177718/islam-science-and-the-challenge-of-history/ ''Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History (The Terry Lectures Series)''.] Dallal, Ahmad. Yale University Press. 2012. Kindle Edition. ''See Kindle locations 1958 - 1972. And Chapter 'The Quran and Science' locations 2618 - 2723 covering this issue.''</ref> Instead when scholars discussed verses relating to the natural world, they saw them as confirming the (incorrect) scientific notions at the time. In fact, in many cases the Quran has been cited directly as the reason to support traditional unscientific views against those of e.g. astronomers,<ref>For example, in the debate between traditionalists and non-traditionalists on whether the Earth was flat, see: [https://www.academia.edu/93485940/Against_Ptolemy_Cosmography_in_Early_Kal%C4%81m_2022_ ''Against Ptolemy? Cosmography in Early Kalām (2022).''] Omar Anchassi. Journal of the American Oriental Society, 142(4), 851–881. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.7817/jaos.142.4.2022.ar033</nowiki>

(''This period covers the first five centuries of Islam, though examples of Islamic scholars quoting the Quran. Many more going beyond that period can be found in this Wordpress article: [https://theislamissue.wordpress.com/2019/03/22/scholarly-consensus-of-a-round-earth/ Scholarly Consensus of a Round Earth])''</ref> (which hardly matches the idea of a book of scientific foreknowledge) and is still being used today to deny established scientific facts.<ref>For example:

'''Geo-centrism''' has been supported by Sheikh Bandar al-Khaibari, covered in this ''Daily Mail [https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2957414/Saudi-cleric-online-laughing-stock-telling-student-sun-rotates-Earth-planes-not-able-fly.html article].'' And Sheik al-Fawzan, which can be seen in this [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OvG-606KqwU&t=694s ''YouTube video''] at 12:48.

'''Creationism''' has large support over evolution in the Muslim world among Islamic scholars, as we see in this ''Telegraph'' [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/evolution/6587642/Muslim-scholars-rejecting-Darwins-theory-of-evolution-as-unproven.html ''article'']

The prominent modern Islamic scholar Seyyed Hossein Nasr rejects evolution on religious grounds [https://jis.cis-ca.org/on-the-question-of-biological-origins.html ''Journal of Islam & Science, Vol. 4 (Winter 2006) No. 2''], who is one of many.</ref>

Philosophically minded critics commonly reject scientific miracle claims at the outset for failing to meet criteria for a "miracle". Such arguments may be summarized as follows:

A scriptural statement containing a scientific statement would be evident as a miracle if and only if it is at once: (1) unambiguous and intentional, (2) ascertainably unknowable at the time of revelation, and (3) scientifically sound, because:
(1) An ambiguous or unintentional scientific statement could be correct only by accident
(2) A scientific statement knowable at the time and place of revelation would not be a miracle
Additionally, it may be that none of the above criteria can be established regarding any scientific statement because: (1) language is inherently ambiguous, (2) it is impossible to prove something is not an accident, and (3) history is fundamentally inaccessible.

===Specific methods and criticisms thereof===
==== Mistranslations ====
Many purported scientific miracles simply involve mistranslations from Arabic to English, or from Classical Arabic to Modern Arabic. For example, it is claimed that daḥāhā دَحَاهَا means "He made it ostrich-egg-shaped" such that the Earth's roundness is described. This verb actually means "He spread it out", and while it can be used for an ostrich spreading out flat the ground where it lays its eggs, neither the verb nor words from the same root have the meaning of an egg nor making such a shape<ref>Lane's Lexicon dictionary on [https://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=h328,ll=900,ls=h5,la=h1338,sg=h375,ha=h210,br=h325,pr=h55,aan=h185,mgf=h296,vi=h142,kz=h686,mr=h221,mn=h391,uqw=h509,umr=h357,ums=h289,umj=h236,ulq=h696,uqa=h130,uqq=h102,bdw=h298,amr=h220,asb=h280,auh=h558,dhq=h175,mht=h276,msb=h79,tla=h48,amj=h229,ens=h1,mis=h633 daḥā دَحَا]</ref> (the shape of an ostrich egg is in any case not an oblate spheroid like the earth - see: [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth]]). Or that yasbaḥoona / يَسْبَحُونَ means 'rotating on it's own axis' (applied to the sun in e.g. verse 21:33), of which there is no such meaning (it simply means 'swimming').<ref>[https://quranx.com/Dictionary/Lane/%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%AD Yasbahoona / سبح] Lane's Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary (quranx.com)</ref> Or that sulb / ﺻُﻠﺐ (which means backbone)<ref>[https://quranx.com/Dictionary/Lane/%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%AD sulb ' ﺻُﻠﺐ] - Lane's Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary</ref> or tara'ib / تَّرَآئِب (rib or other chest bones)<ref>[https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000338.pdf Tara'ib تَّرَآئِب] - Lane's Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary</ref> mean sexual areas of a man or woman so as to not contradict facts about reproduction (''see: [[Semen Production in the Quran]]'').
====Dehistoricization====
A common practice in making the case for a scientific miracle in the Quran is dehistoricization. Dehistoricization is the process whereby a historical event (in this case a verse of the Quran) is removed from its historical context. Since no Islamic scripture nor Muhammad himself claimed to predict modern discoveries about the natural world or ancient history, the great majority of scientific and historical miracle claims require a degree of dehistoricization.

The purported miracles could not have been intended for Muhammad's contemporaries who would not have been able to verify the scientific or historical accuracy thereof. As a result, verses have to be dehistoricized and reframed as forecasts of future scientific (or archaeological) discoveries for the benefit of today's audience. From a historian's perspective, however, when for instance the Quran states the Earth has been 'spread out' as a 'bed' and that mountains have been cast down upon the Earth as stabilizing 'stakes', it intends to inspire its contemporary audience's awe by directing their attention to a common mythological notion that this audience held to be true.

In rare cases where the Quran might allude correctly to a scientific or historical fact, critics accuse proponents of a second layer of dehistoricization: the possibility that Muhammad acquired the relevant fact through other than divine means is wrongly excluded.

To achieve the latter, Islamic theologians will variously argue that the relevant fact was not known or believed by anyone in the 7th century, that Arabia and particularly Muhammad was prohibitively isolated from regional currents of knowledge, that Muhammad was illiterate and therefore incapable of accessing knowledge even if it were available to him, and/or that the mental capabilities of ancient persons were significantly less than today. Critics and historians contest all of those arguments and have been unaccepting of either of these forms of dehistoricization.

====Pseudo-correlation====
Another common practice employed by Islamic theologians in making the case for scientific miracles in the Quran is drawing what are best described as pseudo-correlations between the Quran and misrepresented scientific fact. This is achieved through: the use of decontextualized quotations from scientific publications, scientific and grammatical jargon in a confounding manner, metaphorical interpretations of science, equating the common historical observation of a phenomenon with its modern scientific explanation, as well as inaccurate or incorrect understandings of the relevant scientific fact.

The most commonly cited examples include misrepresenting musculoskeletal development in the human embryo through selective quoting of medical sources, and a wide array of inaccurate statements about mountains in relation to tectonic phenomena.

Critics suggest that where the science correlated to Quranic verses by Islamic theologians has been misunderstood, misapplied, or misrepresented, the case made for the scientific miracle is invalid.
====Reinterpretation====
It is almost always also necessary for miracle proponents to flout interpretive tradition (classical [[Tafsir|tafsirs]]) and modern academic opinion in their reading of the portion of the verse said to describe a scientific fact. The interpretations flouted sometimes include those provided by Muhammad himself and, much more frequently, those provided by [[Sahabah|his companions (the Sahabah)]].

Specific examples of the types of shifts involved in this type of rereading include: taking verses from passages descriptive of the hereafter and interpreting them as descriptive of the modern era, taking verses from passages descriptive of supernatural or miraculous events and interpreting them as descriptive of eternal laws of nature, and taking verse from passages descriptive of particular historical events and interpreting them as eternal laws of human society.

This type of reinterpretation is particularly common in the West, where translations of scripture are often reworded in a manner that is distinct from the original Arabic text and which better accommodates or, at times, directly endorses the desired reinterpretation.

Critics and historians hold that this type of rereading strains credulity for its neglect of textual and historical context and, where it influences translations, have often condemned it as a form of academic and intellectual dishonesty. Critics also point out that flouting the early exegetical tradition, especially where it relies on and reiterates the perspective found in the narrations of Muhammad ([[Hadith|hadiths]]) or the sayings of his companions (''aqwal al-sahabah''), undermines traditional Islamic doctrine which holds the word of Muhammad as final and which very often elevates the theological and exegetical statements of Muhammad's companions to status comparable to Muhammad's own words.
====Disambiguation====
Miracle proponents have most often used verses whose meaning is opaque and cryptic or whose meaning has simply been lost to time in order to make cases for scientific miracles in the Quran.

Critics have argued that if there is no justification for the highly specific reading projected upon an essentially ambiguous verse, then this cannot be considered miraculous.
====Elective literalism====
Sometimes, the verses presented by Islamic theologians as scientific miracles are verses containing a metaphor which taken literally appears to describe some scientific phenomenon. In many such cases, the same or similar metaphor or metaphorical word is used elsewhere in the Quran in a context which clarifies its meaning and where a literal reading results in no sensible interpretation.

Critics have argued that this effectively arbitrary and rare reading of metaphors in literal terms is tendentious and a practice which capitalizes on chance usage rather than anything that could seriously be described as an intended meaning on the part of the author(s).
====Data mining====
{{Main|Word Count Miracles in the Qur'an}}
One recurring category of scientific miracles presented by Islamic theologians derive from compiling counts of individual root-words set in various grammatical forms throughout the text of the Quran. Words which happen to appear an equal number of times or in some interesting ratio are then presented as scientific miracles of a mathematical sort. Many variations on this sort of miracle case exist, with some theologians going to extraordinary ends to compile larges quantities of numbers calculated using various aspects of verses including their letter count, position in the surah, position the Quran, and other such aspects in order to find relationships.

Critics commonly note that these purported 'mathematical miracles' usually employ dubious counting methods and in any case that their proponents have committed the [[w:Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy|'Texas sharpshooter fallacy']]. This is a fallacy whereby no specific pattern is predicted in advance, but rather a search is made for ''any'' interesting pattern, failing to realise that the likelihood that ''some'' such pattern will be found is much higher than the specific one which was never actually predicted in advance. Many critics consider the scientific miracles methodology in general to be a form of this fallacy.
====Elective esotericism====
A situation slightly different from standard cases of scientific miracles arises on occasion where the Quran describes a scientific phenomenon in relatively clear terms, albeit incorrectly. While these situations are not frequently attended to by modern Islamic theologians, they have at times insisted that while the apparent meaning of the verse may appear incorrect, they are in fact true in some esoteric sense. Despite being of an evidently lower caliber and motivated by a need to disguise Quranic errors in the opinion of critics, these cases are also at times advanced as scientific miracles.

==Purported scientific miracles==
===The Big Bang (the Earth was split from the Heavens)===
Many modern Islamic scholars have argued that {{Quran|21|30}} describes the Big Bang. Historians, by contrast, have shown that the verse describes a version of [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm Mesopotamian mythology] which continued into late antiquity. According to the archetype of the myth, the Earth and heaven were united, then were split apart to become the Earth below and heaven above.

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?}}

The verse states that "We clove them" (dual pronoun 'huma'), not "We clove it", thereby indicating that the Earth and heavens are two distinct entites after the cloving, and the next verse speaks of mountains being placed on Earth. This conflicts with the modern scientific understanding that the Earth only began to form from material within the emerging solar system, 9 billion years after the big bang. The words "(as one unit of creation)" are the translator's own gloss.

The word translated "joined together" is ratqan (رَتْقًا)<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume3/00000193.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1027 رَتْقًا] </ref> meaning closed up or sewn up, also used metaphorically in terms of reconciling people, but does not imply a homogenous mass or state.

Mirroring this is the word fataqnāhumā ("we clove them asunder"), whose root rhymes with ratqan and means to slit, rent asunder, divide, unstitch.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000115.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2331 فتق]</ref>

The separation of the heavens and earth can be read in the context of verses that mention something "between" their fully formed state (which seems to be occupied by the clouds {{Quran|2|164}} and birds {{Quran|24|41}}). Tafsirs stated that it did not rain until the heavens and earth were separated, which also makes sense of the end of the verse where it says Allah made from water every living thing.

{{Quote|{{Quran|50|38}}|
And verily We created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between them, in six Days, and naught of weariness touched Us.}}

The same pre-scientific cosmology was already present in other near eastern cultures before Islam:

{{Quote|[https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/epic/hd_epic.htm Mesopotamian Creation Myths] Ira Spar, Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art|A Sumerian myth known today as “Gilgamesh and the Netherworld” opens with a mythological prologue. It assumes that the gods and the universe already exist and that once a long time ago the heavens and earth were united, only later to be split apart}}

This view persisted into the age of Greek civilization:

{{Quote|A. Seidenberg (1969) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1259101 The Separation of Sky and Earth at Creation (II)], Folklore 80(3), 188-196|Euripides the Greek Tragedian (Born 480 BC) - "And the tale is not mine, but from my mother, how sky and earth were one form and when they separated apart from each other they bring forth all things, and give them up into light; trees, birds, beasts, the creatures nourished by the salt sea, and the race of mortals"}}

A version of the Mesopotamian myth is sustained even in late antique Syriac Christian homilies, where commentators such as Ephrem (d. 373 CE) expound on the Biblical Genesis story of the waters above and waters below being separated when the firmament is created.<ref name="EphremGenesis" /> See also the quotes from Ephrem in the section [[Scientific_Miracles_in_the_Quran#Every living thing from water|Every living thing from water]] below regarding the water part of {{Quran|21|30}} in the creation context.

It is also worth highlighting the context of the polemical verse (Q21:30) in that it is clear the point being disputed by the opponents is not that the Earth and sky were split apart (or all living things are made from water), but rather ''the contemporary (and pre-scientific) Arabic pagans were already in agreement with this'';<ref name=":0">Ahmad Al-Jallad, ''[https://academic.oup.com/jss/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jss/fgaf012/8129546?utm_source=authortollfreelink&utm_campaign=jss&utm_medium=email&guestAccessKey=3263d58f-6955-46c6-84a8-e0af7e4edcd9&login=false Ancient Allah: An Epigraphic Reconstruction,] pp.46.'' Journal of Semitic Studies, 2025;, fgaf012, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1093/jss/fgaf012</nowiki></ref> therefore negating this as a scientific miracle. The point being made here is rather that them knowing this makes their rejection of his message of God's abilities (e.g. of resurrection) the more confusing.<ref name=":0" /> Al-Jallad (2025) notes that therefore the motifs of the Earth/sky split may not have come from Judeo-Christian traditions, but rather both them and the native Arab religion from a common source just as found in ancient Mesopotamia/Near East cosmological myths.<ref>Ahmad Al-Jallad, ''[https://academic.oup.com/jss/advance-article/doi/10.1093/jss/fgaf012/8129546?utm_source=authortollfreelink&utm_campaign=jss&utm_medium=email&guestAccessKey=3263d58f-6955-46c6-84a8-e0af7e4edcd9&login=false Ancient Allah: An Epigraphic Reconstruction,]'' pp. 46 & further evidence is cited in Ibid. pp. 4 where he notes that the etymology of the verb for 'to create' ''khalaqa'' is related to splitting, which suggests this was an ancient ancestral Arabic belief:

''Another clue as to the mythological background of the pre-Islamic Allāh lies in the etymology of the verb ‘to create’ in Arabic, found in the question posed in Q39:38, for example: laʾin saʾalta-hum man ḫalaqa s-samāwāti wa-l-ʾarḍa la-yaqūlunna llāh ‘if you ask them who created the heavens and the earth they unequivocally reply ‘Allāh’.''

''The verb ḫalaqa with this meaning is unique to Arabic. Its cognates in other languages mean ‘divide, separate’: Syriac ḥəlaq, Hebrew ḥālaq, Sabaic ḫlq, and Minaic ḫlq. 10 The Arabic meaning of the word must have developed from the ancient Near Eastern cosmological myth, in which the creation of the world was accomplished through the ‘dividing’ of pre-existing matter.11 This concept likely drove the semantic shift through metaphorical extension. Given that this term was understood by Mohammed’s interlocutors as well, it indicates that the semantic shift happened in pre-Islamic times and was not something introduced by the Qurʾān.'' </ref>

===A universe from smoke===
{{Main|Quran and a Universe from Smoke}}Many modern Islamic scholars and popular voices, such as Harun Yahya and I. A. Ibrahim, have argued that {{Quran|41|11}} contains an accurate account of the early phases of the Universe when matter was in a gaseous state. Critics have pointed out that the phrasing is extremely vague and that in the context where the verse is found, a chronology of creation is described that in no way aligns with the history of the universe. They point to two main problems:
1) The Earth is described as being created first in the preceeding verses ({{Quran-range|41|9|10}}), along with all that is present on its surface, and only thereafter is the heaven made to be seven heavens and the lowest adorned with stars (this sequence is confirmed in {{Quran|2|29}}). 
2) The Earth is addressed by Allah in the verse in question as distinct from the heaven, which alone is described as smoke but not the earth too. Several other criticisms have also been made, described in the main article.

{{Quote|{{quran-range|41|11|12}}|Then He directed (Himself) towards the heaven while it (was) smoke, and He said to it and to the earth, "Come both of you willingly or unwillingly." They both said, "We come willingly." So He completed them as seven firmaments in two Days, and He assigned to each heaven its duty and command. And We adorned the lower heaven with lights, and (provided it) with guard. Such is the Decree of (Him) the Exalted in Might, Full of Knowledge.}}

Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance (he used the Septuagint Greek translation which says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew verse says vanished like smoke).<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>

===The universe is steadily expanding===

Some modern Muslims scholars are of the opinion that the Quran had already told that universe has been constantly expanding even before this was discovered by modern science.

They present the following verse as their proof:

{{Quote|[https://www.islamawakened.com/quran/51/47/default.htm Quran 51:47]|وَالسَّمَاءَ بَنَيْنَاهَا بِأَيْدٍ وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُون 

'''Muhammad Assad:''' AND IT IS We who have built the universe with [Our creative] power; ''and, verily, it is We who are steadily expanding it''.}}
[[Zakir Naik]] writes regarding this verse:
{{Quote|[http://web.archive.org/save/https://sunnahonline.com/ilm/quran/qms.pdf The Quran and Modern Science by Zakir Naik]|The Arabic word mûsi‘ûn (in verse 51:47) is correctly translated as ‘expanding it’, and it refers to the creation of the expanding vastness of the universe. Stephen Hawking, in his book, ‘A Brief History of Time’, says, “The discovery that the universe is expanding was one of the great intellectual revolutions of the
20th century.” The Qur’aan mentioned the expansion of the universe, before man even learnt to build a telescope!}}

====Mistranslation====
Critics point out that some modern Quran translations have altered the meaning of 51:47 in four ways:

*They have translated the Quranic word “heaven سَّمَاءَ” as “universe” in the modern scientific sense of the word, which is not correct (see analysis and issues in [[Science and the Seven Earths]] and [[Cosmology of the Quran]]).
*They have taken the Arabic active participle “the expanders” and interpreted it as “The Universe is expanding,” (interpolating the possessive pronoun "its" before expanders, which is not present in the Arabic).
*Sometimes they also add the entirely superfluous adverb “steadily” in an attempt to insert into the Quran additional ideas that are not actually there.
*In any case the meaning of the word most like means powerful or make vast (as was understood in tafsirs)

With these four translational liberties, they have completely changed the meaning of this verse from a simple description of Allah’s creation of the heavens into a scientific statement of Hubble’s expanding universe that is not actually contained in the Quran.

Critics point out that the term “lamūsi‘ūna لَمُوسِعُونَ ” in this verse is an active particle and not a verb, and it describes "God" and not the "heaven" (i.e. the term “wa-innā lamūsi‘ūna وَإِنَّا لَمُوسِعُونَ” at best means "God is the Expander" with no indication of tense, and not "the Universe is Expanding").

Thus the earlier Quran translators translated it as:

{{Quote|{{Quran|51|47}}|'''Yusuf Ali:''' With power and skill did We construct the Firmament: '''for it is We Who create the vastness of space'''. 
'''Sahih International:''' And the heaven We constructed with strength, and indeed, '''We are [its] expander.'''
'''Pickthall:''' We have built the heaven with might, and '''We it is Who make the vast extent (thereof).'''}}

Significantly, the word appears in one other verse as an active participle (like lamūsiʿūna, though Arabic form I instead of form IV). Functioning there as an adjective, {{Quran|2|236}} commands that compensation is given to divorced women, "the wealthy [l-mūsiʿi ٱلْمُوسِعِ] according to his capability". Al-Tabari invokes this other verse in his commentary for Q 51:47, interpreting that in the latter it means Allah has capacity and power.<ref>[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=1&tSoraNo=51&tAyahNo=47&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir al Tabari for Q 51:47]</ref> Indeed, it is likely that the word functions as an adjective in Q 51:47, with the phrase simply meaning "and We are the powerful", especially as the first part of the verse states that Allah built the heaven ''bi-'aydin'' (by might/strength). This interpretation is favoured by academic scholars Nicolai Sinai<ref>[https://corpuscoranicum.de/de/verse-navigator/sura/51/verse/1/commentary#anmerkung_vers_47 Commentary on Surah 51 by Nicolai Sinai] - Corpus Coranicum website (in German)</ref> and Marjin van Putten.<ref>[https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/1bpd4uf/comment/kwxdttn/ comment by Marijn van Putten] - Academic Quran Reddit forum</ref> This is also a common interpretation in classical tafsirs,<ref>See for example [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=51&tAyahNo=47&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Tafsir al-Jalalayn for Q 51:47]</ref> while others such as Ibn Kathir<ref>[http://m.qtafsir.com/Surah-Adh-Dhariyat/Proofs-of-Allahs-Oneness-abou--- Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for Q 51:47]</ref> interpreted that Allah made the heaven vast when he built it (though not as an ongoing expansion).

Moreover, words derived from the same root as لَمُوسِعُونَ (lamūsiʿūna) such as the verb ʾawsaʿa mainly have such meanings as to make ample room or width, as well as nouns and adjectives meaning width or ampleness in terms of space as well as in wealth, power or ability according to Lane's lexicon of classical Arabic.
.<ref name="LexiconExpanders">وسع awsa'a - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000306.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 3052 [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000307.pdf and page] 3053</ref> In the Quran, this word and its derivatives have elsewhere been used in the meanings of "Encompassing".

This is seen in the following verses:
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|80}}|'''وَسِعَ''' رَبِّى كُلَّ شَىْءٍ عِلْمًا '''Sahih Intl:''' My Lord '''encompasses''' all things in knowledge}}
Also see verses {{Quran|7|89}} and {{Quran|20|98}}.

In another verse the word "'''احاط'''" (encompass) has been used instead of "wasi'a"
{{Quote|{{Quran|65|12}}|وَأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ قَدْ '''أَحَاطَ''' بِكُلِّ شَىْءٍ عِلْمًۢا'''Sahih Intl:''' and that Allah has '''encompassed''' all things in knowledge.}}

ٖFor this reason, a few translators used this figurative meaning:
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|47}}|'''Maududi:''' And heaven – We made it with Our Own Power ''and We have the Power to do so''.
'''Abdul Majid Daryabadi:''' And the heaven! We have built it with might, and verily We are powerful.}}

Critics also point out that almost exactly the same grammar has been used in the next verse, Q. 51:48.
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|'''Yusuf Ali:''' And We have spread out the (spacious) earth: ''How excellently We do spread out!''}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|51|48}}|'''Pickthall:''' And the earth have We laid out, how gracious is the Spreader (thereof)!}}

In this verse, the word الْمَاهِدُونَ l-māhidūna (spreader/smoother) has almost exactly the same grammar <ref>Active Participle Form I male plural noun [https://corpus.quran.com/wordbyword.jsp?chapter=51&verse=48 Corpus Quran] Verse 51:48 
lamūsiʿūna in 51:47 has the same grammar except that it is in Arabic form IV</ref> as the word لَمُوسِعُونَ lamūsiʿūna (i.e. expander) in the previous verse, but no one translated it as "earth is steadily spreading out". It is from the root mahada مهد which means to make plain, even, smooth, spread a bed<ref>مهد mahada - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000267.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 2739</ref>. Also from this root is the noun mahdan, meaning a bed or even expanse, which appears in other verses about the creation of Earth where it was made a bed in the past tense. The tense is clear in those verses to mean a past event rather than an ongoing process ({{Quran|20|53}},{{Quran|43|10}} and {{Quran-range|78|6|7}}).

====Space is expanding, while the Quranic heaven is a solid firmament====
''Main article: [[Science and the Seven Earths#Seven%20Universes|Science and the Seven Earths - Seven Universes]]''

Critics also point out that the expansion of the universe according to science is due to space itself expanding, and it is this that causes galaxies on average to move ever further apart from each other.

However, the Quranic heaven is a solid firmament: {{Quote|{{Quran|2|22}}| الذي جعل لكم الارض فراشا والسماء بناء وانزل من السماء ماء فاخرج به من الثمرات رزقا لكم فلا تجعلوا لله اندادا وانتم تعلمون Who has made the earth your couch, and the heavens your canopy; and sent down rain from the heavens; and brought forth therewith Fruits for your sustenance; then set not up rivals unto Allah when ye know (the truth). }}The word translated as canopy is binaa or binaan ( بِنَاء ). This word means "building"<ref>بِنَاء binaa - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000298.pdf Lane's Lexicon] page 261</ref>. In {{Quran|67|4}} and {{Quran|71|15}}, the heavens are described as layers. There are seven layers or stories to this building called the heavens. The heavens are built on a foundation called "the earth". The tafsir of Ibn Kathir, among others, elaborates this<ref>[https://tafsir.app/2/22 Tafsirs 2:22]</ref>:{{quote |[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=1494 Tafsir Ibn Kathir]| These Ayat indicate that Allah first created the earth, then He made heaven into seven heavens. This is how building usually starts, with the lower floors first and then the top floors}}

And according to the tradition in {{Bukhari|||3342|darussalam}}, prophets are residing upon these solid heavens along with their nations, and solid things don't expand.

===Every living thing from water===
In two verses the Quran states that Allah created every living thing from water:

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|Have those who disbelieved not considered that the heavens and the earth were a joined entity, and We separated them and made from water every living thing? Then will they not believe?}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|24|45}}|Allah has created every [living] creature from water. And of them are those that move on their bellies, and of them are those that walk on two legs, and of them are those that walk on four. Allah creates what He wills. Indeed, Allah is over all things competent.}}

The key to understanding the meaning is the context apparent in the first verse, 21:30, which is about the creation of the world.

The Jewish apocryphal book 2 Esdras (1st / 2nd century CE) contains the same concept when describing the days of creation. It is not quite as general as the later Quranic version, as verse 53 states that on the 6th day land animals (cattle, beasts and creeping things) were brought forth from the earth.

{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Esdras%206&version=RSV 2 Esdras 6:42, 47-48]|2=
42 “On the third day thou didst command the waters to be gathered together in the seventh part of the earth; six parts thou didst dry up and keep so that some of them might be planted and cultivated and be of service before thee. 
... 
47 “On the fifth day thou didst command the seventh part, where the water had been gathered together, to bring forth living creatures, birds, and fishes; and so it was done. 
48 '''The dumb and lifeless water produced living creatures''', as it was commanded, that therefore the nations might declare thy wondrous works.}}

Gabriel Said Reynolds notes in his academic commentary on the Quran another earlier parallel taught by the Syriac church father Ephrem (d. 373 CE). He writes, "[...] Ephrem, who explains that God created everything through water: 'Thus, through light and water the earth brought forth everything.' Ephrem, ''Commentary on Genesis'', 1:1-10)."<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 p. 553. This is regarding {{Quran|24|45}}, though on p. 508 Reynolds cross references the same parallel regarding the other verse, {{Quran|21|30}}, which is more clearly a statement in the context of the Genesis creation story, like Ephrem's comment.</ref> Ephrem's comment is in the context of the Genesis creation story, much like the first Quranic verse, 21:30. Ephrem says that when heaven and earth were created there were no trees or vegetation as it had not yet rained, so a fountain irrigated the earth. Tafsirs say that when the heaven and earth were separated rain fell so that plants could grow. There is also a similarity with Ephrem in the other verse (24:45), which mentions creatures that move on two, four or no legs. Ephrem explains that as well as the "trees, vegetation and plants", the "Scripture wishes to indicate that all animals, reptiles, cattle and birds came into being as a result of the combining of earth and water".<ref name="EphremGenesis">[https://www.trueorthodoxy.org/teachings/pat_stephraim_commentary_genesis.shtml Ephrem's commentary on Genesis] - True Orthodoxy website</ref> For many more parallels between the Quran and Syriac Christian literature see [[Parallelism_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Judeo-Christian_Scriptures|this article]].

Critics of the miracle claim sometimes also point out that the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles had proposed that all living things are made from water, among other substances<ref>Frag. B17, (Simplicius, ''Physics'', 157-159)</ref>, and Thales of Miletus taught that the originating principle of everything including life is water.<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/thales/#H5 Thales of Miletus] - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

Just as with the [[Scientific Miracles in the Quran#The Big Bang|big bang miracle claim]] above, it is worth noting that Q. 21:30 assumes that these ideas (all living things being made from water, and the Earth and skies being split) are already accepted by the (pre-scientific) pagan Arabs, somewhat negating the idea that this is a scientific miracle.<ref name=":0" /> Rather, the polemical point being made here is that given God can do these things then why would they question God's power for e.g. resurrection, not disputing the common motifs themselves.

===Black holes and pulsars===
Some modern Islamic scholars and popular voices, particularly Harun Yahya, have argued that {{Quran|77|8}} and {{Quran-range|86|1|3}} contain an accurate description of black holes and pulsars. {{Quran|77|8}} speaks of the stars being "obliterated" or "effaced" and {{Quran-range|86|1|3}} speaks of a night visitor, a piercing star.

{{Quote|{{quran|77|8}}|So when the stars are obliterated}}
{{Quote|{{quran-range|86|1|3}}|By the sky and the night comer - And what can make you know what is the night comer? It is the piercing star -}}

Critics point out that {{Quran|77|8}} is not describing a regular phenomenon but rather occurs in an eschatological context, the next few verses mentioning the destruction of the heavens and mountains. Regarding {{Quran-range|86|1|3}}, critics note that while the word al ṭāriq ٱلطَّارِقُ is derived from a root meaning to beat or knock (which Yahya connects with the "pulsing" of pulsars), Lane's lexicon gives many examples from classical Arabic dictionaries of its use in astronomical and other contexts to mean simply one who comes by night, "because he who comes by night [generally] needs to knock at the door",<ref>taraqa طَّارِقُ - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000131.pdf Lane's Lexicon page 1846] and [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000135.pdf page 1850]</ref> and this is how it is explained even by modern Quran translators and commentators such as Muhammad Asad. Those verses likely refer to Venus (a planet which rises like a very bright star soon after nightfall), or to shooting stars, or to some particularly bright star.

===Seven heavens, seven earths===
{{Main|Science and the Seven Earths|Cosmology of the Quran}}Some modern Islamic scholars have argued that {{Quran|65|12}} is scientifically correct in stating that there are seven heavens and seven entities 'like' the Earth. Various interpretations to this effect include reading the 'seven heavens' as atmospheric layers and reading the seven earths as layers of the Earth's surface or the number of continents. Critics have pointed out that the lowest of the seven heavens is said to contain the stars (see {{Quran|41|12}} and {{Quran|37|6}}); that no classification of the layers of the Earth's atmosphere holds there to be seven layers; that no classification of the Earth's layers holds there to be seven layers; that the seven-count of continents is moreso a cultural/historical artifact than anything grounded in geographical or geological fact (with Eurasia, for instance, being a more geologically-sound candidate for a continent); and that seven earths in the Quran in all likelihood would refer to seven stacked disks, the top-most of which is the Earth on which humans reside. Mentions of these are scattered throughout hadith literature and the sayings of Muhammad's companions (see main article).{{Quote|{{quran|65|12}}|Allah (is) He Who created seven heavens and of the earth, (the) like of them. Descends the command between them that you may know that Allah (is) on every thing All-Powerful. And that, Allah indeed, encompasses all things (in) knowledge.}}

===The descent of Iron===
Some modern Islamic scholars and voices, including Harun Yahya, have argued that {{Quran|57|25}} provides a scientifically-sound description of the origin of the iron that is present on Earth. Historians have pointed out that the myth regarding the heavenly-descent of iron vastly predates Abrahamic scriptures and can be found some three millennia prior to the advent of Islam among the ancient Egyptians who describe Iron as '''ba-en-pet''<nowiki/>' or 'metal from heaven' as they harvested fallen meteorites.<ref>[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/the-ancient-egyptians-had-iron-because-they-harvested-fallen-meteors-86153874/ The Ancient Egyptians Had Iron Because They Harvested Fallen Meteors] - Smithsonian Institution, 13 May 2013</ref> Similar descriptions have also been found among the even more ancient people of Mesopotamia.

Critics argue that this is in any case an example of 'elective literalism'. The term used to describe the 'descent' of Iron is '''anzala''<nowiki/>', which is frequently used elsewhere in the Quran where it describes cattle, garments, food, and even the [[People of the Book|people of the book (Jews and Christians)]] as being 'sent down' by some deity. In all these cases and many others, ''anzala'' is not taken as literally meaning descent from outer space.

{{Quote|{{quran|10|59}}|Say: 'Have you considered the provision God has '''sent down''' for you, and you have made some of it unlawful, and some lawful?' Say: 'Has God given you leave, or do you forge against God?'}}{{Quote|{{quran|6|114}}|[Say], "Then is it other than Allah I should seek as judge while it is He who has '''sent down''' to you the Book explained in detail?" And those to whom We [previously] gave the Scripture know that it is sent down from your Lord in truth, so never be among the doubters.}}{{Quote|{{quran|39|6}}|He created you of a single soul, then from it He appointed its mate; and He '''sent down''' to you of the cattle eight couples.}}{{Quote|{{quran|7|26}}|Children of Adam! We have '''sent down''' on you a garment to cover your shameful parts, and feathers; and the garment of godfearing -- that is better; that is one of God's signs; haply they will remember.}}{{Quote|{{quran|31|34}}|Indeed, Allah [alone] has knowledge of the Hour and '''sends down''' the rain and knows what is in the wombs. And no soul perceives what it will earn tomorrow, and no soul perceives in what land it will die. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.}}

Some Islamic scholars have also argued that the occurrence of the word 'iron' in the 26th verse of the surah is miraculous, given that Iron's atomic number is 26. Critics have argued that this is merely a coincidental product of numerological datamining (see description of the Texas sharpshooter fallacy above).{{Quote|{{quran|57|25}}|Certainly We sent Our Messengers with clear proofs and We sent down with them the Scripture and the Balance that may establish the people justice. And We sent down [the] iron, wherein (is) power mighty and benefits for the people, and so that Allah may make evident (he) who helps Him and His Messengers, unseen. Indeed, Allah (is) All-Strong All-Mighty.}}

===Chest-tightening in hypoxic environments===
Many modern Muslims scholars have argued that {{Quran|6|125}} contains a scientifically accurate description of Hypoxia, altitude sickness, or the general phenomenon of lower oxygen levels in the air (thus called 'hypoxic air') at higher altitudes. Critics have pointed out that any Arab living in the general vicinity of Muhammad would have been familiar with the difficulty involved in breathing at higher altitudes, and that Muhammad particularly would have been aware of this phenomenon if accounts of his regularly climbing mountains just prior to proclaiming himself a prophet are to be trusted. In fact writings attributed to the famous Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC) describing travel on Mount Olympus in Macedonia discuss this phenomena ''<nowiki/>'..because the rarity of the air which was there did not fill them with breath, they were not able to survive there unless they applied moist sponges to their noses''<nowiki/>'.<ref>Davis, P & Pattinson, K & Mason, N & Richards, Paul & Hillebrandt, D. (2011). ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51018812_High_Altitude_Illness#:~:text=Writings%20attributable%20to%20Aristotle%20(384,their%20noses'%20(1). High Altitude Illness.]'' Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps. 157. 12-7. 10.1136/jramc-151-04-05.</ref>
Critics have also argued that if one takes the verse literally, the description provided is inaccurate, as the difficulty breathing at higher altitudes is not due to the constriction of one's chest, although this is what one may think based on the sensation of shortened breath which is experienced in hypoxic environments. Indeed, in the lower air pressure of higher altitudes, gasses and air actually expand, and it is also the case that one's chest would expand a very small amount in this environment as there is less atmospheric compression being applied to your body (as opposed to someone, say, at the bottom of the sea, who would instantly be crushed). Persons born and raised in higher altitudes have actually been recorded to have enlarged chests which compensate for the hypoxic environment by allowing the individual to breath in larger quantities of air in order to acquire the necessary quantity of oxygen.<ref>Callison, W.É., Kiyamu, M., Villafuerte, F.C. et al. ''[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-13263-5#:~:text=Individuals%20living%20in%20a%20hypoxic,partially%20a%20population%2Dlevel%20adaptation. Comparing high versus low-altitude populations to test human adaptations for increased ventilation during sustained aerobic activity.]'' Sc''i'' Rep ''1''2, 11148 (2022). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13263-5</nowiki></ref>{{Quote|{{quran|6|125}}|'''Corpus:''' So whoever wants Allah that He guides him - He expands his breast to Islam; and whoever He wants that He lets him go astray He makes his breast tight and constricted as though he (were) climbing into the sky. Thus places Allah the filth on those who (do) not believe. '''Daryabadi:''' So whomsoever Allah willeth that he shall guide, He expoundeth his breast for Islam; and whomsoever He willeth that he shall send astray, He maketh his breast strait, narrow, as if he were mounting up into the sky, thus Allah layeth the abomination on those who believe not.}}

===Mountains as pegs, cast down to stabilize the Earth===
{{Main|The Quran and Mountains}}
The Quran describes mountains as pegs or stakes and as having been cast into the earth lest it sway with its inhabitants. In early or pre-Islamic poetry (see main article), the earth would sway without its mountains, and the Quranic verses (which use the same arabic verb) most straightforwardly seem to refer to mountains being placed to prevent the earth as a whole from swaying (further supported by lingustic and hadith evidence).

Many modern Islamic scholars instead interpret such verses in terms of mountains reducing earthquakes (an interpretation which critics see as linguistically and scientifically untenable, for example because mountains can actually amplify earthquakes at a surface location, depending on the topology). They also propose that the Quran's description of mountains as 'pegs' accurately depicts their physical form and in terms of the scientifically known phenomenon of isostasy. Isostasy is the phenomenon whereby some mountains exist atop a similar accumulation of crust underground. Both the mountain and thickened continental crust beneath them form when tectonic plates collide, with some crust matter being propelled upward (becoming the visible mountain) and, sometimes, a similar quantity of crust matter being propelled downward.

Critics have pointed out that while there is at times an underground accumulation of crust-matter below mountains, scientists have pointed out that this phenomenon does not in any way stabilize the Earth's surface. Indeed, modern science has discovered that mountains (and their underground underbellies) are in fact a direct product of the instability of the Earth's surface, which form when tectonic plates collide and generate destructive earthquakes.

Secondly, critics point out that unlike pegs which are objects placed into something else, mountains caused by plate tectonics are of continuous material as the surrounding crust, albeit of a different or contorted shape due to geological processes. This shape is also nothing like a peg, since the thickening which occurs when continental plates collide extends all along the length of the resulting mountain range. Moreover, they do not peg anything to something else since the thickened crust beneath mountain ranges merely protrudes deeper than the surrounding crust into the Earth's mantle, which is molten and not a solid object. Far more substantial downward protrusions into the mantle are the subducted edges of tectonic plates and craton keels.

Thirdly, continental crust thickening (sometimes called 'crustal roots' or 'mountain roots', terms which refer to the crust beneath entire mountain ranges rather than individual mountains) does not occur during the formation of other types of mountain, such as karsk mountains, plateau mountains, fault-block mountains, and lava dome mountains.

Fourthly, critics also point out that there is no sense to the idea that mountains have been 'cast' into the Earth as 'pegs', for mountains are a byproduct of a larger process (usually, plate tectonics). Indeed, critics note that mountains continue to rise and erode away to this day, unlike the Quranic description of a one off event during four of the six days of creation.

A number of other criticisms are set out in the main article.

{{Quote|{{quran|16|15}}|And He has cast into the earth firmly set mountains, lest it shift with you, and [made] rivers and roads, that you may be guided,}}
{{Quote|{{quran-range|78|6|7}}|Have We not made the earth a resting place And the mountains as stakes?}}
{{Quote|{{quran-range|41|8|12}}|Say, "Do you indeed disbelieve in He who created the earth in two days and attribute to Him equals? That is the Lord of the worlds." And He placed on the earth firmly set mountains over its surface, and He blessed it and determined therein its [creatures'] sustenance in four days without distinction - for [the information] of those who ask. Then He directed Himself to the heaven while it was smoke and said to it and to the earth, "Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion." They said, "We have come willingly." And He completed them as seven heavens within two days and inspired in each heaven its command. And We adorned the nearest heaven with lamps and as protection. That is the determination of the Exalted in Might, the Knowing.}}

===Embryology===
{{Main|Embryology in the Quran|Sources of Islamic Theories of Reproduction}}Many modern Islamic scholars have argued that the presentation of Embryology found in the Quran is both scientifically-sound and predictive of modern science. In this domain, Islamic scholars and authorities have all drawn on the works of the Western doctors [[Dr. Keith Moore|Keith Moore]] (lecturer and researcher at King Abdulaziz University; alongside his co-author, the Islamist politician Abdul Majeed al-Zindani) and [[Bucailleism|Dr. Maurice Bucaille]] (personal physician to the family of King Faisal of Saudi Arabia), who were collectively sponsored with millions of dollars by the Saudi government and who produced science publications which purported that Islamic scriptures contained scientifically sound information.

Relevant verses include {{Quran|22|5}}, {{Quran-range|23|12|14}}, and {{Quran|40|67}}.
Critics have time and again responded to the various attempts made by Islamic scholars and doctors sponsored by the Saudi government to reconcile modern science with Islamic scriptures. ''The Daily Telegraph'' reported in 2010 that Bucaille's "assertions have been ridiculed by scientists".<ref>Sameer Rahim (8 October 2010). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookreviews/8048372/Pathfinders-The-Golden-Age-of-Arabic-Science-by-Jim-al-Khalili-review.html "Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science by Jim al-Khalili: review"]. ''The Telegraph''.</ref>

Beyond the various scientific errors within Islamic scriptures compared to the findings of modern science that critics have pointed out (see first main article), historians have generally accepted that the incorrect embryological ideas present in the Quran largely derive from ancient sources including, most prominently, the works of Galen, a 2nd century Greek physician whose ideas had widespread and lasting influence (see second main article).{{Quote|{{quran|22|5}}|O Mankind! if ye be in doubt respecting the Resurrection, then We have created you of the dust, then of a drop, then of clot, then of a piece of flesh, formed and unformed, that We might manifest unto you Our power. And We settle in the wombs that which We will until a term determined. Then We bring you forth as babes, then We let you reach your maturity. And of you is he who dieth, and of you is he who is brought back to the most abject age, so that after knowing he knoweth not aught. And thou beholdest the earth withered up, and when We send down thereon water, it stirreth and swelleth, and it groweth every luxuriant kind of growth.}}{{Quote|{{quran-range|23|12|14}}|And certainly did We create man from an extract of clay. Then We placed him as a sperm-drop in a firm lodging. Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging clot, and We made the clot into a lump [of flesh], and We made [from] the lump, bones, and We covered the bones with flesh; then We developed him into another creation. So blessed is Allah, the best of creators.}}{{Quote|{{quran|40|67}}|He it is Who created you of dust, and thereafter of a drop, and thereafter of a clot, and thereafter He bringeth you forth as an infant, and thereafter He ordaineth that ye attain your full strength and thereafter that ye become old men-though some of you die before-and that ye attain the appointed term, and that haply ye may reflect.}}

===All things in pairs===
Some Islamic scholars have argued that {{Quran|51|49}}, {{Quran|36|36}}, and similar verses contain a scientifically-sound insight regarding the existence of all living things in male and female pairs. Critics and historians have pointed out that the idea that all living things and things in general (as implied by {{Quran|51|49}}) exist in pairs simply draws on the widespread ancient motif of the duality of all things in nature. The most prominent example of this motif is perhaps the ancient Chinese Yin-Yang principle of duality, with similar concepts being described in the Rig-Veda and elsewhere. Critics have also pointed out that modern science has revealed that it is not the case that all living things exist in pairs. Exceptions, they argue, include the schizophyllum commune and the various and numerous asexual, hermaphroditic, and parthenogenetic organisms that populate the Earth.{{Quote|{{quran|51|49}}|And of every thing We have created pairs, so that you may remember.}}{{Quote|{{quran|36|36}}|Exalted is He who created all pairs - from what the earth grows and from themselves and from that which they do not know.}}

===Female honey bees===
It is sometimes claimed that {{Quran-range|16|68|69|}} correctly identifies female bees as the builders and collectors of honey in the hive because verse 68 uses the feminine verb ittakhidhī when it says Allah inspired the bees to "Take for yourself among the mountains, houses, and among the trees and [in] that which they construct".
The claim has a number of problems. Firstly, the verb for "build" is not used here. It simply seems to describe the locations where bees should live. Both male and female bees have to live somewhere. Secondly, the use of a female verb in Arabic does not have to mean that the subject is actually female, especially when applied to certain types of objects. Nahl (bee) is a kind of noun called Ismul Jins Jam'ee (اسم جنس جامع), a collective, or mass noun of species and has nothing to do with the gender of the insects, and according to some Muslim commentators, in the Hijaz dialect is grammatically feminine. The Quran also says in the same surah, ({{Quran|16|79}}) that birds are controlled in the air using a verb in the feminine gender, yet this clearly does not refer only to female birds. The Quran also uses a verb in the feminine gender in {{Quran|30|2}} "The Romans have been defeated". Clearly, the Quran is not referring only to female Romans. For further explanation, see [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6jiI367cmM this video]. Critics often further point out regarding verse 69 that while bees do sometimes eat fruit, primarily they need to eat nectar from flowers.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|16|68|69}}|And your Lord inspired to the bee, "Take for yourself among the mountains, houses, and among the trees and [in] that which they construct. Then eat from all the fruits and follow the ways of your Lord laid down [for you]." There emerges from their bellies a drink, varying in colors, in which there is healing for people. Indeed in that is a sign for a people who give thought.}}

It is further sometimes claimed that verse 69 correctly identifies that bees have multiple stomachs due to the plural noun buṭūnihā بُطُونِهَا (bellies) with the ha singular possesive suffix. However, bees have one regular stomach plus one "honey stomach" for storing nectar;<ref>[https://hbrc.ca/honey-bee-anatomy/ Honey Bee Anatomy] - Honey Bee Research Centre website</ref> the Quran here uses the plural (3 or more) and not the dual form for bellies. The plural bellies is simply referring to the bellies of multiple bees, and the singular female possessive suffix refers back to the collective singular female noun for bees mentioned above.

===Diminishing land===
Some Islamic scholars and authorities, including Dr. Al Zeiny, PhD, have argued that {{Quran|13|41}} and {{Quran|21|44}} contain a scientifically-sound insight in their supposed implication that the quantity of land is continually diminishing due to the movement of tectonic plates. Critics have pointed out that there is no scientific evidence that suggests the ongoing diminishment of the quantity of land. They point out, for instance, that over the past billion or so years, land has not diminished, and that, for instance, whereas 29.1% of the Earth's surface is presently land, 200 million years ago, at the end of the Permian Period, the supercontinent Pangea covered only about a quarter of the Earth's surface. Historians have also objected and argued that these verses should not be read literally and that they should only be understood in their historical context and in their plain sense where what is described is simply the reduction of the territory possessed by Muhammad's opponents due to his ongoing conquests.{{Quote|{{quran|13|41}}|'''Corpus:''' Did not they see that We come (to) the land, reducing it from its borders? And Allah judges; (there is) no adjuster (of) His Judgment. And He (is) Swift (in) the reckoning. '''Yusuf Ali:''' See they not that We gradually reduce the land (in their control) from its outlying borders? (Where) Allah commands, there is none to put back His Command: and He is swift in calling to account.}}{{Quote|{{quran|21|44}}|'''Daryabadi:''' Aye! We let these people and their fathers enjoy until there grew long upon them the life. Behold they not that We come unto the land diminishing it by the borders thereof? Shall they then be the victors? '''Yusuf Ali:''' Nay, We gave the good things of this life to these men and their fathers until the period grew long for them; See they not that We gradually reduce the land (in their control) from its outlying borders? Is it then they who will win?}}

===Clay humans===
{{Main|Creation of Humans from Clay|Evolution and Islam}}Some Islamic scholars and voices, such as Harun Yahya, have argued that the Quran's statement regarding the creation of the first man from clay contains a scientifically-sound insight regarding the chemical composition of the human body. Relevant verses include {{Quran-range|38|71|72}}, {{Quran|37|11}}, and {{Quran|15|26}}. Critics and historians have argued that where the Quran describes the formation of Adam from clay, it merely repeats the common ancient myth widespread throughout the region well before Islam. Critics have also argued that the description in the Quran is not scientifically-sound because whereas the Quran says that the first human was made from clay, modern science holds that clay only 'match-makes' the RNA and membrane vesicles involved in the production of living organisms and does not form a building block, nor is its chemical composition similar to humans.{{Quote|{{quran-range|38|71|72}}|When said your Lord to the Angels, "Indeed, I am going to create a human being from clay. So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of my spirit, then fall down to him prostrating."}}{{Quote|{{quran|37|11}}|Then ask them, "Are they a stronger creation or (those) whom we have created?" Indeed, we created them from a clay sticky.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|15|26}}|
We created man from sounding clay, from mud molded into shape;}}

===Semen production===
{{Main|Semen Production in the Quran}}
Many modern Islamic scholars, including particularly Zakir Naik, have argued the Quran's description of the production of semen 'from between' the ''sulb'' (backbone or lower back) and ''tara'ib'' (ribs) in {{Quran-range|86|6|7}} contains a scientifically-sound insight. Very diverse explanations have been advanced by Islamic scholars, all mutually exclusive. English translations can be misleading due to the dual meaning of the English word "loins" which has a euphemistic sense (the male reproductive area) as well as its literal meaning (literally, the 'loins' are the lower back, as in sirloin steak). Only this latter, literal sense reflects the Arabic meaning.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000436.pdf صلب Lane's Lexicon, page 1712]</ref>
Interestingly, classical scholars continually argued over the meaning the words contained in this verse as well. For instance, Ibn Kathir describes ''tara’ib'' as a female organ, while other classical tafsirs argue that it belongs to the male. Critics argue that there is no singular, cogent interpretation of this verse whereby it can be said to be scientifically sound. It appears, they argue, that this verse is similar to ancient Greek theories of Plato, or Hippocrates which had become popular in the region by the advent of Islam. Hippocrates taught that semen comes from all the fluid in the body, diffusing from the brain into the spinal marrow, before passing through the kidneys and via the testicles into the penis.<ref>Hippocratic Writings (Penguin Classics, 1983) pp. 317-318</ref>

Critics have also pointed out that another verse ({{Quran|7|172}}) as well as a hadith convey a similar reproductive concept using a different Arabic word, ''thahr'', which too incontroverably means the back (see main article).

{{Quote|{{quran-range|86|6|7}}|He was created from a fluid, ejected, Emerging from between the backbone and the ribs.}}

===Lying forelocks===
Many modern Islamic scholars, all drawing on the work of Saudi-financed researcher and lecturer at King Abdulaziz University Dr. Keith Moore, have argued that {{Quran|96|16}} ('a lying, sinful forelock') contains a scientifically-sound insight regarding the area of the brain that is employed in the activity of lying, namely, it is said, the prefrontal cortex (which lies below one's forelock).

Historians and linguists, by contrast, view the phrase 'lying, sinful forelock' as a simple metaphorical and metonymic reference to the individual described in the preceding verse who is being dragged by his forelock. The intent of this usage, they suggest, is not that the forelock is literally lying (which is evidently impossible).

{{Quote|{{quran-range|96|15|16}}|Nay! If not he desists, surely We will drag him by the forelock, A forelock lying, sinful.}}Furthermore, the word for 'forelock' is used elsewhere in the Quran as shown on [https://corpus.quran.com/search.jsp?q=con%3Aforelock Quran Corpus], including:
{{Quote|{{Quran|55|41}}|The criminals will be known by their marks, and they will be seized by the forelocks and the feet.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|56}}|Indeed, I have relied upon Allah , my Lord and your Lord. There is no creature but that He holds its forelock. Indeed, my Lord is on a path [that is] straight."}}
However seizing, dragging, or holding someone by the 'prefrontal cortex' would be an odd statement to make.

Critics have also pointed out that there is plenty of modern research utilizing fMRI technology which militates against the idea that lying takes place in the pre-frontal cortex, including the work of Professor Jia-Hong Gao of Peking University (trained at Yale and MIT), Professor Scott H. Faro, Professor Frank A. Kozel (trained at Yale), Professor Daniel D. Langleben of the University of Pennsylvania, and Professor Stephen M. Kosslyn of Harvard University (trained at Stanford). This research shows that the portion of the brain responsible for lying may in fact be the anterior cingulate gyrus, which lies in the medial portion of the brain in frontal-parietal area and not beneath the forelock.

===Fresh water-salt water barriers===
{{Main|A Barrier Between Two Seas and the Cosmic Ocean}}
Many modern Islamic scholars argue that {{Quran|25|53}} contains a scientifically-sound insight regarding the 'separation' of fresh and salt water in estuaries, where fresh water rivers meet the salty ocean. Looking at all related verses, critics and historians interpret the Quran as referring to two mythological seas, one salty and one of fresh water.

{{Quote|{{quran|25|53}}|And it is He who has released [simultaneously] the two seas, one fresh and sweet and one salty and bitter, and He placed between them a barrier and prohibiting partition.}}
{{Quote|{{quran|27|61}}|Is He [not best] who made the earth a stable ground and placed within it rivers and made for it firmly set mountains and placed between the two seas a barrier? Is there a deity with Allah? [No], but most of them do not know.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|55|19|22}}|He released the two seas, meeting [side by side]; Between them is a barrier [so] neither of them transgresses. So which of the favors of your Lord would you deny? From both of them emerge pearl and coral.}}
Another reference to "the two seas" (bahrayn) is found in the story of Moses and his servant.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|60|61}}|And [mention] when Moses said to his servant, "I will not cease [traveling] until I reach the junction of the two seas or continue for a long period." But when they reached the junction between them, they forgot their fish, and it took its course into the sea, slipping away.}}

The story of Moses and his servant is one of four stories in Surah al-Kahf. Modern academic scholarship has identified antecedants of each story in the lore of late antiquity. This particular story is almost unanimously considered to derive from a legend about Alexander the Great and his search for the water of life. For details see the section on the four stories in Surah al-Kahf in the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

It may further be compared to the ancient Akkadian myth of the Abzu, the name for a fresh water underground sea that was given a religious quality in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology. Lakes, springs, rivers, wells, and other sources of fresh water were thought to draw their water from the Abzu underground sea, while the Ocean that surrounded the world was a saltwater sea. This underground sea is called Tehom in the Hebrew Bible. For example, Genesis 49:25 says, "blessings of the heavens above, and Tehom lying beneath".<ref>Wensinck, Arent Jan (1918). "The Ocean in the Literature of the Western Semites". Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks. dl. 19. no. 2. page 14</ref> Wensinck explains, "Thus it appears that the idea of there being a sea of sweet water under our earth, the ancient Tehom, which is the source of springs and rivers, is common to the Western Semites".<ref>ibid. page 17</ref> Similarly in Greek mythology, the world was surrounded by Oceanus, the world-ocean of classical antiquity. Oceanus was personified as the god Titan, whose consort was the aquatic sea goddess Tethys. It was also thought that rainfall was due a third ocean above the "Firmament of the Sky" (a vast reservoir above the firmament of the sky is also described in the Genesis creation narrative).

Other critics argue that this verse is merely stating what any person viewing the convergence of a river and ocean could observe - namely, that the two bodies of water maintain distinct coloration, and might further suppose that a metaphysical barrier maintains their distinction. Critics point out that there is, in fact, no such 'barrier' present in estuaries and that the persistent distinction between the two bodies of water is due a difference in the density of fresh and salt water, which ultimately do mix. Even this temporary distinction can be compromised when other factors such as wind and stronger tidal forces cause the bodies of water to mix with one another at a greater rate.

Whether the two seas mentioned in the Qur'an referred to these mythological seas or a more general inviolable barrier between bodies of salt and fresh water, critics argue that these verses are scientifically wrong.

===The speed of light===
Some modern Islamic scholars and voices, particularly Dr. Mansour Hassab-Elnaby, have argued that {{Quran|32|5}} contains the information or is in some distinct manner cognizant of the fact that light in one day travels a distance roughly equal to 12,000 lunar orbits. Hassab-Elnaby's case is developed using abstruse mathematical calculations that employ various figures including the thousand-year period described in the verse and the distance the moon could be said to travel about the Earth if the Earth were stationary. Critics have argued that this case is a textbook example of numerological obscurantism whereby any text in existence can be taken and 'shown to be of divine origin' on the basis of various 'rare' numeric patterns which inevitably appear in any sufficiently complex data and limited set (similar techniques when applied to works such as Shakespearean plays and Virgil's Georgics, for instance, have revealed similarly 'dazzling coincidences').

Critics further note that while the speed of light is constant, both the length of an Earth day and lunar orbit distance are increasing, but the ratio between them is not constant and increases over time. This is a simple consequence of Kepler's 3rd law of planetary motion and tidal torque (see [https://archive.wikiislam.net/wiki/Speed_of_Light_in_the_Quran#Parameters here] for details).

{{Quote|{{quran|32|5}}|He disposeth every affair from the heaven unto the earth; thereafter it shall ascend unto Him in a Day the measure whereof is one thousand years of that which ye compute.}}

==Purported historical miracles==
Claims that the Qur'an miraculously preserves information from history generally involve the figure of Pharaoh and ancient Egypt. This section looks at the more common claims.

===Preservation of Pharaoh's body===
The medical Doctor [[Bucailleism|Maurice Bucaille]] is best known for his claim about the mummified body of the Pharaoh Merneptah (d. 1203 BCE), whose body is on display in a museum in Cairo. Merneptah's father was the more famous Rameses II, who died at the age of 90 and suffered from severe arteriosclerosis (nevertheless, Rameses is more commonly associated with the Exodus story). Bucaille claimed that the body of Merneptah, whom he assumes was the ruler in the Exodus story, shows signs of death by drowning, which in turn is claimed to be compatible with the story in {{Quran-range|10|90|92}}. Bucaille examined the mummy when it was temporarily moved to Paris as it was rapidly deteriorating.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|10|90|92}}|And We took the Children of Israel across the sea, and Pharaoh and his soldiers pursued them in tyranny and enmity until, when drowning overtook him, he said, "I believe that there is no deity except that in whom the Children of Israel believe, and I am of the Muslims." Now? And you had disobeyed [Him] before and were of the corrupters? So today We will save you in body that you may be to those who succeed you a sign. And indeed, many among the people, of Our signs, are heedless}}

However, [[w:Merneptah|Merneptah]] suffered from arthritis and atherosclerosis and died as an old man. Further, the salt crystals in his body which was the basis for Bucaille's claim of death by drowning is simply a result of Egyptian burial and preservation practices. Natron, the drying agent used in ancient Egypt is a mixture of baking soda and salt. It is therefore entirely expected to find salt in mummies. In fact, secular historians do not even regard the [[w:The_Exodus#Origins_and_historicity|Exodus to have been a historical event]], let alone identify which Pharaoh was involved in order for him to be a sign for later generations, since there is a total absence of independent evidence to support the story as described in the scriptures.<ref>Hawass, Z. & Saleem, S. (2016). "Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies." D`Auria, S. (ed.) AUC Press. p. 153.</ref>

===Title of Malik (King) vs Pharaoh in the stories of Joseph and Moses===
In the Quranic stories of Moses, the leader of the Egyptians is called Pharaoh (Firaun). However, in the Quranic stories of Joseph in Surah Yusuf, the Egyptian ruler is always called "the king" (al-malik). In this way the Qur'an is said to avoid an anachronism of the Biblical parallels, in which the book of Genesis calls the ruler Pharaoh even in the story of Joseph set hundreds of years earlier.

Critics point out that the most obvious reason for the different Quranic titles is that the author thought Pharaoh was the actual name of the Egyptian ruler and not a title borne by many rulers in Egyptian history. In every instance Firaun is treated as a name, is grammatically an Arabic diptote (like other personal names in the Quran) and always without the definite article, "al-". In contrast, the dozen instances mentioning the ruler in Surah Yusuf use the definite article, al-malik (the king). For a more detailed discussion on this point see [[Historical Errors in the Quran]].

While the pharaoh at the time of the exodus story is traditionally believed to be Rameses II, it is unclear exactly when Joseph is supposed to have lived (secular historians generally consider neither Joseph nor Moses to be historical figures). Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom, Second Intermediate Period, the pharaoh title became the form of address for a person who was king. The [[w:Pharaoh#Etymology|earliest confirmed usage]] of pharaoh as a title is for Akhenaten (reigned c. 1353–1336 BCE), or possibly Thutmose III (c. 1479–1425 BCE).

The miracle claim is somewhat inaccurate regarding its claims about the Bible given that the Joseph parallels in Genesis chapters 39-41 in fact use Melekh (king) and Pharaoh interchangably.<ref>[https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0139.htm "Genesis Chapter 39 בְּרֵאשִׁית"] mechon-mamre.org</ref> Compare for example Genesis [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2039%3A20&version=NIV 39:20], [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2040%3A1&version=NIV 40:1], [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2040%3A6&version=NIV 40:6], [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2041%3A46&version=NIV 41:46], and [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2047%3A11&version=NIV 47:11].

===Pharaoh's claim to divinity===
In a few verses, Pharaoh is quoted referring to himself as a god (See {{Quran|28|38}}, {{Quran|26|29}}, and {{Quran|79|24}}). This knowledge is claimed to have been lost by the time of the Quranic revelation.

{{Quote|{{Quran|28|38}}|And Pharaoh said: O chiefs! I know not that ye have a god other than me, so kindle for me (a fire), O Haman, to bake the mud; and set up for me a lofty tower in order that I may survey the god of Moses; and lo! I deem him of the liars.}}

Aside from controversies concerning exactly in what sense, when and by whom the pharaohs were considered to be divine, Jewish traditions in the centuries before the Quran maintained a trope that the pharaoh made such a claim for himself. These were based on Rabbinic exegesis of two verses in the Biblical book of Ezekiel.<ref>Even the direct verses from Ezekiel (29:3, 29;9) can by themselves in a way be seen to be making Pharaoh a divine figure, as put by Daniel I. Block in his commentary on Ezekiel: "But this leaves open the question of what Pharaoh has made. Is it the Nile? While more subtle than the claims of the prince of Tyre (28:2), the image of Pharaoh as owner and creator of the Nile fits perfectly with Egyptian doctrines of divine kingship." (Block, D. I. [1998]. "The Book of Ezekiel: Chapter 25-48." Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 137.)</ref>

{{Quote|[https://biblehub.com/ezekiel/29-3.htm Ezekiel 29:3]|Speak to him and say: ‘This is what the Sovereign Lord says: “‘I am against you, Pharaoh king of Egypt, you great monster lying among your streams. You say, “The Nile belongs to me; I made it for myself.”}}

{{Quote|[https://biblehub.com/ezekiel/29-9.htm Ezekiel 29:9]|Egypt will become a desolate wasteland. Then they will know that I am the Lord. “‘Because you said, “The Nile is mine; I made it,”}}

The earliest known Rabbinic tradition of this nature occurs in the Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (2th-3th century CE).<ref>Tilly, M & Visotzky, L. B. (2021). Judaism II: Literature. Kohlhammer. p. 105; Stemberger, G. & Strack, H. L. (1996). Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash. Fortress Press. p. 255.</ref> The pharaoh is one of four Biblical figures together chastised in a number of sections for claiming to be a god:

{{Quote|[https://www.sefaria.org/Mekhilta_DeRabbi_Yishmael%2C_Tractate_Shirah.8.7?lang=bi Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael, Tractate Shirah 8:7.]
|''Who Is Like unto Thee Among the Gods, 0 Lord'' (Exod. 15:11). Who is like unto Thee among those who call themselves gods? Pharaoh called himself a god, as it is said: 'The river is mine" (Ezek 29:9}; "And I have made myself" (Ezek. 29.3) [...]}}

We see similar exegesis occuring a number of times in the midrash Tanhuma, a name given to three texts, of which the relevant one is the Yelammedenu (also known as Tanhuma B), though also occuring in later texts such as Exodus Rabba. The earliest date for the final redactive layer of the Tanhuma Yelammedenu is the eigth or nineth century CE.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Midrash_Tanchuma%2C_Introduction?lang=bi Midrash Tanchuma introduction] - Sefaria.org</ref> However, its first phase seems to have existed by the sixth century.<ref>Myron B. Lerner, "The works of Aggadic Midrash and Esther Midrashim" in Eds. Sefrai et. al. (2006) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Aed5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 The literature of the Sages: Second Part] Netherlands: Royal van Gorcum and Fortress Press, p.150</ref> Generally newer research, however, has shown that a good chunck of the material in Midrash Tanhuma can be said to be pre-Islamic in their nature. <ref>Bregman, M. (2021). A Bibliographical Survey of Tanhuma- Yelammedenu Research: Past, Present, and Future. In Nikolsky, R. & Atzmon, A. (eds.) "Studies in the Tanhuma-Yelammedenu Literature" Brill. p. 25.</ref>

Another midrash on this topic from the Yelammedenu, occurs in multiple instances in Midrash Tanhuma:

{{Quote|[https://www.sefaria.org/Midrash_Tanchuma%2C_Bereshit.7.12?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en Midrash Tanhuma, Bereshit 7:12.] |Observe that everyone who desired to be worshipped as a divine being constructed a palace for himself in the midst of the sea. Pharaoh erected a palace in the midst of the water and dammed up the water of the Nile to keep it from flowing into the Mediterranean."}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.sefaria.org/Midrash_Tanchuma%2C_Vaera.5.6?lang=bi Midrash Tanhuma, Vaera 5:6.]|2=[...] He said to them: “You have been speaking falsehood from the start! For I am the lord of the world, and I created myself and the Nile, as is written: The Nile is mine, I made it (Ezek. 29:3).” At that moment he gathered all the wise men of Egypt, and said to them: “Perhaps you have heard about the god of these?” They said to him: “We have heard that he is the son of wise men and the son of early kings.” The Holy One, blessed be He said: They call themselves wise men, but Me (they call) a son of wise men! [...]}}{{Quote|[https://www.sefaria.org/Midrash_Tanchuma%2C_Vaera.9.1?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en Midrash Tanhuma, Vaera 9:1.]|See, I have set thee in God’s stead to Pharaoh (Exod. 7:1). The Holy One, blessed be He, said to Moses: The wicked Pharaoh boasts that he is a god. Make him realize that he is an insignificant being. Indeed, I will make you appear as a god to him. Whence do we know that he claimed to be divine? It is said: My river is mine own, and I have made it for myself (Ezek. 29:3). Therefore, he will look at you and say: “Surely this one is god.”
}}

{{Quote|[https://www.sefaria.org/Midrash_Tanchuma%2C_Vaera.14.1?lang=bi Midrash Tanhuma, Vaera 14:1.]|Why was he going out to the water? Because the wicked man was boasting of himself, for he had said that he was a god and had no need to relieve himself. Therefore he went out to the water in the morning, so that no one would see he was a (mere) man.}}

===A small Exodus===
The Quran contains the story of Moses and the Exodus from Egypt escaping the pharaoh. Modern archaeology carried out extensively across the Egyptian, Israeli/Palestinian and surrounding areas has found an astonishing lack of evidence for this allegedly historical event, with not a single Egyptian chronicle mentioning it, and plentiful evidence for the founding of the Israeli/Jewish people as simply emerging from ancient Canaanites who developed into a distinct culture.<ref>Finkelstein, Israel, and Silberman, Neil Asher. ''[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Bible_Unearthed/lu6ywyJr0CMC?hl=en&gbpv=1 The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts]''. United Kingdom, Free Press, 2002.

See ''Chapter 2: Did the Exodus happen? pp 48-71,'' and ''Chapter 4: Who were the Israelites pp 97-122''</ref>

Some apologists claim that the fact that unlike the Bible, the Quran (which typically lacks more specific details in the story), does not mention the large numbers involved (~600,000 men and more women and children),<ref>Exodus 12:37. The Bible. New International Version. Bible Gateway. Biblegateway.com

''The Israelites journeyed from Rameses to Sukkoth. There were about six hundred thousand men on foot, besides women and children.''</ref> and cite a Quran verse where Pharoah proclaims to his men summoning troops that the Israelites are 'a small band', is evidence for a small scale group that may explain the lack of archaeological evidence for the exodus.
{{Quote|{{Quran|26|53-54}}|53. Then Pharaoh sent into the cities summoners,
54. Pharaoh said: "Indeed, those are but a small band."}}However, a quick examination of the previous verse (Q26:53) shows that firstly Pharoah sent these men to summon more men in different cities (plural), which would not have happened if this was a small number of Israelites, that the assumingly capital city the pharaoh would have resided in could quickly and easily have dealt with.

Secondly, what 'small' means here is not provided and could have a number of meanings, which have typically included being small relative to the larger Egyptian army, or are a small people meaning 'lowliest of people' as a form of insult and ridicule, rather than saying they were small in number. That is how it's been interpreted by classical exegetes who never saw it as negating the biblical story nor the large >600,000 figure which has been taken as fact, including for example Al-Jalalayn,<ref>Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/26.54 ''Verse 26:54''] </ref> Al-Zamakhshari, <ref>Tafsir Al-Zamakhshari on [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=2&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Verse 26:54'']</ref> Al-Qurtubi<ref>Tafsir Al-Qurtubi on ''[https://quran.ksu.edu.sa/tafseer/qortobi/sura26-aya53.html Verse 26:53]''</ref> At-Tabrisī,<ref>Tafsir Al-Tabrisī on [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=3&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&Page=2&Size=1&LanguageId=1 V''erse 26:54'']</ref> Al-Baydawi,<ref>Tafsir Al-Baydawi on ''[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=6&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&Page=2&Size=1&LanguageId=1 Verse 26:54]''</ref> Mawardi,<ref>Tafsir Mawardi on [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=12&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Verse 26:54'']</ref> Ibn Al-Jawzi<ref>Tafsir Ibn Al-Jawzi on [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=15&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Verse 26:54'']</ref>, Al-Tabari (who cites traditions confirming the large number)<ref>Al-Tabari on ''[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=1&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&Page=1&Size=1&LanguageId=1 Verse 26:54]''</ref> and Al-Razi.<ref>Tafsir Al-Razi on ''[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=26&tAyahNo=54&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Verse 26:54]''</ref>

Thirdly, it is worth noting that it is quoting pharaohs' speech and not God telling us directly or for certain that it was 'small'. Pharaoh is set up as a villain who is dishonest, highly arrogant and even violently oppressive repeatedly in the Quran,<ref>''[https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jrme/papers/Vol-10%20Issue-6/Series-5/I1006055560.pdf Pharaoh's personality traits in the Holy Qur'an]'' Dr. Akram A. Mansour Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education, Palestine University, Palestine. ''IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education (IOSR-JRME)'' e-ISSN: 2320–7388, p- ISSN: 2320-737x Volume 10, Issue 6 Ser. V (Nov. – Dec. 2020), PP 55-60. https://www.iosrjournals.org/</ref> i.e. in no way a trustworthy character who would admit that he could be in danger from the Israelites, and when gathering soldiers from other cities could well be simply lying to galvanize the troops as a means of persuasion and/or hide the danger and challenge of the task.

Fourthly, in the Qur'anic version of the story they inherit the people of pharaoh's land, i.e. at least a notable portion of ancient Egypt if not all of it (''see: [[Historical Errors in the Quran#The%20Israelites%20inherit%20Egypt%20as%20well%20as%20Israel/Palestine|Historical Errors in the Quran The Israelites inherit Egypt as well as Israel/Palestine]])'', along with ancient Israel, which would suggest they are of a large relevant size for them to make sense to do so. Along with the Exodus, there is also no evidence of this event ever occurring in either archaeology, Egyptian chronicles or the writings of surrounding kingdoms.

And finally if the Quran really meant to 'correct' a biblical narrative, it easily could have done so by correcting the number of Israelites, just like it directly confronts and 'corrects' Biblical Christian notions of the trinity and crucifixion.

==="Neither Heaven nor Earth wept over them" and the Pyramid texts===
A claim popularised since 2020 alleges that {{Quran|44|29}} is a divine rebuke to an ancient, long lost tribute to the Pharaoh found among the oldest Egyptian funereal texts (known as the [[w:Pyramid_Texts|Pyramid Texts]]"), which were rediscovered in modern times. Critics have challenged the alleged similarity between the Egyptian and Quranic phrases, as well as noting that the former is an isolated example and too early to be relevant to the Quranic Pharaoh. Moreover, they have identified numerous examples of the same motif within immediately pre-Islamic contexts.

{{Quote|{{Quran|44|29}}|And the heaven and earth wept not for them, nor were they reprieved.}}

The Pyramid Texts comprise roughly 2000 lines of hieroglyphic text inside the Old Kingdom pyramids of Saqqara, which have been divided into several hundred utterances. Utterance 553 concerns the resurrection, meal, and ascension of the deceased king. Line 1365c contains the somewhat similar phrase, highlighted below within Utterance 553:

{{Quote|Selected lines from Utterance 553 of the Pyramid Texts, translated by Samuel A. B. Mercer<ref>Samuel A. B. Mercer (1952), ''The Pyramid Texts: In translation and commentary'', Chapter 30. Resurrection, Meal, and Ascension of the Deceased King, Utterance 553, Longman's Green and Co., London
Available to view online [https://www.academia.edu/42872480/the_Book_of_the_Pyramid_Prayers the Pyramid Texts here] and [https://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/pyt/pyt33.htm here]</ref>|1364d. that thou remain Chief of the mighty ones (or, spirits).

1365a. Thou purifiest thyself with these thy four nmś.t-jars,

1365b. (with) the špn.t and ‘ȝt-jar, which come from the sḥ-ntr for thee, that thou mayest become divine.

'''1365c. The sky weeps for thee; the earth trembles for thee;'''

1366a. the śmnt.t-woman laments for thee; the great min.t mourns for thee;

1366b. the feet agitate for thee; the hands wave for thee,

1366c. when thou ascendest to heaven as a star, as the morning star.}}

On the alleged similarity, critics firstly note that the phrase in the Pyramid text concerns the Pharaoh specifically, whereas the Quranic verse refers to Pharaoh and his army. Secondly, the Pyramid text says that the Heavens weep and the Earth trembles for him, whereas the Quran denies the weeping of both the Heavens and the Earth for them.

Proponents of the miracle claim sometimes imply that the Pyramid text motif was a significant and sustained concept in Egyptian mythology. However, unlike some of the Pyramid Text utterances which are also found later in the middle kingdom and new kingdom, Utterance 553 is only found in the Pyramid of Pepi I.<ref>"On the east wall of Pepi I's 'waiting' room, Utt. 553 1353-1369, a resurrection text found only in this pyramid narrates the process by which the deceased king rises from his supine state and begins the journey to the sky"
Jennifer E. Hellem (2001), ''[[https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/906fde2d-ca5a-4b64-a0e2-abb5866e2422/content The Presence of Myth in the Pyramid Texts]]'', PhD thesis for the University of Toronto, p. 98</ref> It is part of a group of Utterances which to varying degrees are found on the East wall of the waiting rooms in the Pyramids of Pepi I, Merenre, and Pepi II at Saqqara.<ref>Ibid. p. 89</ref> These Old Kingdom Pyramids are over 4000 years old and pre-date by 1000 years the reign of Ramesses II, popularly associated with the Biblical and Quranic Pharaoh. A similar motif has not been identified again in an Egyptian context until 305 BC under Ptolemaic rule in a song referring to Osiris.<ref>"The countries and lands weep for you, The regions mourn for you, inasmuch as you are He-who-awakes-in-health; Heaven and earth weep for you, inasmuch as you are greater than the gods"
[https://www.attalus.org/egypt/isis_nephthys.html The Songs of Isis and Nephthys] translated by R. O. Faulkner and reproduced on www.attalus.org</ref>

Finally, critics have identified similar motifs in Judeo-Christian contexts in the centuries immediately before Islam. Here are a few examples (many more, including from Biblical and Rabbinic contexts are collated [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/1bgalb0/heavens_and_earth_weeping_in_preislamic_near/ here])

The 6th century CE Syriac church father Narsai lamented how mankind destroys itself through its deeds:

{{Quote|Narsai, Homily 12, On the Evil of Time, translated by Lucas Van Rompay<ref>Narsai, Homily 12, 'On the Evil of the Time' (trans. Lucas Van Rompay) in Butts A. M. et al. (eds) ''Narsai: The Homilies: Volume 1'', Leuven: Peeters, p. 178, 2024</ref>|About our destruction heaven and earth weep and wail, and we alone are not aware of the destruction of our race.}}

Lamentations Rabbah, a 3rd to 5th century CE midrash on the Biblical book of Lamentations, says of Daughter Zion:

{{Quote|Midrash Rabbah Lamentations<ref>Freehman, H. and Simon, M. (eds.) ''Midrash Rabbah Deuteronomy Lamentations'', Lamentations I. 2 §23 p. 94, 1939 [https://archive.org/details/midrashrabbah0000unse_o6q1/page/94/mode/2up?view=theater archive]</ref>|she weeps and makes heaven and earth to weep with her, for is it not written, ''The sun and the moon are become black'' (Joel II, 10)?}}

Al Zamakhshari (d. 1143 CE) in his commentary on the Quran says that the phrase was in use by Arabs before quoting example usage by Muhammad and others:
{{Quote|al Kashshaf by al Zamakhshari<ref>al-Zamakhshari - [https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=2&tSoraNo=44&tAyahNo=29&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 al-Khashshaf on Quran 44:29] - altafsir.com</ref>|When an important person died, the Arabs would glorify his death by saying, "the heavens and the earth wept for him, the wind wept for him, the sun darkened for him."}}

==See also==

*[[Scientific Errors in the Quran]]

*[[Scientific Errors in the Hadith]]

*[[Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Prophecies|Islamic Prophecies]]

==External links==

*[https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC0D4187BE2661850 The Rationalizer: Top scientists comment on the Quran] (video playlist, Interviews in 2011 with quote-mined scientists who supposedly approved the so-called scientific miracles: Alfred Kroner, William Hay, Allison Palmer, Tom Armstrong)
*[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1011738146332966760 Western Scholars Play Key Role in Touting `Science' of the Quran] by Daniel Golden, Wall Street Journal, January 23, 2002 ([https://archive.is/XTgZH archive] without paywall)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3ewI1YXc-c Sherif Gaber - Zakir Naik - The Wizard of Scientific Miracles] - ''YouTube Video''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OvG-606KqwU&t=35s The Masked Arab: Scientific miracles in the Quran? Analysis of Zakir Naik's claims] - ''YouTube video''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vyqaohY3gKY Hassan Radwan - Guide to Scientific Miracles in the Qu'ran] - ''YouTube video''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6jiI367cmM Hassan Radwan - Qu'ran's Miracle of Female Honey Bees] - ''YouTube video''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wyUGc8SGBfQ Hassan Radwan - The Qu'ran's Miracle of Haman] - ''YouTube video''
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vS1Mn90T2Bc CaptainDisguise: Miracle of the Pharaoh & Maurice Bucaille - Why do we laugh at Dawahgandists? #Dawahganda] - ''YouTube video''
*[https://www.youtube.com/@islamwhattheydonttellyou164 islamwhattheydonttellyou164] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9Voh0xLLUw Waters that Never Mix: The Honest Truth], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_M-7qh2bko Underwater Waves], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCzOHqnBi-Q Three Layers of Darkness] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M-w3Nxh-r8c&t=1360s The Quran and Science] - ''YouTube videos''

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Prophecies]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Reproductive sciences]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[ar:الإعجاز_العلمي_في_القرآن]]

Historical Errors in the Quran

2026-03-20T23:22:41Z

Lightyears: /* The singular Pharaoh */ Revised based on recent posts on AcademicQuran reddit. Reduced amount of content contrasting with "The King" is this is often contested as a strong analogy as it isn't a foreign loan word.

{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}

One of the major criticisms brought to bear against the [[Quran]], as well as the [[Hadith]], by both serious scholars and critics is that it reinforces historical misconceptions common among the Arab contemporaries of its 7th century author. While much effort has been exerted by modern Islamic scholars towards reconciling what appear to modern readers as blatant historical errors with the Islamic belief in the inerrancy of the Quran, their arguments have not yet won any assent outside their circles and are generally regarded as lacking rigor. It is important to note that modern Islamic scholars are not the first to note the contradictions between historical statements found in the Quran and the views of contemporary historians — in fact, even some classical Islamic scholars noted that there were certain historical claims in the Quran and hadith which, taken literally (as Islamic orthodoxy holds they should be), could not easily be reconciled with what they held to be basic and incontrovertible facts about history.
[[File:Hegra-tombs.jpg|right|thumb|Some of the 1st century CE Nabatean Tombs at the Hegra UNESCO world heritage site between Medina and Tabuk. The Quran mistakes these for homes and palaces built before the time of Pharaoh.]]

== Regarding ancient religious doctrine ==

===Mary as part of the Trinity===
Mainstream Christian doctrine has never held Mary to be a part of the Trinity. The Qur'an, however, apparently implies as much, leading some to conclude that Muhammad misunderstood Christian doctrine.{{Quote|{{Quran|5|116}}|
And behold! Allah will say: "O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, '''worship me and my mother as gods''' in derogation of Allah'?" He will say: "Glory to Thee! never could I say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thou knowest what is in my heart, Thou I know not what is in Thine. For Thou knowest in full all that is hidden}}
This alternative formulation of the trinity is present even more clearly in {{Quran-range|5|72|75}}, which makes no mention of the holy spirit and takes measure to disprove the divinity of Jesus and his mother by pointing out that they, like normal human beings, also ate food.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|72|75}}|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}

A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible interpretation so far by academic scholars sees these verses as a response to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (or a misunderstanding thereof, in the view of critics). For details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

===Mary as Miriam===
{{main|Mary the sister of Aaron in the Quran}}Mary the mother of Jesus was born in the first century BCE and was not related to Moses and his family whose story is set 1500 years earlier. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaron and daughter of Amram (Imran). The Quran appears to confuse these two characters, as it describes Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "Sister of Aaron" and her mother as the "wife of Imran" in context where the "Imran" being discussed is evidently Miriam's father. A possible source of this confusion is the fact that both Miriam and Mary had the same name in Arabic, or were at least similar enough sounding for the original distinction to have been lost or neglected (the word used in either case in the Quran is the same and is pronounced ''maryam'').{{Quote|{{Quran-range|19|27|28}}|Then she brought him to her own folk, carrying him. They said: O Mary! Thou hast come with an amazing thing. '''O sister of Aaron!''' Thy father was not a wicked man nor was thy mother a harlot.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|66|12}}|And Mary, '''daughter of 'Imran''', whose body was chaste, therefor We breathed therein something of Our Spirit. And she put faith in the words of her Lord and His scriptures, and was of the obedient.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|3|33|36}}| Lo! Allah preferred Adam and Noah and the Family of Abraham '''and the Family of 'Imran''' above (all His) creatures. They were descendants one of another. Allah is Hearer, Knower. (Remember) when the '''wife of 'Imran''' said: My Lord! I have vowed unto Thee that which is in my belly as a consecrated (offering). Accept it from me. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Hearer, the Knower! And when she was delivered she said: My Lord! Lo! I am delivered of a female - Allah knew best of what she was delivered - the male is not as the female; and lo! I have named her Mary, and lo! I crave Thy protection for her and for her offspring from Satan the outcast.}}
Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements in the view of critics. {{Muslim||2135|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed customarily as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that simply by coincidence this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.

==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
Historically, Judaism has been a strict form of monotheism. The Quran, by contrast, states that the Jews call ''ʿUzayr'' (traditionally interpreted as the Biblical figure Ezra) the son of God. This is compared directly with Christians calling Jesus the son of God.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|30|31}}|30 The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?
31 They have taken their scholars and monks as lords besides Allah, and [also] the Messiah, the son of Mary. And they were not commanded except to worship one God; there is no deity except Him. Exalted is He above whatever they associate with Him.}}

Academic scholars in the past have theorized that the statement derives from the high esteem in which the Biblical Ezra was held in the Talmud (though not as the "son of god"), or from the angel Azazel in 1 Enoch (a non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic text)<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Quran and Bible: Text and Commentary'', New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018, pp. 307-8 Reynolds notes that according to one opinion cited in b. Sanhedrin 21b, "''Had Moses not preceded him, Ezra would have been worthy of receiving the Torah for Israel''".</ref> while others have simply inferred that the verse is an example of the thematic assumption in the Quran that humans tend to repeat the same religious mistakes, in this case transferring a Christian concept onto the Jews.<ref>Nicolai Sinai, ''The Qur'an: A Historical-Critical Introduction'', Edinburgh University Press, 2018, p. 201</ref>

====Identification as R. Eliezer====
In 2025 Holger Zellentin presented a new identification of 'Uzayr which has persuaded many academic scholars.<ref>[https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Holger Zellentin, "The Divine Authorship of the Misnhah in the Qur'an and in the Rabbinic Tradition] - Youtube.com uploaded 14 May 2025. View from 20 minutes to the end for the identification of 'Uzayr as R. Eliezer 
This paper was presented at the conference 'The “Seven Long Ones” (al-Sabʿ al-Ṭiwāl): Approaches to Surahs 2–7 and 9', held at Pembroke College, Oxford (24-25 March 2025)</ref>

[[w:Eliezer ben Hurcanus|Eliezer ben Hurcanus]] (ʾEliʿezer, d. 2nd century CE), known as Rabbi Eliezer or Eliezer ha-Gadol ("the Great") is the 6th most commonly mentioned sage in the Mishnah, a 3rd century CE written compilation of Jewish oral traditions which was the first written work of Rabbinic literature. The Mishnah claims its traditions were handed down orally from Moses on Mount Sinai. This concept, later termed "oral Torah" is first seen around the 1st century CE.

Rabbis revered R. Eliezer with great legal authority. A 5th century Palestinian Rabbinic text has God himself quoting the future Rabbi's legal interpretations to Moses on Mount Sinai and promising that this "righteous one" will be born in Moses' lineage.<ref>Pesikta des Rav Kahana 4:7-8. 
See at 21 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref> A later text of uncertain date adds that on this occasion the voice of god stated "R. Eliezer my son said...".
<ref>Tanhuma Ḥukat (Chukat) 8-9 (Warsaw), part 2, folio 79a quoted at 26 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref>

The Jerusalem Talmud (4th/5th century CE, one of two major commentaries on the Mishnah), narrates that after losing a debate and facing excommunication by his peers, a voice from heaven defended the rabbi: "The law accords with Eliezer my son".<ref>See at 27 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation 
[https://www.sefaria.org/Jerusalem_Talmud_Moed_Katan.3.1.7?lang=bi Jerusalem Talmud: Moed Katan 3:1:7] - Sefaria.org</ref>

The name ʾEliʿezer means “help of god" in Hebrew, from ʾEl (god) and ʿ-z-r (“help”). According to Zellentin, 'Uzayr in Q. 9:30 could be an Arabic version of ʿezer, in the diminutive form (fu’ayl) which adds "ay" to mean, "little helper". This could be a Quranic insult, though possibly was just an affectionate name for the scholar among Arabic speaking Jews.<ref>See from 29 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]. 
Zellentin points out both possibilities. Early Muslims gave the rival prophet Maslamah the insulting diminutive Musaylimah, while on the other hand Ali's sons were called Hasan and Husayn.</ref>

The next verse (Q. 9:31) criticises the authority accorded by Jews to their scholars, just as the Christians do with theirs and with Jesus. Building on an observation by Saqib Hussain, Zellentin argues that this parallel structure with the previous verse is further evidence that 'Uzayr refers to a rabbinic figure.<ref>At 28 minutes in [https://youtube.com/watch?v=W3Pj8fVo7Y0 Zellentin's presentation]</ref><ref name="SidkyZellentin">The argument was further developed in a presentation by Hythem Sidky with Zellentin [https://event.fourwaves.com/iqsa2025/abstracts/94a52e0d-1e00-470c-a5fc-484fb862df96 Once again on ʿUzayr, the Son of God] (2025) 
Their draft paper of the same title is also available online (submitted to the Journal of Quranic Studies) 
Zellentin and Sidky describe the Quranic accusation of deification as hyperbolic, though certainly not entirely baseless. They also variously describe its polemic as taking some poetic license, and as giving a simple, historically well-founded message.</ref>

====Historical accuracy of the polemic====
Assuming this identification is correct, it has also however been pointed out that "son of god" did not denote any kind of quasi-divine status in Judaism but rather is common language in the Hebrew Bible. In [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Chronicles%2028&version=NIV 1 Chronicles 28:6] Solomon is chosen to be God's son. In the Babylonian Talmud (compiled 6th century CE) and wider tradition, a voice from heaven calls several other Rabbis "my son", including Yishmael ben Elisha,<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.7a.4?ven=hebrew|William_Davidson_Edition_-_Vocalized_Aramaic&lang=bi Berakhot 7a] - Sefaria.org</ref> and Hanina ben Dosa.<ref>[https://www.sefaria.org/Berakhot.17b.4?lang=bi Barekhot 17b], [https://www.sefaria.org/Taanit.24b.14?lang=bi Taanit 24b], and [https://www.sefaria.org/Chullin.86a.5?lang=bi Chullin 86a] - Sefaria.org</ref> The heavenly voice in each case uses the same phrasing formula as for Rabbi Eliezer in the Jerusalem Talmud.<ref name="SidkyZellentin" />

It may be that Q. 9:30 means no more than that the Jewish scholars (particularly those who follow the Jerusalem Talmud) are like Christians and disbelievers of old in terms of applying "son of god" language to a revered figure, and in ascribing legislative authority to such a man or men which in monotheism belongs to Allah alone (Q. 9:31).

On the other hand, others have noted the vehemence with which Q. 9:30 polemically puts Jews in similar company to Christians in calling a man the son of god. It says they both imitate the saying of those who disbelieved in the past, invokes Allah's destruction on them and is astonished at their delusion. This may indicate that the author thought Jews called R. Eliezer the son of God in a more literal sense. It would be an easy mistake to make or could be deliberate exaggeration. Significantly, the end of Q. 9:31 accuses both the Jews and Christians of failing to worship only one god and of shirk (associating partners with Allah). This may suggest a theological parallel between Christian worship of Jesus and an imagined quasi-divine Jewish reverence for R. Eliezer.

Ironically, the Quran itself unwittingly credits rabbinic interpretations as divine revelation. The most famous example [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Whoever_kills_a_soul_it_is_as_if_he_has_slain_mankind|occurs in Q. 5:32]]. Some critics also argue there is a double standard in the polemic since {{Quran|33|36}} gives legal authority to Allah and Muhammad, and due to the traditional Sunni reliance on his sunnah as recorded in hadiths.

=== The afterlife in the Torah ===
The Quran states that the warnings of hell are in the most ancient of scriptures, listing Moses's (elsewhere listed as the Torah, e.g. {{Quran|5|44}}) and the prophet Abraham's.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|87|9|19}}|So remind, if the reminder is useful! He who fears God will take heed but the wretched one will turn away from it, the one who will roast in the great fire. There he will neither die nor live. Blessed be the one who purifies himself and recall the name of his Lord and prays. But you prefer the life of this world, while the world to come is better and more permanent. This is in the most ancient scriptures, the scriptures of Abraham and Moses.}}
However, despite the 'warning' being essentially the most important point of the scriptures, alongside worship of one God, and is mentioned many times in the Quran - the Torah itself contains no references to hell (or heaven). Instead a highly ambiguous vision of the afterlife in 'Sheol' is provided that includes both Jews and non-Jews, that does not come close to matching any Islamic description.<ref>''[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/afterlife Afterlife in Judaism]'' (jewishvirtuallibrary.org) Sources used: ''Encyclopaedia Judaica''. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved; Joseph Telushkin. ''Jewish Literacy''. NY: William Morrow and Co., 1991. Reprinted by permission of the author.

</ref> While apologists argue the Torah has been corrupted, this corruption would have been enormous, happening across many different people in the community and different time periods to change such a fundamental aspect of the religion, with no clear reason as to why.

This apologetic view also goes against scholarly consensus that ideas of rewards for the good and punishment for the evil only developed during Second-Temple Judaism, found in scriptures written centuries post the torah; particularly due to its interactions with the Hellenistic Greeks, and the theological problems of its righteous members (Jews) dying and facing oppression for their belief for no reward.<ref>''[https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95914/1/BR2_Finney.pdf This is a repository copy of Afterlives of the Afterlife: The Development of Hell in its Jewish and Christian Contexts.]'' Finney, M.T. (2013) Afterlives of the Afterlife: The Development of Hell in its Jewish and Christian Contexts. In: Exum, J.C. and Clines, D.J.A., (eds.) Biblical Reception. Sheffield Phoenix Press , Sheffield . ISBN 978-1-907534-70-6

E.g. see the section: ''Second-Temple Judaism: Resurrection and the Myths of Israel''</ref> As Biblical scholar Bart Ehrman, who wrote a book on the subject ''Journeys to Heaven and Hell'',<ref>''[https://yalebooks.co.uk/book/9780300265163/journeys-to-heaven-and-hell/ Journeys to Heaven and Hell Tours of the Afterlife in the Early Christian Tradition.]'' Bart D. Ehrman. Yale University Press. 2022.</ref> stated in an article for Time Magazine.
{{Quote|[https://time.com/5822598/jesus-really-said-heaven-hell/ What Jesus Really Said About Heaven and Hell. Time. Bart D. Ehrman. 2020.]|And so, traditional Israelites did not believe in life after death, only death after death. That is what made death so mournful: nothing could make an afterlife existence sweet, since there was no life at all, and thus no family, friends, conversations, food, drink – no communion even with God. God would forget the person and the person could not even worship. The most one could hope for was a good and particularly long life here and now.
But Jews began to change their view over time, although it too never involved imagining a heaven or hell. About two hundred years before Jesus, Jewish thinkers began to believe that there had to be something beyond death—a kind of justice to come.}}
There is also no known scripture given to Abraham.

=== Muhammad predicted by Jesus ===
The Qur'an claims [[Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)|Jesus]] predicted a future messenger named Ahmad, which Islamic tradition unanimously agrees is another name for the Islamic prophet Muhammad.<ref>E.g. see Tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/61.6 Surah 61 Verse 6] </ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran|61|6}}|And when said Jesus, son (of) Maryam, "O Children (of) Israel! Indeed, I am (the) Messenger (of) Allah to you, confirming that which (was) between my hands of the Torah and bringing glad tidings (of) a Messenger to come from after me, whose name (will be) Ahmad." But when he came to them with clear proofs, they said, "This (is) a magic clear."}}
There is no contemporary evidence for this claim which actively contradicts Christian teachings and writings.
{{Quote|Nickel, Gordon D.. The Quran with Christian Commentary: A Guide to Understanding the Scripture of Islam (p. 566). Zondervan Academic. Kindle Edition.|The Quran asserts that ‘Īsā speaks of “a messenger who will come after me.” The name of this messenger would be aḥmad, a word that literally means “more praised.” Muslims have interpreted aḥmad to be another name for Muhammad, and many have cited this verse to claim that the coming of Islam’s messenger was prophesied. In the Gospel accounts, Jesus spoke not of a messenger but of a “Counselor” (Gk. paraklētos) to come, whom Jesus clearly identified as the “Holy Spirit” and the “Spirit of truth” (John 14:17, 26; 15:26; 16:15). Jesus further specified that this Counselor would be sent by the Father in Jesus’ name (John 14:26), would testify about Jesus (John 15:26), would remind believers of everything that Jesus said (John 14:26), and would bring glory to Jesus by taking what belongs to Jesus and making it known (John 16:14). Neither Quran nor hadith fulfill these prophecies about the “Counselor” found in the New Testament, and it is fair to question whether the tasks of the Holy Spirit as described by Jesus in John 14–16 are within the capabilities of any human. The New Testament documents the fulfillment of Jesus’ words in the coming of the Holy Spirit in Acts 2.}}

== Regarding general history ==

=== Massive wall of iron ===
''See: [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance]]''
The Qur'an presents a version of the mid 6th century ''Syriac Alexander Legend'' about Alexander the Great as a great king who helps a people build a massive wall of iron and brass between two mountains to hold back the tribes of Gog and Magog. The Quran then states, along with the hadith, that this wall and the tribes it traps will remain in place until the Day of Judgement. Modern satellites and near comprehensive exploration of the Earth's surface, however, have yet to reveal any trace of any such massive structure entrapping those tribes.

The trumpet blowing in {{Quran|18|99}} is referred to many other times in the Qur'an as happening on judgement day (see {{Quran|27|87}}, {{Quran|69|13}} and {{Quran|39|68}}), with the word 'yawm' يوم being used in Q18:99 and 18:100, meaning on that ''day''<ref>[http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85?cat=50 Lane's Lexicon dictionary - يوم]</ref> specifically. {{Quote|{{Quran-range|18|96|101}}|Bring me pieces of iron!’ When he had levelled up between the flanks, he said, ‘Blow!’ When he had turned it into fire, he said, ‘Bring me molten copper to pour over it.’
So they could neither scale it, nor could they make a hole in it. He said, ‘This is a mercy from my Lord. But when the promise of my Lord is fulfilled, He will level it; and my Lord’s promise is true.’
That day We shall let them surge over one another, '''the Trumpet will be blown''', and We shall gather them all, and on that day We shall bring hell into view visibly for the faithless.
Those whose eyes were blind to My remembrance and who could not hear.}}Another passage confirms that this wall was supposedly still intact and that its future opening will be associated with other apocalyptic events.{{Quote|{{Quran-range|21|95|97}}|But there is a ban on any population which We have destroyed: that they shall not return,
Until the Gog and Magog (people) are let through (their barrier), and they swiftly swarm from every hill.
Then will the true promise draw nigh (of fulfilment): then behold! the eyes of the Unbelievers will fixedly stare in horror: "Ah! Woe to us! we were indeed heedless of this; nay, we truly did wrong!"}}
For the full context of the other verses mentioned above which mention the trumpet blowing on judgement day, see
{{Quran-range|27|83|90}}, {{Quran-range|69|13|18}} and {{Quran-range|39|67|70}}.

==== Dhul-Qarnayn/Alexander the great as a monotheist ====
{{Main|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance}}
We find in Surah Al-Kahf, ({{Quran-range|18|83|101}}), a story about a powerful prophet of Allah 'Dhul-Qarnayn' (meaning 'The Two horned one'), who along with other tasks, builds the massive wall of iron mentioned above. This is a retelling of a common antiquity story based of Alexander the Great.<ref>Van Bladel, Kevin, “''[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Qur_an_in_its_Historical_Context/DbtkpgGn4CEC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA175&printsec=frontcover The Alexander legend in the Qur‘an 18:83-102″, in "The Qur’ān in Its Historical Context]''", Ed. Gabriel Said Reynolds, New York: Routledge, 2007.</ref> However, this is not the real/historical Alexander, who was a polytheist with no relation to the Judaeo-Christian religion,<ref>''[https://ddd.uab.cat/pub/karanos/karanos_a2022v5/karanos_a2022v5p51.pdf Religion and Alexander the Great.]'' Edward M. Anson. Karanos 5, 2022 51-74. </ref> but rather a legendary version later recast as monotheist by Christians, whose connections and evidence for this can be seen in the main article.

===David invented coats of mail===
Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.

In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|34|10|11}}| And assuredly We gave David grace from Us, (saying): O ye hills and birds, echo his psalms of praise! And We made the iron supple unto him, Saying: Make thou long coats of mail and measure the links (thereof). And do ye right. Lo! I am Seer of what ye do. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|21|79|80}}| And We made Solomon to understand (the case); and unto each of them We gave judgment and knowledge. And we subdued the hills and the birds to hymn (His) praise along with David. We were the doers (thereof). And We taught him the art of making garments (of mail) to protect you in your daring. Are ye then thankful?}}

Chainmail seems to have been familiar to the early Muslims. Muhammad is narrated as using a metaphor of two coats of iron (junnataani min hadeedin جُنَّتَانِ مِنْ حَدِيدٍ), one owned by a generous person and the other by a miser in whose coat every ring (halqat حَلْقَةٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume2/00000265.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 629 حلقة]</ref>) becomes close together ({{Muslim||1021c|reference}}). Ibn Kathir [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/34.11 in his tafsir for 34:11] has narrations in which Mujahid and Ibn Abbas use that same arabic word meaning rings (الحلقة) to explain the Quranic verse<ref>[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=7&tSoraNo=34&tAyahNo=11&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for 34:11 (Arabic)]</ref>.

===Crucifixions in ancient Egypt===
The first historical reference to crucifixion as a method of execution is from 500 BCE, when the technique began being used in several middle eastern cultures.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/crucifixion-capital-punishment crucifixion] | capital punishment | Britannica</ref> The Qur'an, by contrast, tells of crucifixions at the time of Moses (approximately 1500 BCE) as well as Joseph (approximately 2000 BCE).

{{Quote|{{Quran|12|41}}|
O two companions of prison, as for one of you, he will give drink to his master of wine; but as for the other, he will be crucified, and the birds will eat from his head. The matter has been decreed about which you both inquire." }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|71}}|
(Pharaoh) said: Ye put faith in him before I give you leave. Lo! he is your chief who taught you magic. Now surely I shall cut off your hands and your feet alternately, and '''I shall crucify you on the trunks of palm trees''', and ye shall know for certain which of us hath sterner and more lasting punishment.}}

Ancient Egypt has been subjected to extensive study by archaeologists. While there exists hieroglyphic evidence of people impaled by upright wooden stakes through their torsos in ancient Egypt, this remains distinct from crucifixions "on the trunks of palm trees" described in the Quran, as palm trees are of too great girth to be used to vertically impale an individual. Nor is there any evidence that the Arabic verb for crucifixion (salaba) could also mean "to impale".<ref>salaba [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000435.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1711-1713 - صلب]</ref>

The same verb for crucifixion is used in {{Quran|4|157}} regarding Jesus. It appears again in {{Quran|5|33}} which lists killing and crucifixion as distinct punishments, probably as the latter is a long, drawn out death (impalement would not be). Two other verses, {{Quran|38|12}} and {{Quran|89|8}}, use another word to call Pharaoh "owner of the pegs" or "stakes". Sometimes this is claimed to refer to impalement and even mistranslated as such. However, the context in {{Quran-range|89|6|11}} shows that it refers to unspecified and lasting rock-hewn monuments (most likely columned temples, obelisks or possibly even the pyramids).

Moreover, there is no ancient Egyptian evidence of cross amputation (punitive removal of a single hand and foot on opposite sides). It seems that here again a contemporary punitive practice has been transferred in the Quran to ancient Egypt. A parallel using the same Arabic words occurs in {{Quran|5|33}}, which commands crucifixion or cross amputation among a range of punishment options (both of which became part of Islamic jurisprudence). In the exceptionally cruel combination of both punishments put in the mouth of Pharaoh in 20:71 quoted above (see also {{Quran|7|124}} and {{Quran|26|49}}), the victim would need to be fastened to the palm tree by what remains of their limbs. In Roman crucifixion, ropes were typically used, though nails were sometimes driven through the heel bones and perhaps between the ulnar and radius above each wrist. Sometimes a crossbeam (patibulum) was added, though other times just a tree or upright post (''crux simplex'', or ''stipes''), which is likely what the Quranic author had in mind.<ref>[https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion Dispelling Some Myths: Crucifixion] - Tastes of History, March 31, 2024 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20250619085601/https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion archive])</ref>

Professor Sean W Anthony notes this anachronism and why it may have occurred when asked about it in his Reddit r/AcademicQuran [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/13rkbxo/comment/jll1x3v/?utm_source=share&utm_medium=web3x&utm_name=web3xcss&utm_term=1&utm_content=share_button AMA].

===Samarians in ancient Egypt===
The Qu'ran states that Moses dealt with a Samarian during his time. However the Samarians did not exist until well over half a millennium after Moses is supposed to have existed.

Oxford Bibliographies (an academic website) says the following:

{{Quote|[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0176.xml Oxford Bibliographies - Samaria/Samaritans]|Samaria (Hebrew: Shomron) is mentioned in the Bible in 1 Kings 16:24 as the name of the mountain on which Omri, ruler of the northern Israelite kingdom in the 9th century BCE, built his capital, naming it also Samaria. After the conquest of the Northern Kingdom by the Assyrians in 722/721 BCE, the district surrounding the city was likewise called Samaria (Assyrian: Samerina). The Bible presents an etiology or folk etymology when it claims that the city was named after Shemer, the original owner from whom Omri bought the hill. It is more likely that the name is derived from the root šmr, to “watch, to guard”; that is, the hill was a point from which particularly the north–south route could be watched and guarded.}}

The likely root of the Quranic confusion is the story in the Bible, [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hosea%208&version=NIV Hosea 8:5-8] or [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Kings%2012&version=NIV 1 Kings 12:25-29] where there is mentioned a golden calf (or two of them) created in Samaria after the time of Solomon. One modern perspective holds that the Qur'an might be referring to Zimri, son of Salu (Numbers 25:14). However, the Quranic character is referred to three times in {{Quran-range|20|85|88}} as l-sāmiriyu with the definite article, "the Samiri", so this is a descriptive title rather than a proper name.

{{Quote|{{Quran|20|85}}|“( Allah) said; ‘We have tested thy people in thy absence: the Samiri has led them astray’.” }}{{Quote|{{Quran|20|87}}|They said, ‘We did not fail our tryst with you of our own accord, but we were laden with the weight of those people’s ornaments, and we cast them [into the fire] and so did the Samiri.’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|20|95}}|“( Moses) said, ‘What then is thy case, O Samiri?’”}}

===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===
One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn<ref>Pharaoh classical Arabic dictionaries - [http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B9%D9%88%D9%86 فرعون]</ref>) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). As noted by Gabriel Said Reynolds,<ref>[https://x.com/GabrielSaidR/status/1676918663767523331 x.com post by Gabriel Said Reynolds] - 6 July 2023</ref> the Quran in contrast has a single antagonist throughout the story. Furthermore, the Quran consistently treats fir'awn as his name rather than a title.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|28|8|9}}|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}

The term “Pharaoh,” or parʿo, means “Great Palace/house” in ancient Egyptian. The word came to be used metonymically for the Egyptian king under the New Kingdom (starting in the 18th dynasty, c. 1539–c. 1292 BCE), and by the 22nd dynasty (c. 943–c. 746 BCE) it had been adopted as an epithet of respect, but it was not the king’s ''formal'' title.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/pharaoh Pharaoh Entry] - Britannica

</ref> Silverstein (2012) notes that it is an idiosyncratic Biblical usage to refer to the ruler of Egypt in this way – giving as an example just as one nowadays might say that “the White House” has issued a statement when referring to the US president.<ref>[https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203813539-26/qur%CA%BE%C4%81nic-pharaoh-1-adam-silverstein ''The Qur'anic Pharaoh'']. Adam Silverstein. Taylor and Francis.

Found in: ''pp. 467 - 477, New Perspectives on the Qur'an. The Qur'an in its Historical Context 2''. Edited By Gabriel Reynolds. Edition: 1st Edition. First Published 2011. ImprintRoutledge.

DOI <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813539</nowiki>

eBook ISBN9780203813539
</ref> So the Qur'an takes its understanding from the Biblical Pharaoh rather than Egyptian one.<ref>Ibid. p. 467.</ref>

However, the Bible nevertheless understands “Pharaoh” to be a regal title held by multiple rulers during the times of Joseph and Moses, whereas the Qurʾān in contrast takes Firʿawn to be a more sharply defined historical character.<ref>Ibid. p. 468</ref> The Bible calls each of the various rulers “Pharaoh” in the Pentateuch, while some later rulers are mentioned as: "Pharaoh [name], King of Egypt", for example in [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jer+44.30&version=NIV Jeremiah 44:30].

According to academic scholars, the Quranic understanding of Pharaoh as the character's name is also evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-Malik, the King), even in construct.

This is sometimes countered by noting a small number of other foreign words loaned into Arabic: Caesar (قيصر), Khosrow (كسرى), and Tubba' (تُبَّع), though these originated as personal names and became titles/adopted names of successive rulers. Foreign titles such as al-Baba (the Pope) or al-Najashi (from Negus, the Abbysinian word for King) generally take the definite article and are not diptotes in Arabic. Even Caesar, Khusrow and Tubba' would in some contexts take the definite article or appear in construct clearly as titles. With the Quranic firʿawn though, this is never seen in any verse.

The reader is left with the strong impression that firʿawn is his name and not a title held by multiple rulers. In {{Quran|40|24}} he even appears in a list of names: "Pharaoh, Haman and Qarun". Similarly, {{Quran-range|28|8|9}} quoted above mentions "Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers" as well as the "family of Pharaoh" (ālu fir'ʿawna). The ālu [name] structure is used for many other personal names in the Quran such as ālu mūsā (family of Moses) in {{Quran|2|248}}.

Historian Sean W Anthony explains this point: ''It's a relatively simple inference. The Qur'an only calls the enemy of Moses "Pharoah" and *never* calls him the "pharoah of Egypt", "one of the pharoahs", etc. Also one has the phrase آل فرعون like آل موسى, etc. This is consistent w/ usage of "Pharoah" as a name in hadith, too.''<ref>X.com post by Sean Anthony [https://x.com/shahanSean/status/1676710677988212743 here] and [https://x.com/shahanSean/status/1676716789688877057 here] - 5 July 2023</ref>

The Quranic mistake was shared by some prominent Christian preachers before Islam such as Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394) who made the same mistake.<ref>Gregory of Nyssa, ''[http://www.newhumanityinstitute.org/pdf-articles/Gregory-of-Nyssa-The-Life-of-Moses.pdf Life of Moses 1.24].''

'''Pharaoh (for this was the Egyptian tyrant's name)''' attempted to counter the divine signs performed by Moses and Aaron with magical tricks performed by his sorcerers.</ref> It is also sometimes written this way in the Syriac Bible (the Peshitta - believed to be published 2nd century CE.)<ref>Peshitta verse [https://dukhrana.com/peshitta/analyze_verse.php?verse=Acts+7:13&font=Estrangelo+Edessa Acts 7:13]</ref> such as in Acts 7:13, and in the 6th century Syriac ''Cave of Treasures'', so Muhammad would not be the first to make the mistake, but rather could have simply heard it this way to begin with (see [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/1rpwmq6/pharaoh_is_a_name_in_the_quran_not_a_title/ here] for further academic discussion and details).

===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===
The Qur'anic narrative concerning Thamūd contains several major historical inaccuracies:

# The carved structures at al-Hijr were tombs, not homes or palaces, as described in the Qur'an.
# These tombs were built by the Nabateans, not the Thamūd.
# They were built from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE, not before Moses.
# The timeline of Thamūd's existence does not align with the Qur'anic claim that they predated Moses.
# There is no evidence of a sudden mass extinction event for the people as described in the Qur'an.

==== Calling the Tombs Homes and Palaces ====
The Qur'an frequently lists destroyed peoples of the past, particularly the peoples of Noah, Lot, Pharaoh's army, Midian, 'Ad, and its successor, Thamūd. The destruction of Thamūd after they disbelieved their prophet Salih is mentioned multiple times, either by an earthquake ({{Quran|7|78}}) or a thunderous blast ({{Quran|54|31}}). When describing this tale, a key error in the Qur'an is the description of Thamud's structures as homes and palaces. Thamud were a real ancient but extinct people in Arabia centuries before Muhammad that feature in foreign accounts<ref name=":02">Hoyland, Robert G.. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (Peoples of the Ancient World) (p. 68). Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.

''..Sargon II (721–705 BC) boasts of having defeated them along with other tribes, ‘the distant desert-dwelling Arabs’, and of having resettled the survivors in Samaria (AR 2.17, 118). In classical times we find them recorded in texts such as Pliny’s Natural history and Ptolemy’s Geography, and some groups of them enrolled in the Roman army. One such group constructed a temple at Rawwafa in northwest Arabia and commemorated it with a bilingual Greek–Nabataean inscription..''</ref> and pre-Islamic poetry including their destruction legend<ref>See: Bulletin of SOAS, 74, 3 (2011), 397–416. © School of Oriental and African Studies, 2011. doi:10.1017/S0041977X11000309 ''Religious poetry from the Quranic milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Salt on the fate of the Thamūd'' Nicolai Sinai S0041977X11000309jra 397..416

See also: Hoyland, Robert G.. ''Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam'' (Peoples of the Ancient World) (p. 224). Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref> (though likely originally missing the monotheistic messenger aspect; with Muhammad being the one to bring these local tales into salvation history).<ref>Ibid pp.408. Sinai, 2011. [https://almuslih.org/wp-content/uploads/Library/Sinai,%20N%20-%20Religious%20poetry.pdf Religious poetry from the Quranic milieu: Umayya b. Abī l-Salt on the fate of the Thamūd]</ref>

The Thamud are described as the builders of well-known palaces and homes, skillfully carved from the mountains, clarified in the Quran and hadith as a place in Arabia known as al-Hijr (the rocky tract), currently called 'madāʼin Ṣāliḥ; literally 'Cities of Salih' after this exact story.

Al-Hijr is accepted as this location by Islamic scholars.<ref>E.g. see tafsirs/commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.80 on verse 15:80]</ref> It is also mentioned once by name in Quran 15:80-83 ("the companions of al-Hijr") and its description and destruction matches that for Thamud.{{Quote|1={{Quran-range|15|80|83}}|2=And certainly did the companions of al-Hijr [ al-Hijr ٱلْحِجْرِ ] deny the messengers. And We gave them Our signs, but from them they were turning away. And they used to carve from the mountains, houses [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], feeling secure. But the shriek seized them at early morning.}}Al-Hijr is also identified in hadiths as the "al Hijr, land of Thamud" (al-hijr ardi Thamudi الْحِجْرِ أَرْضِ ثَمُودَ):{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3379|darussalam}}|Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

The people landed at the land of Thamud called Al-Hijr along with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they took water from its well for drinking and kneading the dough with it as well. (When Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) heard about it) he ordered them to pour out the water they had taken from its wells and feed the camels with the dough, and ordered them to take water from the well whence the she-camel (of Prophet Salih) used to drink.}}

However, modern archaeology has confirmed that these were not homes or palaces but elaborately carved tombs.<ref name=":1">[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293 Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madā ͐ in Ṣāliḥ)] - unesco.org (includes many photographs of the tombs)</ref> These tombs, over 100 in number, vary in size, with some being very large and others quite small. Even a 14th-century Arab traveller believed they contained the bones of the people of Thamud.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/document/168945 al-Hijr UNESCO nomination document] p.36 (includes detailed site description)</ref>

The Quran explicitly states that Thamud carved palaces from plains and homes from mountains:{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|73|74}}|And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah 's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment. And remember when He made you successors after the 'Aad and settled you in the land, [and] '''you take for yourselves palaces from its plains and carve from the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000317.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 280 بيوت ]</ref>]'''. Then remember the favors of Allah and do not commit abuse on the earth, spreading corruption."}}{{Quote|{{Quran|26|149}}|And you carve out of the mountains, homes [ buyūtan بُيُوتًا ], with skill.}}

==== Built by the Nabateans, not the people of Thamūd ====
Another key error is attributing these structures to the Thamūd. It is now known that these rock-cut tombs were built by the Nabateans, a separate group that lived much later than the Thamud, from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.<ref name=":1" /> [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/326/ Petra] in Jordan was the Nabateans' more famous city before al-Hijr which contains the same Nabatean structures.

Nabatean inscriptions at the site forbid opening the tombs, reusing them, or moving the bodies. The actual town of "al-Hijr / Hegra", where the people lived, was built of mud-brick and stone some distance from the surrounding rock-cut tombs.<ref>[https://www.arabnews.com/node/350178 History and mystery of Al-Hijr, ancient capital of the Nabateans in Arabia] - Arabnews.com</ref> This confirms that the elaborate structures in the mountains were not homes but were burial sites made by a later civilization.

Despite this, the Qur'an presents the Thamud as the builders of these mountain structures, again linking their story to visible abandoned artifacts which were still there as a lesson to reflect on;<ref name=":02" /> These were well known to Muhammad's listeners:{{Quote|{{Quran|29|38}}|And [We destroyed] 'Aad and Thamud, and it has become clear to you from their [ruined] dwellings [ masākinihim مَّسَٰكِنِهِمْ <ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000118.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1394 مسكن]</ref>]. And Satan had made pleasing to them their deeds and averted them from the path, and they were endowed with perception.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|89|9}}|And [with] Thamud, who carved out the rocks in the valley?}}The Nabateans are a distinct people from the Thamud, as evidenced in Arabic literature including the hadith which also distinguishes the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=nabatean Nabateans (al-Anbat)](e.g. {{Muslim||2613d|reference}}) from the [https://sunnah.com/search?q=thamud Thamud].

==== Before the Time of Moses ====
The Qur'an references the Thamud as a people who lived and had already met their fate before the time of Pharaoh and Moses:{{Quote|{{Quran-range|40|28|37}}|And a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith said [...] And he who believed said, "O my people, indeed I fear for you [a fate] like the day of the companies - Like the custom of the people of Noah and of 'Aad and Thamud and those after them. And Allah wants no injustice for [His] servants.}}

The companies / factions (l-aḥzābu) is a term used collectively for the list of destroyed cities also in {{Quran-range|38|12|14}}, with each people (umma) first warned by their own separate messenger (e.g. {{Quran|13|7}}).<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 127).'' Lexington Books.</ref>

On this basis the carved structures would have to pre-date Pharaoh and Moses since in the various verses quoted above, the Thamud carved their homes and palaces prior to their sudden end, having ignored the warnings of their prophet Salih. As noted above, these structures were actually tombs carved by the Nabateans between the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.

Additionally, historical and archaeological evidence shows that the Thamud were an ancient but extinct Arabian people who existed from the 8th century BCE to the 5th century CE.<ref name=":2">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thamud Thamūd] (ancient Arabian tribe) - Peoples of Asia - Britannica

''Thamūd, in ancient Arabia, tribe or group of tribes known to be extant from the 8th century bce to the 5th century ce..''</ref> Meanwhile, Moses is traditionally dated to the 14th–13th century BCE,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Moses-Hebrew-prophet Moses] - Brittanica. Dewey M. Beegle. 2025 (last updated)</ref> though there is ongoing debate among historians about his existence and the exact timeline of early Israelite history. Nevertheless, even ignoring biblical and Islamic (but non-Quranic such as Tafsirs) writings, the most chronologically late estimates must place Moses' time to at least 900 - 850BCE as this is approximately when Israel's formation occurred,<ref>Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57:

''"...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."''</ref> while the Thamud are attested to have existed until much later than this period.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":02" /> This discrepancy contradicts the Qur'anic implication that the Thamud predate Moses. In reality, they were a historical people who lived much later than traditionally assumed.

There is also no archaeological evidence for mass sudden deaths of the entire people at once, or any writings from surrounding kingdoms that speak of this.

===Countable currency in ancient Egypt===
Surah Yusuf mentions that the caravan that rescued the eponymous prophet from the pit sold him to an Egyptian "for a low price, a few dirhams". Leaving aside the fact that dirham<ref>''[http://arabiclexicon.hawramani.com/search/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%85 Dirham/dirhem درهم Entry]'' - The Arabic-English Lexicon Dictionary. ArabicLexicon.Hawramani.com (formerly Lisaan.net)</ref> coins did not exist in ancient Egypt, a more fundamental problem is that the price is indicated as having been some kind of discreetly countable currency: darāhima maʿdūdatin ("dirhams counted"). The word maʿdūdatin occurs throughout the Quran denoting something discreetly numbered, for example "[Fasting for] a limited number of days" in {{Quran|2|184}}. Thus, it is not describing a weight of valuable material, but a countable currency. Such a thing did not exist in ancient Egypt. Rather, there were stone weights, particularly the denben, for measuring amounts of precious metals and to price other goods that could be barter traded, but not itself nor units of metal used as a means of exchange.<ref>[https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1079/trade-in-ancient-egypt/ Trade in ancient Egypt] - World History Encyclopedia</ref> Professor Sean W. Anthony notes this anachronism in this Reddit r/AcademicQuran [https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicQuran/comments/13rkbxo/comment/jll79du/?utm_source=share&utm_medium=web3x&utm_name=web3xcss&utm_term=1&utm_content=share_button AMA].

{{Quote|{{Quran|12|20}}|And they sold him for a reduced price - a few dirhams - and they were, concerning him, of those content with little.}}

===The Exodus of the Israelites in Egypt===
In various passages the Quran narrates at length the story of Moses and the plagues striking Egypt, the captivity of the children of Israel, and their escape in the Exodus. There is even a glorious pre-history alluded to such that they were kings (mulūkan, compare with mulūka in {{Quran|27|34}}) and had extraordinary possessions ({{Quran|5|20}}). Historians consider that there is no historical evidence in support of [[w:the Exodus|the Exodus]] events as described, though some theorize that a historical kernal of the Egyptian control over Canaan in the late Bronze age and early Iron age served as an inspiration for the stories. The academic view on the [[w:history of ancient Israel and Juhah|history of ancient Israel and Judah]] is converging on their emergence within the central hill country of Canaan in the early Iron age, a time of small settlements and lacking signs of violent takeover, but rather a revolution in lifestyle.

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|20}}|Remember Moses said to his people: "O my people! Call in remembrance the favour of Allah unto you, when He produced prophets among you, made you kings, and gave you what He had not given to any other among the peoples.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|28|3}}|We recite to you from the news of Moses and Pharaoh in truth for a people who believe.}}

==== The Israelites inherit Egypt as well as Israel/Palestine ====
Along with the traditional story of [[Scientific Miracles in the Quran#A%20small%20Exodus|the Exodus]], Nicolai Sinai<ref>“[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ ''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān'']”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214 .

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</ref> notes in his paper “''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān''”, the Qur'an has many verses that unequivocally state that the Israelites took over the land of pharaoh and his followers, i.e. Egypt (which many traditional Islamic scholars have agreed with).<ref>E.g. see the debates in https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.61 and https://quranx.com/tafsirs/10.93 over what land the Israelites inherit, including Egypt.

Interestingly in the commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/26.59 verse 26:59], the modern tafsir Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an (published 1972) main reason for rejecting the Egyptian interpretation is that the facts are not supported by history, and he alleges other verses in the Qur'an support leaving Egypt - however as Sinai examines in this paper, this is untrue.</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|26|57|59}}|2=We brought them [the people of Pharaoh] out of gardens and springs and treasures and a noble place. Thus it was; and We caused the Israelites to inherit them [= the gardens and the springs etc.].}}
That the Israelites take over the land of Pharaoh rather than migrating elsewhere is also implied by the end of the brief Moses pericope in:<ref>“''[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān]''”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214. ''pp. 203.''

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|17|103|104}}|He [Pharaoh] wished to chase them away from the land (al-arḍ), but We drowned him and all who were with him. And after him We said to the Israelites, “Dwell in the land! And when the announcement of the next world comes to pass, We shall bring you forward as a motley crowd.”}}
Similarly, the Moses narrative in Q 28 is preceded by the following summary:<ref>Ibid. pp. 203</ref>
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|28|4|6}}|4 Pharaoh became haughty in the land and divided its people into factions, seeking to weaken a party among them by slaying their sons and sparing their women. He was one of those who wreak mischief.
5 We wished to show favor to those who had been oppressed in the land and to make them examples and to make them the inheritors,
6 and to give them a place (numakkinu lahum) in the land, and to show Pharaoh and Hāmān and their hosts what they feared from them.}}
Also Sinai remarks:
{{Quote|[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ “Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān”], Nicolai Sinai: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016. pp204.|What Pharaoh and his notables fear is being displaced from their land: in Q 20:57, Pharaoh asks Moses whether “you have come to drive us from our land by your sorcery” (li-tukhrijanā min arḍinā bi-siḥrika), and the same apprehension resonates in Q 20:63 (“They said, ‘These two men are sorcerers who wish to drive you from your land by means of their sorcery’ . . .”) as well as in Q 26:35 and 7:110. The inference that it is Pharaoh and his followers rather than the Israelites who are removed from “the land” is also supported by other verses from the extended Moses narrative in Q 7:103–74. According to Q 7:128, Moses exhorts his people to “seek God’s help and be patient; for the land belongs to God, and he gives it as an inheritance to whom he wishes,” and in the following verse Moses consoles his people by saying that “perhaps your Lord will destroy your enemy and appoint you as successors ( yastakhlifakum) in the land.”}}
He notes that starting with the earlier Meccan Quran, there are no references whatsoever to an Exodus, with no indication that Moses lead the Israelites out of captivity.<ref>Ibid. pp. 200</ref> The only purpose of the sea in the story appears to be to set a trap for the Egyptians to drown them.<ref>Ibid. pp. 205</ref>

Later verses imply that only after taking the Pharaoh and his people's land, they eventually settled in another land.<ref>Ibid. pp. 206-208</ref> The Qurʾān’s Blessed Land would appear to fuse Egypt, the Sinai, and Palestine into one sacred landscape that is understood to provide the setting for biblical history and all of which, it seems, the Israelites came to inherit.<ref>Ibid. pp. 207</ref>

While as mentioned above, there was no evidence the Israelites came from Egypt, who never mention the event,<ref>Finkelstein, I., & Silberman, N. A. (2001). ''The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its sacred texts''. New York, Free Press. See: ''Chapter 2: Did the Exodus Happen? And Chapter 4: Who Were the Israelites?''</ref> this adds another layer of historical difficulty of the Jews actually taking over Egypt having no historical or archaeological evidence for what would be a momentous event where we would expect to see it.

This interpretation was first noticed in Western scholarship by orientalist Aloys Sprenger in 1869, who attributed it to a supposed simple mistake by Prophet Muhammad.<ref>“''[https://www.academia.edu/30057347/_Inheriting_Egypt_The_Israelites_and_the_Exodus_in_the_Meccan_Qur%CA%BE%C4%81n_in_Islamic_Studies_Today_Essays_in_Honor_of_Andrew_Rippin_edited_by_Majid_Daneshgar_and_Walid_A_Saleh_Leiden_Brill_2016_pp_198_214_pp_198_199_ Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān]''”, Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, pp. 198–214. ''pp. 198 - introduction. See footnote 3.''

DOI: <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004337121_011</nowiki></ref> However, Sinai notes a clear reason for this repacking of biblical material to suit different theological concerns, relating Muhmmad's immediate life. Primarily in the Meccan period of the Qur'an before banishment to Medina, Muhammad aligning with principle of istikhlāf, understood as a general rule of God’s compensatory intervention in the world in this context, i.e. the followers of god will be given the lands and property of the unbelievers who will be destroyed.<ref>Ibid. pp. 208-209</ref> There are consistent stories told that god will intervene with a supernatural destruction to those who reject monotheism after a call from a prophet, with the so-called 'punishment stories' dominating here, and direct references that this will happen to the Meccans,<ref>On the Meccan promise of Allah intervening to destroy the unbelievers and Muhammad's followers promise to inherit the land see as well for example: Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. Chapter 2: The Eschatological Crisis and 3: A Nonbiographical Qurʾanic Chronology.'' Lexington Books. 2018.

Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers.'' 1999. <nowiki>ISBN 9780415759946</nowiki>

Selah, Walid. [https://www.academia.edu/28915104/End_of_Hope_Suras_10_15_Despair_and_a_Way_Out_of_Mecca ''End of Hope: Suras 10-15, Despair and a Way Out of Mecca.''] Qur' anic Studies Today. Edited by Angelika Neuwirth and Michael A. Sells. pp. 105-123. </ref> in line with the principle of messenger uniformitarianism.<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. 135-142) (pp. 281-294 Kindle Edition)''. 5.3 Messenger Uniformitarianism. Lexington Books. 2018.</ref> And the true believers will survive and inherit their land,<ref>''Inheriting Egypt: The Israelites and the Exodus in the Meccan Qurʾān,'' Nicolai Sinai, in: Islamic Studies Today: Essays in Honor of Andrew Rippin, edited by Majid Daneshgar and Walid A. Saleh, Leiden: Brill 2016, ''pp 208-209 & 211-214''</ref> which this story seeks to validate as part of a repeated pattern in history. However in later parts of the Qurʾān we see that actual events followed a different course: the Qur'anic community was “expelled” from its “homes” (Q 3:195 and elsewhere) and forced to “emigrate” (hājara) to Medina<ref>Ibid. pp. 213</ref> - who Muhammad now identifies his followers with the Israelites leaving Egypt, and comes up against Jewish traditions who recognize this story - with many Meccan verses extended and undergoing revisions during this period.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an and Late Antiquity: A Shared Heritage (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (p. 232 Kindle Edition).</ref> Critics contend this creative adaption of biblical material to suit current needs has simply added another historical inaccuracy into the Qur'an.

===Noah's worldwide flood===
The Quran contains a version of the worldwide-flood story widespread in ancient near-Eastern mythology and most famously found in the Bible. Since geological evidence suggests such a flood never took place,<ref>''E.g. see [https://www.csun.edu/~vcgeo005/Nr38Reasons.pdf Twenty-one Reasons Noah’s Worldwide Flood Never Happened].'' Dr Lorence G. Collins. Professor emeritus of geological sciences at California State University, Northridge.

''While focused on the biblical account, the majority of the points apply to the Quranic version.''</ref> some modern Muslim scholars have reinterpreted the account in the Quran as referring to a more limited, local flood. Key elements in the tale, however, militate against this rereading. Elsewhere in the Quran whenever the heavens and earth are mentioned together, it means in their entirety. In this story waters are released from both of them.

Another such detail is the storage of "two of each kind" of animal aboard the ship, since it is not clear what purpose this would serve if the flood were local - and no other punishment narrative contains this detail. Similarly, the purpose of the boat itself appears unclear in this reading - as with the ample warning time that Noah was given, he and his family could have simply evacuated the area that was to be flooded. The relevant passage also states plainly that nothing, not even a tall mountain, could save an individual from drowning on that day except for Allah - this seems to contradict the idea that individuals and animals could have escaped the flood simply by evacuating the flooded area. Noah is recorded praying to God, "O my Lord! Leave not of the Unbelievers [kuffar], a single one on Earth!" - the flood is an answer to this prayer, which likewise suggests that the flood described is a global flood that drowns all those not chosen by Allah to persist aboard the ark.

Noah's flood was also used by a wide range of pre-modern Muslim historians and theologians to mark history into Prediluvian and Postdiluvian era's for dating,<ref>van Bladel, Kevin. ''The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity) (E.g. Kindle Edition. pp.121, 123, 125-126, 130-131, 144-146, 160, 190, 193 & 194)'' Oxford University Press.</ref> such as Abū Ma'shar making it the central event.<ref>Ibid. pp. 149</ref> Not to mention all major traditional Islamic scholars, who dedicated their lives to studying the meaning of the Quran, unanimously took the language in these verses to mean referring to a global flood, including (but certainly not limited to) Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and Al-Suyuti, Ibn ‘Abbâs, Ibn Kathir, Al-Tabari, Muqatil ibn Sulayman, Al-Razi and Al-Qurtubi etc.<ref>''For example on verse 37:77, with all stating that all humans are descended from Noah, with many listing the ancestors of different races. These comments indicating a global flood can be found on their commentary on many other verses.''''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/37.77 Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on verse 37:77].'' Al-Jalalayn / Al-Mahalli and as-Suyuti. Published 1505CE.

''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Abbas/37.77 Tanwîr al-Miqbâs min Tafsîr Ibn ‘Abbâs on Verse 37:77.]'' Attributed to Ibn Abbas but of unknown medieval scholar's origin.

''[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/37.75 Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 37:77]''. Ibn Kathir d. 1373CE.

''[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=1&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=76&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Jami' al-Bayan on verse 37:77].'' Al-Tabari d 923CE.

[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=67&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=76&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Tafsir Muqatel on Verse 37:77'']. Muqatil ibn Sulayman d. 767CE.

''[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=4&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=77&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 Tafsir Al-Kabir on Verse 37:77].'' Al-Razi. d. 1210CE.

[https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=3&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=77&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=1 ''Tafsir Al-Qurtubi on Verse 37:77.''] Al-Qurtubi d. 1273CE.

</ref> As do many modern Islamic scholars and sheiks.<ref>E.g. see: IslamQ&A. 2013. [https://islamqa.info/en/answers/130293/did-everyone-on-earth-drown-at-the-great-flood-at-the-time-of-nooh-peace-be-upon-him Did everyone on earth drown at the great Flood at the time of Nooh (peace be upon him)?]</ref>

Similar to [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%207%3A11&version=NIV Genesis 7:1] in the Bible ("on that day all the springs of the great deep burst forth, and the floodgates of the heavens were opened."), the Quran states that waters poured from the gates of heaven, as well as gushing from springs below the ground. In addition, Q 11:40 and Q 23:27 quoted below likely allude to a late antique legend that the wife of Noah's son Ham was alerted to the onset of the flood by water gushing up through a bread oven, which was a large hole dug into the ground.<ref>Olivier Mongellaz (2024) [https://brill.com/view/journals/arab/71/4-5/article-p513_4.xml Le four de Noé : un cas d’intertextualité coranique], Arabica 71(4-5), 513-637. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700585-20246900</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|54|11|12}}|Then opened We the gates of heaven with pouring water And caused the earth to gush forth springs, so that the waters met for a predestined purpose.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|[So it was], '''until when Our command came and the oven overflowed''', We said, "Load upon the ship of each [creature] two mates and your family, except those about whom the word has preceded, and [include] whoever has believed." But none had believed with him, except a few.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|23|27}}|So We inspired to him, "Construct the ship under Our observation, and Our inspiration, and '''when Our command comes and the oven overflows''', put into the ship from each [creature] two mates and your family, except those for whom the decree [of destruction] has proceeded. And do not address Me concerning those who have wronged; indeed, they are to be drowned.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|11|42}}|And it sailed along with them amid waves [rising] like mountains. Noah called out to his son, who stood aloof, ‘O my son! ‘Board with us, and do not be with the faithless!’}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|43}}|The son replied: "I will betake myself to some mountain: it will save me from the water." Noah said: '''"This day nothing can save''', from the command of Allah, any but those on whom He hath mercy! "And the waves came between them, and the son was among those overwhelmed in the Flood.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|11|44}}|Then it was said, ‘O earth, swallow your water! O sky, leave off!’ The waters receded; the edict was carried out, and it settled on [Mount] Judi. Then it was said, ‘Away with the wrongdoing lot!’}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|26|28}}|My Lord, leave not one of the unbelievers upon the earth! Surely, if you leave them, they will lead your servants astray, and will beget none but unbelieving libertines.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|37|75|82}}|Noah called to Us; and how excellent were the Answerers!

And We delivered him and his people from the great distress,

'''and We made his seed the survivors''',

And left for him [favorable mention] among later generations:

'Peace be upon Noah among all beings!'

Even so We recompense the good-doers;

he was among Our believing servants.

'''Then afterwards We drowned the rest'''.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|6|84}}|2=And We gave him Isaac and Jacob and guided them, as We had guided Noah before them, and of his descendants, David and Solomon and Job and Joseph and Moses and Aaron. Thus We reward those who are upright and do good.}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|17|2|3}}|We gave Moses the Book, and made it a guide for the Children of Israel—[saying,] ‘Do not take any trustee besides Me’— descendants of those whom We carried [in the ark] with Noah. Indeed, he was a grateful servant.}}The word used for descendants/offspring/seed etc. is 'dhurrīyat' ذرية,<ref>Quran Dictionary - Root ذ ر ر ''(See [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/09_c/016_cr.html ذر] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/09_c/017_crO.html ذرأ])''

Lane's Lexicon Classical Arabic Dictionary: dhurriyyat / dhurriyyāt see [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0957.pdf p 957] & [https://lexicon.quranic-research.net/pdf/Page_0958.pdf 958]</ref> e.g. the above “''descendants of those whom We carried [in the ark] with Noah” ((dhurrīyat) man ḥamalnā maʿa Nūḥ''") {{Quran|17|3}}.

In {{Quran|4|163}} Noah is labelled as before the other biblical prophets chronologically (see also: {{Quran|6|84}}), who are descendants of him. Similarly in {{Quran-range|3|33|34}} we are given Adam and Noah linked together when noting some of prophets are descendants of others (Cf: {{Quran|19|58}}).

Q11:48 says that nations/peoples (umam) will come from those with Noah, with some of them being blessed and others will be punished - usually taken by exegetes as reference to future [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment_narratives_in_the_Quran punishment narratives] on peoples/nations, or individual judgements,<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/11.48 ''Q11:48'']</ref> another statement not given to any of the other prophets.
{{Quote|{{Quran|11|48}}|It was said, ‘O Noah! Disembark in peace from Us and with [Our] blessings upon you and upon nations (umam) [to descend] from those who are with you, and nations whom We shall provide for, then a painful punishment from Us shall befall them.’}}

===Noah's ark holding every species===
Part of the legend of Noah's Ark is that a pair of every living species was stored on board. Modern science has revealed, however, that there are over a hundred thousand species of animals including penguins, polar bears, koala bears, and kangaroos that live spread across the entire planet and each of which require different climates, habitats, and diets. These discoveries appear to render the idea that all animals could have been kept on board a single ship impossible.{{Quote|{{Quran|11|40}}|
(Thus it was) till, when Our commandment came to pass and the oven gushed forth water, We said: Load therein two of every kind, a pair (the male and female), and thy household, save him against whom the word hath gone forth already, and those who believe. And but a few were they who believed with him.}}

===Arabian idols from the time of Noah===
Five gods from the time of Noah are mentioned in one verse. Strangely, according to Ibn Abbas these happened to be idols worshipped by Arab tribes at the time of Muhammad. Some such as Wadd have been confirmed from Southern Arabian inscriptions in the centuries preceding Islam,<ref>[https://brill.com/display/title/69380?language=en ''Muḥammad and His Followers in Context:'' ''The Religious Map of Late Antique Arabia'']: 209 (Islamic History and Civilization) Nov. 2023. Ilkka Lindstedt. pp. 66</ref> and Nasr has been found in both North and Southern Arabian Epigraphy.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 282)''. Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

''The names are also attested outside of the Qurʾan and are partly classified as Old South Arabian (on Wadd see Horovitz, KU, 150; on Nasr, known from epigraphic testimonies in southern and northern Arabia, see KU, 144; on Yaghūth and Yaʿūq see KU, 153, and generally Wellhausen 1897: 19–22).''</ref> For critics, it is far fetched even on the Quran's own terms to place Arab idols back in the time of Noah, not least since all the disbelievers of Noah's time were supposedly destroyed by the flood.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|21|23}}|Noah said, "My Lord, indeed they have disobeyed me and followed him whose wealth and children will not increase him except in loss. And they conspired an immense conspiracy. And said, 'Never leave your gods and never leave Wadd or Suwa' or Yaghuth and Ya'uq and Nasr.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4920|darussalam}}| Narrated Ibn `Abbas:
All the idols which were worshiped by the people of Noah were worshiped by the Arabs later on. As for the idol Wadd, it was worshiped by the tribe of Kalb at Daumat-al-Jandal; Suwa` was the idol of (the tribe of) Hudhail; Yaghouth was worshiped by (the tribe of) Murad and then by Bani Ghutaif at Al-Jurf near Saba; Ya`uq was the idol of Hamdan, and Nasr was the idol of Himyar, the branch of Dhi-al-Kala`. The names (of the idols) formerly belonged to some pious men of the people of Noah, and when they died Satan inspired their people to (prepare and place idols at the places where they used to sit, and to call those idols by their names. The people did so, but the idols were not worshiped till those people (who initiated them) had died and the origin of the idols had become obscure, whereupon people began worshiping them.}}

===John the Baptist's original name===
The name "John" comes from the Hebrew name ''Yohanan''. Several figures in the Old Testament bore this name. The name has also appeared throughout history. There existed a high priest named Johanan in the 3rd century BCE and a ruler named John Hyrcanus who died in 104 BC. These people existed before John the Baptist, who was a contemporary of Jesus. The Qur'an, by contrast, asserts that nobody before John the Baptist (''Yahya'' in Arabic) bore his name.

{{Quote|{{Quran|19|7}}|(It was said unto him): O Zachariah! Lo! We bring thee tidings of a son whose name is John; '''we have given the same name to none before (him).''' }}

The Quranic verse seems to be a distorted echo of the naming of John the Baptist in the New Testament:

{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%201&version=NIV Luke 1:61]|2=They said to her, "There is no one among your relatives who has that name."}}

===Supernatural destruction of cities (the punishment stories)===
The Quran states that around the vicinity of Arabia there existed cities and tribes destroyed by Allah for rejecting his messengers and Islam. All towns are said to experience this, an idea which is linked to that of each having its own Messenger.<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur'an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations Into the Genesis of a Religion. pp 49 - 50.'' 2018. Lexington books.

</ref> Durie (2018) notes; a ''repeated formulaic system is kam ahlaknā / qaṣamnā (qablahum / min qab lihim / min qablikum) min qarnin / mina l‑qurūni / min qaryatin “how many generations/towns (before them/you) did we destroy/shatter!” (Q6:6; Q7:4; Q10:13; Q17:17; Q19:74, 98; Q20:128; Q21:11; Q36:31; Q50:36)'' is used (along with others) to further highlight this point.<ref name=":4">Ibid. pp. 49.</ref> Drawing on another recurring formula, the Qur'an frequently urges its audience to '<nowiki/>''travel through the earth and observe''<nowiki/>' how Allah brought destruction upon sinners of the past, i.e. visible ruins (Q3:137; Q6:11; Q12:109; Q16:36; Q27:69; Q29:20; Q30:9, 42; Q35:44; Q40:21, 82; Q47:10).<ref name=":4" />

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|58}}|There is not a town but We will destroy it before the Day of Resurrection, or punish it with a severe punishment. That has been written in the Book.}}

Each example is told in a common literary narrative structure known in academia as a 'punishment story/narrative'. These narratives follow a pattern: A prophet is sent to an unbelieving community by God with a message (to worship God alone and to live righteously). The community rejects the prophet and mocks or opposes him. Despite warnings, the people persist in disbelief. Eventually, God punishes the community, often through a natural disaster or sudden destruction, as a sign of divine justice.<ref name=":3">Marshall, D. (2018). ''Punishment Stories. In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān Online.'' Brill. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00162</nowiki></ref> These narratives are a recurring rhetorical and theological structure in the Qur'an, particularly in the Meccan suras, where the Qur'an recounts stories of previous prophets send to their communities to warn their contemporaries of the consequences of rejecting divine guidance, of which Muhammad is the latest in the line of these messengers.<ref name=":3" />

{{Quote|{{Quran|41|13}}|If they turn away, say ‘I warn you of a thunderbolt like the thunderbolt of ʿĀd and Thamūd’}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|2|5}}|Leave them to eat and enjoy and to be diverted by longings. Soon they will know And not We destroyed any town but (there was) for it a decree known. No people can hasten or delay the term already fixed for them.}}
Cf: {{Quran-range|7|97|98}}, {{Quran-range|17|68|69}}, {{Quran|16|45}}, {{Quran|65|8-9}}, {{Quran|19|74-75}}.

In each specific example presented in the Qur'an (e.g. the people of A'ad, Thamud, Midian, Lut [[Lut|(Lot)]], and Pharoah's army), the destruction of the disbelievers is sudden and total. Archaeological research, by contrast, has revealed that historical cities and tribes were only gradually ruined by natural disasters, famine, wars, migration, or neglect, often taking years or decades to unfold. In this respect, the Qur'an appears to have adopted and adapted contemporary Arabian myths regarding the destruction of neighboring cities, some of which may not have existed. In the Qur'an:
*The people of ''Thamūd'' are killed instantly by an earthquake {{Quran|7|78}} or thunderous blast {{Quran|11|67}}, {{Quran-range|41|13|17}}, {{Quran|51|44}}, {{Quran|69|5}}.
* The people of ''A'ad'' are killed by a fierce wind that blew for 7 days {{Quran-range|41|13|16}},{{Quran-range|46|24|35}},{{Quran|51|41}}, {{Quran-range|69|6|7}}.
* Pharoah's people are drowned in {{Quran|10|90}}, {{Quran|2|50}}, {{Quran-range|26|66|68}}, {{Quran|7|136}}, {{Quran-range|89|10|13}}.
* Moses's people who worship the Samaria's calf are struck with a thunderbolt {{Quran|2|55}} and later (after being brought back to life in {{Quran|2|56}} and continuing to transgress) a punishment from the sky ''rijz min al-samāʾi'' {{Quran|2|59}}<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 127).'' Taylor & Francis. Kindle Edition.</ref> (cf: {{Quran|4|153}}).
* The people of Midian (''Madyan'') are killed overnight by an earthquake {{Quran|7|91}}, {{Quran|29|36}}.
* The towns of Lot (''Lut'') are destroyed by a storm of stones from the sky {{Quran|54|32}}, {{Quran|29|34}}, {{Quran|11|82}}.
* The people of ''Tubba''' are listed as a destroyed people for denying their messenger in {{Quran|44|37}} and {{Quran|50|14}}, with Tubba' most commonly identified as a Himyarite (a Southern Arabian Empire primarily covering modern day Yemen) king by traditional Islamic scholars<ref>See classical commentaries [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/44.37 on Q44:37]</ref> without the method of destruction being specified in the Qur'an.
* The people of ''al-Rass'' are mentioned in destroyed people's lists in {{Quran|25|38}} (also mentioning many unnamed people's in-between them) and {{Quran|50|12}}. In traditional Islamic scholarship this is usually taken to refer to a 'well' though its location is disputed, with some saying Ṣāliḥ (who went to Thamūd) being their warner, whilst others say it was Shuʿayb who went to Madyan, and others Hanzala b. Safwān who is not mentioned in the Qur'an.<ref>See commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/50.12 Q50:12] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/25.38 Q25:38]</ref> Modern academic scholarship has identified the ''aṣḥāb al-Rass'' with another potential group on the Arabian peninsular further down on the West Coast by the Red sea known as the Arsians.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 164). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See more discussions on al-Rass also on Ibid. pp.145-146, pp.159 & pp.171.</ref>
* Similarly the people of Layka ({{Quran|26|176}}, {{Quran|15|78}}, {{Quran|38|13}}, {{Quran|50|14}}) are said to have been destroyed, which traditional Islamic exegesis on traditionally associated with the prophet Shu'yab and/or a separate Midianite group,<ref>E.g. see traditional Islamic commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/26.176 Q26:176] and [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/15.78 Q15:78]</ref> though modern academic research has suggested it was referring to the Arabian port town of 'Leuke Kome'.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. ''The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 131).'' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. See also Ibid. pp.145-146, 149, 152, 159, 164, 261, 335</ref>
* The people of Sheba (''Saba'') (considered to be in Southern Arabia; modern day Yemen) have a dam destroyed by Allāh that floods them, and their previously healthy fruit-producing gardens are replaced by bitter, poor quality plants<ref>See tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.14 Q34:14], [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.15 Q34:15] & [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/34.16 Q34:16]</ref> in {{Quran|34|14-16}}.<ref>Marshall, David. ''God, Muhammad and the Unbelievers (p. 73).'' Kindle Edition.</ref>
* Similarly an unnamed town is sent three also unnamed messengers in {{Quran|36|13-32}}, who's identities have differed in traditional Islamic scholarship,<ref>E.g. see commentaries on [https://quranx.com/Tafsirs/36.13 Q36:13] & [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 Q36:14], and the later verses in the story.</ref> who are rejected and so the rejectors are killed with a cry/shout (''ṣayḥatan)'' ({{Quran|36|29}}).
The actual locations of these towns or tribes is unknown. Midian in particular was a wide geographical desert region rather than a particular location or city, which makes archaeological investigation difficult.

Critics have also asked why it is that various other polytheistic cultures worldwide did not encounter similar fates as those outlined in the Quran, especially if there is 'no change in the way of Allah' ({{Quran|33|62}}, {{Quran|35|43}}){{Quote|{{Quran|22|45}}|And how many a township have We destroyed because it had been immersed in evildoing - and now they [all] lie deserted, with their roofs caved in! And how many a well lies abandoned, and how many a castle that [once] stood high!}}The suddenness of Allah's punishment is stressed repeatedly in Surah al-A'raf:{{Quote|{{Quran|7|4}}|How many a township have We destroyed! As a raid by night, or while they slept at noon, Our terror came unto them.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|7|34}}|And every nation hath its term, and when its term cometh, they cannot put it off an hour nor yet advance (it).}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|97|98}}|Are the people of the townships then secure from the coming of Our wrath upon them as a night-raid while they sleep? Or are the people of the townships then secure from the coming of Our wrath upon them in the daytime while they play?}}

==== The Total Destruction of Pharaohs/Egypts Monuments ====
Following the similiar line of a total divine destruction, the Quran makes a particular claim in regards to the destruction of Pharaohs buildings:
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|137}}|And We caused the people who had been oppressed to inherit the eastern regions of the land and the western ones, which We had blessed. And the good word of your Lord was fulfilled for the Children of Israel because of what they had patiently endured. '''And We destroyed [all] that Pharaoh and his people were producing and what they had been building.'''}}
To fully understand the implications of this verse, one must know that the Quran actively associates the figure of Pharaoh – specifically in the Quranic narrative of the Exodus & Moses – with building buildings and monuments out of his own hubris and pridefulness. Dr. Devin J. Stewarts explains this Quranic phenomenon as follows:
{{Quote|Stewart, D. J. (2024). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/382862079_Signs_for_Those_Who_Can_Decipher_Them_Ancient_Ruins_in_the_Quran" Signs for Those Who Can Decipher Them”, Ancient Ruins in the Qurʾān.] In Rashwani, S. (ed.) "Behind the Story: Ethical Readings of Qurʾānic Narratives". Brill. p. 50.|Several monuments are attributed to Pharaoh. First, Pharaoh is twice termed dhūl-awtād, literally “possessor of the tent-pegs.” This epithet, often understood by commentators to refer to his alleged use of stakes as implements of torture, probably refers instead to the fact that he was the builder of the pyra- mids, obelisks, or other monumental buildings. [...] It is reasonable to assume that the Prophet Muḥammad’s contemporaries were aware, even at some distance, of Egypt’s most famous monuments. A second type of building is attributed to Pharaoh when he orders his vizier, Hāmān, to build a palace or tower (ṣarḥ) that he might ascend to look upon the lord of Moses (Q 28:38). One may compare this to the Tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis, a symbol of mankind’s—and in this case Pharaoh’s—arrogance. These both may be related to ruins of colossal Ancient Egyptian edifices that were standing in Egypt during the Prophet’s era.}}
Based on this, it can be said that the author of the Quran is in verse 7:137 stating that the buildings built by Pharaoh were totally, or atleast in great number, destroyed by divine order (as is the description style of the other instances in regards to pre-islamic tribes and socities – like for example A'ad, Thamud & Midian). The verb دَمَّرْنَا, ''dammarnā,'' used for destruction in this verse also implies it to be mostly total.<ref>For an exhaustive list of lexicon entries (such as Lanes Lexicon, Hans Wehr [4th. ed.], Lisan al-Arab, etc.) please refer to the following link:  [https://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=350,ll=955,ls=5,la=1420,sg=391,ha=227,br=338,pr=57,vi=149,mgf=306,mr=232,mn=420,aan=192,kz=740,uqq=106,ulq=724,uqa=135,uqw=545,umr=371,ums=303,umj=253,bdw=320,amr=228,asb=296,auh=574,dhq=182,mht=296,msb=83,tla=48,amj=245,ens=1,mis=679 Ejtaal.net – Lexicon Entries on دمر]  </ref> This as a claim, as in the case of afore discussion on the pre-Islamic tribes, is problematic because we do not have any historical source to mention such a wide and total destruction of buildings – yet to mention the ones directly ordered by the Pharaoh himself – from any period of Ancient Egyptian history.

The Quranic description here is totally at odds with the currently available historical record on the Ancient Egypt and its history.<ref>E.g. main events are well-documented but do not include this; [https://australian.museum/learn/cultures/international-collection/ancient-egyptian/ancient-egyptian-timeline/ Ancient Egyptian Timeline.] 2023. Ancient Egyptian History.

[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13315719 Egypt profile - Timeline.] 2019. BBC.

[https://www.history.org.uk/primary/resource/3873/ancient-egypt Ancient Egypt.] Historical Association. History.org.uk

[https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/ancient-egypt Ancient Egypt.] Jessica van Dop DeJesus. National Geographic.</ref>

===Humans lived for hundreds of years===
The oldest verified human life was a little over 120 years. Based on fossil records and testing on human remains, anthropologists have concluded that human life spans are increasing rather than decreasing in both the long- and short- run. By contrast, the Qur'an states that Noah lived for almost 1,000 years. The idea of humans living for hundreds of years in the past is accompanied by the many hadiths, including accounts in Sahih Bukhari, which describe Adam as being 90 feet tall. The general doctrine appears to be that ancient humans were both gigantic as well as long-living.{{Quote|{{Quran|29|14}}|
We (once) sent Noah to his people, and he tarried among them '''a thousand years less fifty''': but the Deluge overwhelmed them while they (persisted in) sin. }}

===Ancient Mosque in Jerusalem===
Muslim scholars maintain that a long extant, ancient mosque was present in Jerusalem during Muhammad's life time. Historical research has, however, found this not to be the case.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dome-of-the-Rock Dome of the Rock] | Britannica Entry

''Dome of the Rock, shrine in Jerusalem built by the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān in the '''late 7th century CE'''.''</ref> {{Quote|{{Quran|17|1}}|
Glory to (Allah) Who did take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). }}This was also not the furthest place of Abrahamic monotheistic worship at the time of Muhammad.<ref>For example, many ancient synagogues have been found further from Mecca than the Al-Aqsa mosque in Israel/Palestine in e.g. Aleppo, Syria from the 5th century. (''See:'' [https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Maq%C4%81m_and_Liturgy/_Sg2rGjBswgC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA24&printsec=frontcover Kligman, Mark L. ''Maqām and liturgy: ritual, music, and aesthetics of Syrian Jews'' in Brooklyn. p. 24.])

As have many churches and cathedrals such as Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey the 6th century. (''See:'' [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia Hagia Sophia | Britannica Entry])</ref>

=== Hāmān in ancient Egypt ===
The Quran places a man called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haman_(Islam) Hāmān (هامان)] as an enemy of the jews being a court official, military commander, and high priest of the Pharoah in ancient Egypt in the time of Moses. A man also called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haman Hāmān (הָמָן)] with similar characteristics, also appears in the biblical Book of Esther where Haman is a counsellor of Ahasuerus, king of the Achaemenid Persian Empire and an enemy of the Jews, more than a millennia apart in different parts of the world. He appears alongside another character [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korah Qorah] who also rebels against Moses at a different time in the bible:
{{Quote|{{Quran|40|24}}|Unto Pharaoh and Haman and Qorah, but they said: A lying sorcerer!}}
This may have been done for literary/storytelling purposes:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. The Qur'an and its Biblical Subtext (Routledge Studies in the Qur'an) (pp. 212-213). Taylor and Francis.|The pairing of Qorah and Haman, if not in line with the Biblical account, is hardly unreasonable in literary terms. Both acted as the nemesis of God’s servant (Qorah of Moses, Haman of Mordecai). Qorah was extremely wealthy. Haman was extremely powerful. The argument that the is somehow wrong or confused by placing Haman and Qorah in Egypt (or, for that matter, that the Talmud is wrong by placing Jethro, Balaam, and Job there) seems to me essentially irrelevant. The concern is not simply to record Biblical information but to shape that information for its own purposes. The more interesting question is therefore why the connects Haman and Qorah with the story of Pharaoh. The answer, it seems, is that the Pharaoh story is to the a central trope about human conceit and rebelliousness, on the one hand, and divine punishment, on the other. Accordingly the characters of Haman and Qorah, and the legend of the Tower of Babel, find their way into the account of Pharaoh. Thereby the connects this account to its lessons elsewhere on the mastery of God over creation.}}

==== Other Mesopotamian elements in the Egyptian story, including baked clay to make lofty towers to the heavens ====
There is more evidence of Hāmān being out of place in the Qur'an, with the story linking ancient Persian elements to Moses and the Pharoah. We see for example in the Torah [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2011%3A1-9&version=NIV Genesis 11:1-9] with the 'Tower of Babel' story (where a tower to the heavens is built by a rebellious people but they are blocked by god) seemingly inserted into the ancient Egyptian setting, as was common in Late Antiquity where Babylonian and Egyptian courts were often interchangeable in story retellings<ref>Silverstein, Adam J.. ''Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands'' (Oxford Studies in the Abrahamic Religions) (p. 32). OUP Oxford. Kindle Edition.</ref> (regardless of historical accuracy).{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2011%3A1-9&version=NIV The Book of Genesis 11:1-9]|2=1 Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. 2 As people moved eastward,[a] they found a plain in Shinar[b] and settled there 3 They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them thoroughly.” They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. 4 Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” 5 But the Lord came down to see the city and the tower the people were building. 6 The Lord said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. 7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.” 8 So the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. 9 That is why it was called Babel[c]—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.}}As Silverstein (2012) states these 'Hāmāns' are in fact related, and notes there are other common Mesopotamian elements in the Qur'an and Islamic exegesis that support association between them.<ref>''The Qur'anic Pharaoh.'' Adam Silverstein. Taylor and Francis. Found in: ''pp467 - pp477. New Perspectives on the Qur'an. The Qur'an in its Historical Context 2''. Edited By Gabriel Reynolds. Imprint Routledge. DOI <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203813539</nowiki> eBook ISBN9780203813539</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|28|38}}|“Firʿawn said: ‘O Haman! Light me a (kiln to bake bricks) out of clay, and build me a lofty tower (ṣarḥ), that I may ascend to the god of Moses: though I think (Moses) is a liar!’ ” }}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|40|36|37}}|"Firʿawn said: ‘O Haman! Build me a lofty tower (ṣarḥ), that I may reach the asbāb – the asbāb of the heavens, so that I may ascend to the god of Moses: though I think (Moses) is a liar!’ ”}}
Many modern academics have assumed it takes from the tower of Babel story too.<ref>Ibid. pp. 469.</ref> Several key aspects highlighted by Silverstein are:<ref>Ibid. pp. 470-471</ref>

# The use of baked clay to build the tower, which was typical of ancient Mesopotamian architecture but not of Egyptian.
# The parallel of where people in Shinar (Mesopotamia) built a tower to reach the heavens, challenging God; both the Tower of Babel and the ṣarḥ serve a similar purpose: attempts to defy or reach God, both of which are blocked.
# The many associations of the two stories in Islamic exegesis such as early Muslim scholars often conflating tyrants like Nimrod (who builds the tower in extra-biblical traditions) and Pharaoh in their exegesis. Or having this specific pharaoh come 'from the east',<ref>Ibid. pp. 472-473</ref> and Silverstein (2008) notes exegetes often have these vastly separate empire leaders both be related descendants of the Amalekites (an ancient enemy tribe of Israel), linking them.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/30959178/Hamans_transition_from_the_Jahiliyya_to_Islam ''Haman's transition from the Jahiliyya to Islam.''] ''pp. 297.'' Adam Silverstein. 2008, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam.</ref>

This has long been noticed by classical Christian apologists,<ref>E.g. Silverstein (2012) pp. 469. notes that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Marracci Father Marraccio], confessor to Pope Innocent XI, who published his annotated translation of the Qurʾān (into Latin) in the late seventeenth century made this connection as a critique of Islam.

Silverstein, Adam J.. ''Veiling Esther, Unveiling Her Story: The Reception of a Biblical Book in Islamic Lands'' (Oxford Studies in the Abrahamic Religions) (p. 20). 2018. OUP Oxford. Kindle Edition. Notes:

''"Similarly, Henri Lammens, (1862-d.1937) a Christian clergyman himself, and a scholar of Islam, calls the Pharaonic context in which Haman appears in the Qur’ān “the most glaring anachronism”,11 and Eisenberg, in the first edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam, states, “That Muhammad placed Haman in this period betrays his confused knowledge of history.”"''</ref> and continues in modern times, particularly around the use of '''baked bricks with many contend are another historical error.'''<ref>[https://adamsilverstein.huji.ac.il/publications/quranic-pharaoh Silverstein (2012)] also notes this online debate in pp. 469, see modern arguments and counter arguments here:

See answering-Islam's original page on baked bricks in the tower, followed by Islamic-awareness's response, followed by answering-islam's rebuttal.

https://www.answering-islam.org/Index/B/bricks.html (original Baked Bricks as an error article from Christian Apologists)

https://www.islamic-awareness.org/quran/contrad/external/burntbrick (Islamic Awareness's Response article)

https://www.answering-islam.org/Responses/Saifullah/bricks2.htm (Rebuttals to the Islamic Awareness article)</ref> As Egyptologists note that while known about, baked clay is rare for ancient Egyptian structures during ancient times, and not the likely choice for Pharoah to request from Hāmān.<ref>E.g. ([https://ia601308.us.archive.org/24/items/cu31924102198896/cu31924102198896.pdf Manual of Egyptian Archaeology], G. Maspero, H. Grevel,) White Press. Originally published in 1902.

''pp3 "The ordinary Egyptian brick is made of mud, mixed with a little sand and chopped straw, moulded into oblong bricks and dried in the sun." (not burned)''

''pp.4-5 "The ordinary burnt brick does not appear to have been in common use before the Greco-Roman period, although some are known of Ramesside times…. …The ordinary Egyptian brick is a mere oblong block of mud mixed with chopped straw and a little sand, and dried in the sun""''

([https://ia601305.us.archive.org/16/items/egyptiana00smit/egyptiana00smit.pdf Egyptian Architecture as Cultural Expression], American Life Foundation, 1938, Earl Baldwin Smith, page 7.)

''"By the end of the III Dynasty the Egyptians were masters of such essentials of brick architecture as the arch and vault. Kiln-baked brick was almost never used, and a few examples of glazed tile, appearing in a highly developed technique in both the I and III Dynasties, prove that it was not technical ignorance, even at an early date, which kept the Egyptians from developing the possibilities of this method of wall decoration and protection…."''

''"…Although Egypt had an old and fully developed tradition of brick architecture, she never evolved, as did Mesopotamia, a monumental style in this material. While brick continued to be the most common building material throughout Egyptian history, it was used more for practical construction than for important monuments."''</ref>

Silverstein (2008)<ref>Adam Silverstein. 2008. [https://www.academia.edu/30959178/Hamans_transition_from_the_Jahiliyya_to_Islam ''Haman's transition from the Jahiliyya to Islam.''] ''pp. 301-303.''</ref> and (2012)<ref name=":0">Silverstein 2012. The Qur'anic Pharoah. pp. 474-475</ref> notes this transformation likely occurred because the story is based on an older but still very popular Mesopotamian story in the near-east, of Ahiqar the sage, where an Egyptian pharaoh challenges the Assyrian ruler to build a tower to the heavens; which left its mark on Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures. The story of Aḥīqar is alluded to in the Book of Tobit (second century BCE) directly, but with Haman replaced by a similarly evil character in the story "Nādān" with a similar sounding (the C1āC2āC3 pattern of “Nādān” easily lends itself to a corruption in the form of “Hāmān”) rhyming name, suggesting the characters of separate stories began to mix.<ref name=":0" />

More connections include the towers of [https://www.britannica.com/technology/ziggurat ziggurats] (large, terraced, stepped temple towers built in ancient Mesopotamia made with baked brick exterior) likely being the inspiration of Earth to heaven towers "...''although they are ascendable nowadays, pyramids at the time were not “stepped” in the way that Babylonian ziggurats are; they were smooth and could not be climbed. In fact, Babylonian ziggurats are a much more likely candidate for being the inspiration behind both the Tower of Babel and – indirectly – the ṣarḥ. The ancient Babylonians called their temples “ bīt(u) temen šamē u erṣētim ”, a translation of the Sumerian etemenanki, which itself means “the foundation platform of heaven and earth”; as such, the ziggurat was the link between the heavens and the earth.''<ref>Ibid. pp. 472.</ref> And in the Qur'an they reach the '[[Cosmology of the Quran#The%20Sky-ways%20(asb%C4%81b)%20of%20the%20Heavens|asbāb]]' of the heavens, whose literal meaning is a cord or rope,<ref>Lane's Lexicon classical Arabic to English Dictionary: [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000009.pdf ''sīn bā bā'' (س ب ب) p. 1285]

See also: Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> has strong imagery parallels in the Aḥīqar story "''Aḥīqar commissioned rope-weavers to produce two ropes of cotton, each two thousand cubits long, that would lift boys borne by eagles high into the air, from where the summit of the tower could be built. The role played in the Aḥīqar story by these overlong ropes strikingly prefigures that which is played in Firʿawn’s ṣarḥ by the asbāb. Presumably, the version of the Aḥīqar story that was familiar in seventh-century Arabia is the version known to Tobit ’s author. That Aḥīqar was known in Muḥammad’s Arabia is indicated by the parallels between some of his maxims and those that are attributed to Luqmān in the Qurʾān.39 What Aḥīqar and Luqmān have in common, of course, is that they are both paradigmatic “sages” in the Near East, the adjective ḥakīm being applied to both of them.'' "<ref>Silverstein 2012. pp. 475.</ref>

=== Mecca as a safe sanctuary ===
The Quran references Mecca as a safe haven while swearing an oath.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|95|1|3}}|By the fig and the olive, and Mount Sinai, and by this city (of Makkah), a haven of peace}}
While it may have appeared to have been secured at the time, the city has seen many violent events, such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_(683) 683] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Mecca_(692) 692] Sieges of Mecca, when Ibn al-Zubayr rebelled against the Umayyad caliphate rulers. And more recently the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mosque_seizure Grand Mosque Seizure] attack - making this description redundant.

=== Kings of Israel before Israel ===
Moses is the founder of Israel in both the Bible and the Qur'an leading them out of Egyptian bondage, and providing them with laws making the foundation of Judaism.<ref>See: "[https://web.archive.org/web/20210417012515/http:/www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1551 ''Moses'']". Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on April 17, 2021.

And: Noegel, Scott B.; Wheeler, Brannon M.. ''The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism (The A to Z Guide Series Book 176)'' (Kindle Edition pp. 358-359). Scarecrow Press. </ref> Durie (2018) notes that basic biblical narrative material is repurposed in the Qur'an, but sometimes with little awareness of chronological knowledge or wider details,<ref>Durie, Mark. ''The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion'' (pp. xxv- xxvi Introduction) (Kindle Edition pp. 27-28). Lexington Books.</ref> which given the almost no direct extended citations of the text, suggests Muhammad's information most likely from oral exposure of popular tales rather than detailed readings of the bible.<ref>Ibid. (pp. xxvi Introduction ) (Kindle Edition pp. 28)</ref>

Some examples he cites of the Qur'an showing little interest in historical narrative have already been listed here; such as [[Historical Errors in the Quran#The%20Israelites%20inherit%20Egypt%20as%20well%20as%20Israel/Palestine|Moses taking Egypt]], the [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Samarians%20in%20ancient%20Egypt|Samaria in Moses's time]], [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Haman%20in%20ancient%20Egypt|Hāmān moving time periods]], and also the [[Historical Errors in the Quran#Mary%20as%20Miriam|Mariam/Mary change]]. One aspect not yet mentioned that he notes to support that Muhammad was missing an understanding of the stages of the formation of Israel and its timeline is Moses telling the people of Israel that god had given them prophets and kings, before the kingdom existed in the first place.
{{Quote|Durie, Mark. 2018. Lexington Books. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion (pp. xxv - xxvi).|In other respects the Biblical timeline has been flattened, so the Qurʾan displays little awareness of stages in the history of Israel. For example, in Q5:20–21 Mūsā addresses his people before they enter the holy land, telling them to remember that Allāh had appointed prophets and kings among them in the past, even though in the Biblical account there were no kings of Israel until some time after Canaan was settled. In spite of this previous account, elsewhere the Qurʾan describes how the people of Israel, after Allāh had drowned “Pharaoh’s people” (and not just his army) in the sea, did not move on toward a promised land, but took over the farms, gardens, and buildings of the Egyptians, succeeding them (Q44:25–28; cf. Q7:136–37).}}{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|20|21}}|And when said Musa to his people, "O my people, remember (the) Favor (of) Allah upon you when He placed among you Prophets and made you kings and He gave you what not He (had) given (to) anyone from the worlds. "O my people! Enter the land, the Holy, which (has been) ordained (by) Allah for you and (do) not turn on your backs, then you will turn back (as) losers."}}

=== Every people had a Muslim warner/prophet ===
We are told that every 'umma' أمة (people/nation) was sent a messenger.
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|36}}|And We certainly sent into every nation a messenger, [saying], "Worship Allah and avoid ṭāghūt. [false objects of worship]." And among them were those whom Allah guided, and among them were those upon whom error was [deservedly] decreed. So proceed through the earth and observe how was the end of the deniers.}}{{Quote|{{Quran|35|24}}|Surely We have sent you with the truth as a bearer of good news and a warner; and there is not a people but a warner has gone among them.}}
The word for people/nation 'umma' (أمة) is generally interchangeable with the words town/city ('madeena' مدينة), and village ('qarya' قرية) in the context of warners being sent in the Quran.<ref>For example: in ''{{Quran|10|98}}'', the town/village (قرية) of prophet Yunus is mentioned as having believed, implying prophets are sent to smaller areas than one per nation. And again in ''{{Quran|7|101}}'' we are told of earlier 'towns' whose warners were given miracles, and similarly 'towns' having warnings before their destruction in ''{{Quran|26|208}}.''</ref> They generally mean a group of people residing in a particular place, so people/nation is used for that as well rather than as how we might interpret a nation/people in modern times. For example in Q28:23.
{{Quote|{{Quran|28|23}}|And when he came to the well of Madyan, he found there a crowd of people (umma) watering [their flocks], and he found aside from them two women driving back [their flocks]. He said, "What is your circumstance?" They said, "We do not water until the shepherds dispatch [their flocks]; and our father is an old man."}}
Some people sometimes get more than one messenger.
{{Quote|{{Quran|36|14}}|When We sent to them two but they denied them, so We strengthened them with a third, and they said, "Indeed, we are messengers to you."}}
We see this too with the Jews having many prophets (though many classical commentaries have interpreted the other prophets in the previous verse ({{Quran|36|14}}) as being Jesus's followers, who is also a Jewish prophet),<ref>E.g. View the classical tafsirs on [https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.14 ''verse 36:14''] on quranx.com</ref> and the Arabs (and Meccans specifically) with Abraham coming before Muhammad (Quran 3.96 - 3.97), and his son Ishmael supposedly building the Ka'ba (Quran 2.125). Some of these messengers are extremely powerful kings such as Suliman, who were are told a kingdom like his will not be given to anyone else ({{Quran|38|35}}), and Dhu'l Qarnayn ({{Quran|18|84}}), who is given authority over the earth and rides to the rising and setting of the sun.

Despite these prophets supposedly visiting all pre-Islamic people and some ruling mighty empires, there is no trace of their monotheistic mission in any society (the two rulers mentioned only appear in biblical writings<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/question/When-was-the-Bible-written ''When was the Bible written?''] Britannica Entry. www.britannica.com</ref> and separate Christian literature (''see: [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance]]'') written centuries after the events supposedly happened; and are absent from contemporary writings and archaeological evidence). This is extremely odd that the entire administration of the empires (or surrounding ones) had not a left a trace of a monotheistic religion or their message as a warner - which assumingly they would as prophethood became the rulers life's purpose.

In fact, we see the opposite, with pretty much all ancient societies being polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, manistic (ancestor worship), shamanistic, pantheistic, heliolithic, folk religion or a combination thereof. This includes all major empires from the ancient world such as, but not limited to, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, African, Americas, European, Greek, Nordic, Roman, Chinese, Indian etc. Essentially all ancient cultures were polytheistic, with the idea of monotheism only gradually and slowly appearing as an innovation,<ref>Denova, R. (Emeritus Lecturer in the Early History of Christianity, Department of Religious Studies, University of Pittsburgh) (2019, October 17). [https://www.ancient.eu/article/1454/ ''Monotheism in the Ancient World. Ancient History Encyclopaedia.''] </ref> (rather than appearing and reappearing constantly).

This also begs the question on how societies for most of human history are to be judged if the message seemingly got lost before anyone ever recorded it, if the sole purpose of man (and [[:en:Jinn|jinn]]) is to worship Allah specifically ({{Quran|51|56}}).

Interestingly, all of the stories told in the Quran are of well-known Jewish-Christian prophets (''see: [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]'') and three local Arabian prophets Hud, Salih, and Shu'aib. There are none mentioned outside the Near-East and Arabia of antiquity, and nothing about the entire hunter-gather section of humanity which lasted most of the 300,000 years humans have existed,<ref>''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/ultrasocial/our-huntergatherer-heritage-and-the-evolution-of-human-nature/F0FAE24179317811BE1420E9BA5A290E Our Hunter-Gatherer Heritage and the Evolution of Human Nature.]'' Part I - The Evolution of Human Ultrasociality. John M. Gowdy. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 09 October 2021.</ref> with the stories taking place in towns that match ones contemporary to Muhammad's time.

Critics argue that this is a missed opportunity to explain the history of the world and what happened elsewhere with those prophets, yet the Quran only recalls local tales like a human with knowledge limited to the vicinity, where it would have seemed that monotheism was all over the world given its presence in the surrounding Byzantine (Roman), Sasanian (Persian) Empires in the North and former Himyarite Kingdom and Aksumite Empire in the South (See [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam#General Judeo-Christian Monotheism in Arabia]]). Along with the lack of historical evidence for those other messengers where we would expect it, this is seen by critics as strongly inconsistent with the Quranic claim to divine authorship.

=== Suliman's missing kingdom ===
The Quran tells us of a powerful prophet 'Suliman' (Suliman is the Arabised version of king Solomon in the Hebrew bible. He is also the son of David (Dawood) {{Quran|27|16}}), who was granted a kingdom the likes of which would never be seen after.
{{Quote|{{Quran|38|35}}|He said, 'My Lord, forgive me, and give me a kingdom such as may not befall anyone after me; surely Thou art the All-giver.'}}
He is said to have controlled many jinn who created buildings/structures ({{Quran-range|34|12|13}}), and had army of birds (and jinn) he could speak to ({{Quran|27|16}}), and travelled to other nearby kingdoms (notably the Queen of Sheba in Yemen) which he could travel in 'the blink of an eye', and get under his control ({{Quran-range|27|38|40}}).

Despite these claims in the Quran (as well as hadith and commentaries) of an extremely powerful and at least somewhat imperialistic kingdom in the Near-east/Israel/Palestine region built with supernatural abilities, of which we would expect to see an exceptionally large and unique kingdom in the archaeological record, material evidence for Solomon’s reign, as for that of his father, is scant.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon ''Solomon Britannica Entry''] Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica. </ref> There are also no known writings or stories from surrounding kingdoms in the Near-East and beyond about his reign, of which there were many thriving civilizations across e.g. Egypt, Arabia, Persia and Mesopotamia.

Instead the closest and main source of information about comes from the bible, primarily in the First Book of Kings and the Second Book of Chronicles,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon Solomon Britannica Entry]'' Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica.</ref> with the former believed to be written around (c. 550 BC)<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/books-of-Kings Books of Kings Britannica Entry.]'' Bible. History & Society. Scriptures. Philosophy & Religion. Britannica.com</ref> and the latter around 350–300 BC.<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/topic/books-of-the-Chronicles Books of the Chronicles Britannica Entry]''. Old Testament. History & Society. Scriptures. Philosophy & Religion. Britannica.com</ref> The other sources are rabbinic commentaries composed many centuries after that (''see: [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature#Jinn help Solomon build temples]]'').

Solomon is supposed to have lived around 1000BC, preceding the bible which most sources of his life come from,<ref>''[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Solomon Solomon Britannica Entry]'' Cyrus H. Gordon. Matt Stefon. Michael Cardoza. Solomon | Sources, Meaning, Temple, & Facts | Britannica.</ref> making these sources extremely late, so that only bible literalists, rather than official academics, hold this kingdom's descriptions to be literally true. For a brief summary of scholars in this area, see the Smithsonian magazine article: [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/archaeological-dig-reignites-debate-old-testament-historical-accuracy-180979011/ ''An Archaeological Dig Reignites the Debate Over the Old Testament’s Historical Accuracy''] where it is made clear remains do not match these descriptions, with the lack of structures being found making many doubt the existence of any kingdom at all during this time period, and the previous time period it seems Egyptians ruled over the area in discussion. And despite the promising title of the Smithsonian article, the society in question is suggested to be ''a more complex nomadic one'' in the area likely belonging to the Edomites (put forward by Israeli archaeologist Erez Ben-Yosef at Tel-Aviv University), that may have inspired the biblical stories, rather than one corresponding to the supernaturally build vast Islamic structures and wide reaching monotheistic rule.

As Aren Maeir (Israeli archaeologist and professor in the Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology at Bar-Ilan University) says assessing his work, "''Because scholars have supposedly not paid enough attention to nomads and have over-emphasized architecture, that doesn’t mean the united kingdom of David and Solomon was a large kingdom—there’s simply no evidence of that on any level, not just the level of architecture.''”

And in ''[https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Bible_Unearthed/lu6ywyJr0CMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover The Bible Unearthed]'', a 2001 book by the Israeli archaeologist Israel Finkelstein, of Tel Aviv University, and the American scholar Neil Asher Silberman; Archaeology, the authors wrote, “''has produced a stunning, almost encyclopedic knowledge of the material conditions, languages, societies, and historical developments of the centuries during which the traditions of ancient Israel gradually crystallized''.” Armed with this interpretative power, archaeologists could now scientifically evaluate the truth of biblical stories. ''An organized kingdom such as David’s and Solomon’s would have left significant settlements and buildings—but in Judea at the relevant time, the authors wrote, there were no such buildings at all, or any evidence of writing. In fact, most of the saga contained in the Bible, including stories about the “glorious empire of David and Solomon,” was less a historical chronicle than “a brilliant product of the human imagination.''”

This makes the Quran's claim he had the greatest kingdom not to be bestowed on anyone after him extremely implausible. Especially in light of the much larger empires covering huge portions of the world that came after, such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire British Empire], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_colonial_empire#Second_French_colonial_empire_(post-1830) French Empire], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire Mongol Empire], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire Russian Empire], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_dynasty Qing Dynasty], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire Spanish Empire], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire Ottoman Empire,] etc. whom we have far more evidence for.

=== Surah of the elephant ===
The Quran contains a surah relating to Allah destroying an army via birds throwing stones of baked clay at them. This account is allegedly based on the pre-Islamic Yemeni/Hymarite Christian King Abraha attempting to invade Mecca with an army of elephants for the purpose of destroying the House of Allah (The Holy Ka'aba), to bring pilgrims to his own church in the capital Sanaa. But their plan backfired when Allah destroyed the army with a flock of birds and baked clay, thus their plans were foiled.
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|105|1|5}}|Have not you seen how dealt your Lord with (the) Companions (of the) Elephant? Did He not put their scheme into ruin? and send against them flocks of birds. Which hit them with stones of baked clay, thus making them like chewed-up straw?}}
Historians believe that while there was a somewhat similar invasion of Abraha into Arabia at a similar time, almost every key part of the Islamic traditions surrounding the surah found in hadith, seerah, and tafsir are incorrect; starting with the date in Islamic tradition typically ascribed to the birth year of Muhammad (570CE) known as 'The Year of the Elephant',<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad Muhammad] | Britannica

''He is traditionally said to have been born in 570 in Mecca and to have died in 632 in Medina, where he had been forced to emigrate to with his adherents in 622.''[https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi:3619 Jami` at-Tirmidhi 1:46:3619]

''Narrated Al-Muttalib bin 'Abdullah bin Qais bin Makhramah:''

''from his father, from his grandfather, that he said: "I and the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), were born in the Year of the Elephant" - he said: "And 'Uthman bin 'Affan asked Qubath bin Ashyam, the brother of Banu Ya'mar bin Laith - 'Are you greater (in age) or the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ)?'" He said: "The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) is greater than me, but I have an earlier birthday." He said: "And I saw the defecation of the birds turning green."''</ref> while much more contemporary evidence places it around 552CE ([[Scientific Errors in the Hadith#Year%20of%20the%20Elephant%20(and%20the%20battle's%20location)|''see Scientific Errors in the Hadith - Year of the Elephant (and the battle's location)'']]), and to separate parts of Northern and Central Arabia, with one of Abraha’s armies went northeastward into the territory of the Ma‘add tribal confederacy, while another went north-westward towards the coast, rather than Mecca.<ref>Bowersock, G.W.. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Emblems of Antiquity) (p. 115 - 117). 2013. Oxford University Press.</ref>
{{Quote|Bowersock, G.W.. The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Emblems of Antiquity) (p. 115 - 117). Oxford University Press.|They may possibly explain a dramatic, even desperate move that the king made only a few years after the Mārib conference. In 552 he launched a great expedition into central Arabia, north of Najrān and south of Mecca.
An important but difficult inscription, which was discovered at Bir Murayghān and first published in 1951, gives the details of this expedition.10 It shows that one of Abraha’s armies went northeastward into the territory of the Ma‘add tribal confederacy, while another went northwestward towards the coast (Map 2). This two-pronged assault into the central peninsula is, in fact, the last campaign of Abraha known from epigraphy. It may well have represented an abortive attempt to move into areas of Persian influence, south of the Naṣrid capital at al Ḥīra. If Procopius published his history as late as 555, the campaign could possibly be the one to which the Greek historian refers when he says of Abraha, whom he calls Abramos in Greek, that once his rule was secure he promised Justinian many times to invade the land of Persia (es gēn tēn Persida), but “only once did he begin the journey and then immediately withdrew.”11 The land that Abraha invaded was hardly the land of Persia, but it was a land of Persian influence and of potentially threatening religious groups—Jewish and pagan. Some historians have been sorely tempted to bring the expedition of 552, known from the inscription at Bir Murayghān, into conjunction with a celebrated and sensational legend in the Arabic tradition that is reflected in Sura 105 of the Qur’an (al fīl, the elephant). The Arabic tradition reports that Abraha undertook an attack on Mecca itself with the aim of taking possession of the Ka‘ba, the holy place of the pagan god Hubal. It was believed that Abraha’s forces were led by an elephant, and that, although vastly superior in number, they were miraculously repelled by a flock of birds that pelted them with stones. The tradition also maintained that Abraha’s assault on the ancient holy place occurred in the very year of Muḥammad’s birth (traditionally fixed about 570). Even today the path over which Abraha’s elephant and men are believed to have marched is known in local legend as the Road of the Elephant (darb al fīl).

Obviously, the expedition of 552 cannot be the same expedition as the legendary one, if we are to credit the coincidence of the year of the elephant (‘Ām al fīl) with the year of the Prophet’s birth.12 But increasingly scholars and historians have begun to suppose that the Quranic date for the elephant is unreliable, since a famous event such as the Prophet’s birth would tend naturally, by a familiar historical evolution, to attract other great events into its proximity. Hence the attack on Mecca should perhaps be seen as spun out of a fabulous retelling of Abraha’s final and markedly less sensational mission. This is not to say that it might not also have been intended as a vexation for the Persians in response to pressure from Byzantium. But it certainly brought Abraha into close contact with major centers of paganism and Judaism in central and northwest Arabia.}}
Other than the historically inaccurate traditions, as Angelika Neuwirth 2022 notes, along with the magical birds, the Elephant itself may also be mythical.<ref>Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (pp. 60-61). 2022. Yale University Press.

''Islamic tradition clashes with traditional Islamic dates of 570 in their year (, Islamic sources claim that the story of Q 105 relates to an event when the Abyssinian army leader ‘Abraha al-Ašram, viceroy of Yemen, launched a military expedition, accompanied by one or more war elephants, to destroy the Ka‘ba in Mecca and avenge the desecration of his Christian cathedral in Ṣan‘ā’ in AD 570 or 571, the year Muḥammad was allegedly born. Allah protected the Ka‘ba and destroyed ‘Abraha and his army by sending birds to throw clay pellets down upon their heads. )''

''The sura centers on the military campaign into the north of Arabia by Abraha, the Abyssinian vice-king of Yemen, which was undertaken “not long after 543” (KU, 96). Reports about this campaign are transmitted also outside of the local Meccan tradition.''

''According to some reports it was interrupted by the outbreak of an epidemic before the campaign reached Mecca, an event that was interpreted early on in the sense of a miraculous salvation of Mecca, as reflected already in the pre-Islamic poets; according to Horovitz (KU, 97), the participation of the elephants may also belong to the legendary embellishment. On the historical background, see Nöldeke (1879: 204–219), Kister (1965a), Shahid (2004).''</ref>

Historian Christian Robin 2015 has also noted that they cannot historically be the same invasion as in the Islamic traditions,<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/37672841/_%E1%B8%A4imyar_Aks%C5%ABm_and_Arabia_Deserta_in_Late_Antiquity_The_Epigraphic_Evidence_dans_Arabs_and_Empires_before_Islam_edited_by_Greg_Fisher_Oxford_University_Press_2015_pp_127_171_chapter_3_ H˙imyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity. The Epigraphic Evidence.] Christian Julien Robin.

Found in Chapter 3 of: Fisher, Greg. Arabs and Empires before Islam (p. 151-152). OUP Oxford. Read on internet archive for free [https://archive.org/details/arabs-and-empires-before-islam-by-fisher-greg/page/151/mode/1up here].</ref> but does however state that it is plausible that an elephant attacked Mecca citing elephants with mahouts (riders) inscriptions in the Najrān region (~800km South from Mecca).<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/37672841/_%E1%B8%A4imyar_Aks%C5%ABm_and_Arabia_Deserta_in_Late_Antiquity_The_Epigraphic_Evidence_dans_Arabs_and_Empires_before_Islam_edited_by_Greg_Fisher_Oxford_University_Press_2015_pp_127_171_chapter_3_ H˙imyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity. The Epigraphic Evidence.] Christian Julien Robin.

Footnote 48: ''Robin 2015b: 36-48, with three engravings from the Najran region representing an elephant with his mahout.'' Gajda 2009: 142-7; Robin 2012b: 285-6.

Found in Chapter 3 of: Fisher, Greg. Arabs and Empires before Islam (p. 151-152). OUP Oxford. Read on internet archive for free [https://archive.org/details/arabs-and-empires-before-islam-by-fisher-greg/page/151/mode/1up here].</ref> However as Sean W. Anthony points out the petroglyphs of elephants are undated and no evidence connects them with Abraha. Petroglyphs of non-local things such as boats have also been found in Arabia.<ref>Sean W Anthony response on the subject on [https://threadreaderapp.com/thread/1220097304889307136.html Threads] and [https://x.com/shahanSean/status/1220097304889307136?t=GGA1q7v81g8r52nrJ1YbFA&s=19 Twitter (X)]</ref> Nothing connects them with Mecca either. And Michael Charles 2018 has argued that the use of elephants was plausible, based on reports from Islamic traditions/Arab Historians, combined with the fact that Ethiopian Axumite Empire that ruled Himyar (modern Yemen) was a tributary of at the time, having access to Elephants, and that Yemen was fertile at the time.<ref>Charles, Michael (2018). "''The Elephants of Aksum: In Search of the Bush Elephant in Late Antiquity''". Journal of Late Antiquity. 11 (1): 166–192. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/704824 doi:10.1353/jla.2018.0000]. S2CID 165659027.

(Text can be found here: [https://historum.com/t/meroitic-and-aksumite-royal-elephants-and-the-possible-use-of-large-bush-elephants.193439/ Meroitic and Aksumite Royal Elephants (and the possible use of large bush elephants]) </ref> However as others have pointed out, there are serious problems that make this doubtful.

Daniel Beck 2018 notes, there are many epigraphy records from that period as well as both before and after Abraha's reign, which do not mentioned the elephants in invasions, nor are they recorded by contemporary historians / sources such as Procopius, who wrote a detailed book on current wars and warfare ''Polemon (De bellis; Wars)''<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Procopius-Byzantine-historian Procopius] | Byzantine historian | Britannica Entry</ref> and documented Abraha's rise to power, who never mentioned the use of elephants which which would have been notable if they were used.<ref>Daniel Beck. ''Evolution of the Early Qur’ān: From Anonymous Apocalypse to Charismatic Prophet'' (Apocalypticism). 2018. Peter Lang. pp. 5.

The first chapter relating to Surah of the Elephant (Maccabees not Mecca: The Biblical Subtext and Apocalyptic Context of Surat Al-Fil) can be read for free in most countries using Amazon's 'Look Inside' feature on the left side of the page below the book image.</ref> The earliest inscriptions of the war mention non-Meccan enemies and no explicit reference to Mecca, the Ka'aba or the Quraysh tribe, and it would be the first African bush elephant used in warfare for over six centuries, and the last known one ever.<ref>Ibid. pp. 5.</ref> No other record in the literate regions from Yemen, the Axumite Empire, to Persia report a sudden death of an army in Mecca either which would be relevant to them.<ref>Ibid. pp. 7.</ref>

There are also practical and logistical issues with the account, as it is difficult to accommodate an elephants(s) in the hot desert environment of South and Central Arabia. Elephants require significant amounts of food and water 149-169 kg (330-375 lbs) of vegetation daily,<ref>[https://seaworld.org/animals/all-about/elephants/diet/ All About Elephants.] Diet & Eating Habits. Seaworld.org</ref> in fact typically sixteen to eighteen hours, or nearly 80% of an elephant’s day is spent feeding.<ref>Ibid.</ref> Elephants consume grasses, small plants, bushes, fruit, twigs, tree bark, and roots,<ref>Ibid.</ref> and drink 68.4 to 98.8 litres (18 to 26 gallons) of water daily, potentially up to 152 litres (40 gallons).<ref>Ibid.</ref> On top of that elephants have especially weak feet unsuited for desert terrain.<ref>[https://www.elephant.se/elephant_foot_and_nail_problems.php ''Elephant feet and nail problems.''] Elephant Encyclopedia - information and database - established 1995. Absolut elephant. elephant.se.</ref> They also unlike most hairless mammals have no natural defense against the sun, so must regularly bathe themselves in mud to avoid sunburn.<ref>[https://tsavotrust.org/five-interesting-facts-about-an-elephants-skin/ Five interesting facts about an elephant’s skin.] Tsavo Trust

''Elephant are subject to sunburn just like most other hairless mammals. What’s more, they have no natural, self-generating method of fighting its effects. Whereas hippos secrete a sunscreening substance, colloquially called ‘hippo sweat’, which scatters ultraviolet light, elephant are forced to cover themselves in mud to protect from the sun.''</ref> This is even more difficult to imagine with some traditions having more than one elephant.<ref>[https://islaam.net/the-quran/understanding-the-quran/tafsir-of-imam-as-sadi/tafsir-of-surah-al-fil-the-elephant-surah-105/ ''Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Verse 105:1-5''] islaam.net </ref>

Therefore critics argue it is most likely an exaggeration by Arab poets<ref>Angelika Neuwirth notes that a similar versions are found in pre-Islamic poetry.

''...According to some reports it was interrupted by the outbreak of an epidemic before the campaign reached Mecca, an event that was interpreted early on in the sense of a miraculous salvation of Mecca, as reflected already in the pre-Islamic poets...''Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 1: Early Meccan Suras: Poetic Prophecy (pp. 61). 2022. Yale University Press.</ref> and storytellers as word of far-off battles spread, which was then turned into salvation history by Muhammad as a reason to follow his message (i.e. Allah saved their town), and fear him, to convince them to heed his warnings.

And finally, there is no archaeological evidence for the dead soldiers (numbered in tens of thousands in some Islamic traditions)<ref>Maududi - Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi - Tafhim al-Qur'an. [https://quranx.com/Tafsir/maududi/105.1 ''Tafsir on Surah of the elephant / 105.''] </ref> in bits of baked clay as found in the Qur'an. Critics argue that this, along with the contemporary records showing a different story of a similar attack in the region, the severe lack of evidence for elephant(s) including no mentions from contemporary historians or inscriptions, no recording of the Meccan invasion, the muddling of the dates, along with practical problems, makes the whole account unreliable.

Historian Arthur Jeffrey, citing Italian orientalist Carlo Conti Rossini, states that the Axumites did not use war elephants, and suggests that the Abraha-elephant legend developed from a misunderstanding of the name of Abraha’s royal master, Alﬁlas, which when the ending was dropped, sounded like al-Fil, ‘the elephant.’ <ref>Jeffery, Arthur. ''The Koran: Selected Suras (Dover Thrift Editions: Religion)'' (p. 30). Sura 105 Dover Publications.</ref>

=== The Historical Jesus ===
The Qur'an includes references to [[:en:Isa_al-Masih_(Jesus_Christ)|Jesus (called 'Isa in Islam)]], acknowledging him as a prophet of Allah and the Messiah. Unlike the Christian Bible, the Qur'an portrays Jesus as a human being similar to other messengers, not the son of God (E.g. {{Quran|4|171}}, {{Quran|17|111}} and {{Quran|2|116}}). He was also allegedly not actually crucified {{Quran|4|157}}.

It states that Jesus preached the Gospel (Injeel) but suggests it has been corrupted, and though what these means exactly is debated (''see: [[:en:Qur'an,_Hadith_and_Scholars:Corruption_of_Previous_Scriptures|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars: Corruption of Previous Scriptures]]'' and ''[[Corruption of Previous Scriptures]])'', however the current mainstream Sunni view is that the Christian Scripture (known as the New Testament which contains 4 'gospels'), does not reflect Jesus's original Islamic teachings.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47516/what-do-muslims-think-about-the-gospels What Do Muslims Think about the Gospels?] IslamQA. 2023. </ref>

While Muslims reject the Christian view of Jesus based on theological grounds, secular Biblical scholarship (separate to Islamic studies) has also long sought to reconstruct the historical Jesus through critical methods rather than faith-based ones, of which the results differ greatly from the Qur'anic portrayal.

'''Imminent Apocalyptic Preacher'''

Analysis of the sources written closest to Jesus's life, has lead to a consensus view that Jesus and his original followers believed the 'apocalypse', i.e. judgment day in Islam, would happen within his lifetime.<ref>While it would be futile to do full justice to the many academic works and their respective arguments in this small webpage section, this area will cover some of the key findings. For those who want to read more, some scholars that accept that Jesus expected a final judgment in the near future include: Bart Ehrman, Thom Stark, EP Sanders, Johannes Weiss, John P. Meier, Albert Schweitzer, David Madison, Krister Olofson Stendahl and Paula Fredriksen, some whose works are directly cited below here.</ref>

As biblical scholar Albert Schweitzer famously pointed out in his seminal 1906 work ''<nowiki/>'The Quest of the Historical Jesus''', Jesus’s failed prophecy was not a one-off or trivial tradition but a core part of his preaching.<ref>Schweitzer, Albert. ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus (E.g. see pp. 358-368).'' Jovian Press. Published 1906 in German. Officially translated in 1910 to English.</ref> Only in later writings did this message begin to be subverted for a metaphorical kingdom of Earth of those who join Jesus's followers believing in salvation and the resurrection; I.e. only the later books in the New Testament cannon began to reinterpret these apocalyptic messages as the expected return of Jesus didn’t materialize, suggesting a more spiritual interpretation of the "Kingdom of God." This reinterpretation is seen as an attempt to reconcile early Christian beliefs with the reality that the world didn't end as expected.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 130-131). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>

Jesus was estimated have lived between before approximately 4BCE,<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (pp. 11-12). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

''..as related by both Matthew and Luke in the New Testament—then he must have been born no later than 4 BCE, the year of..''</ref> and died around the year of 30 CE (for Jesus’ crucifixion).<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/when-did-jesus-die/#:~:text=According%20to%20Bart%20Ehrman%2C%20the,30%20CE%20for%20Jesus'%20crucifixion. When Did Jesus Die? Unveiling the Month & Year of His Crucifixion.] Joshua Schachterle, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehrman.com </ref> The books that make up the New Testament, documenting Jesus's life and teachings, (and believed by Christians to be divinely inspired writings to cover his teachings, death and salvation) are in mostly consensus to be written in order of seven authentic letters of Paul followed the first Gospel, Mark (~C. 70 C.E), two more inauthentic letters from Paul, followed by The Gospel of Matthew and then The Gospel of Luke, (both~ 80-90 C.E.), five more inauthentic letters attributed to Paul, followed by The Gospel of John (~90-100 C.E.), with the Book of Revelation and several more letters after that.<ref>[https://www.bartehrman.com/bible-in-chronological-order/ Bible in Chronological Order (Every Book Ordered by Date Written)]. Marko Marina, Ph.D. 2024. Bart Ehram.com. </ref> These books/letters and their approximate dates are in order as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|1 Thessalonians C. 49 C.E.
|Galatians C. 49-51 C.E.
|1 Corinthians C. 54-55 C.E.
|2 Corinthians C. 55-56 C.E.
|Romans C. 56-57 C.E.
|Philemon 55 C.E. or 61-63 C.E.
|-
|Philippians C. 59-62 C.E.
|The Gospel of Mark C. 70 C.E.
|2 Thessalonians 70-90 C.E.
|1 Peter 70-110 C.E.
|The Gospel of Matthew 80-90 C.E.
|The Gospel of Luke 80-90 C.E.
|-
|The Acts of the Apostles 80-90 C.E.
|Colossians 80-100 C.E.
|Ephesians 80-100 C.E.
|The Epistle to the Hebrews 80-100 C.E.
|The Epistle to James 80-100 C.E.
|The Gospel of John 90-100 C.E.
|-
|The Epistle of Jude 90-100 C.E.
|The Book of Revelation C. 96 C.E.
|1, 2, and 3 John C. 100 C.E.
|1 and 2 Timothy 90-120 C.E.
|Titus 90-120 C.E.
|2 Peter 110-140 C.E.
|}
New Testament scholar Bart Ehrman also reports that the great majority of biblical scholars hypothesize there was also an earlier but lost earlier Gospel known in scholarship 'Q' (named after the German word for “source” Quelle) to have existed, based off shared stories between the Gospels of Luke and Matthew which do not come from the earliest Gospel of Mark, which may shared sayings appear to come from.<ref>[https://ehrmanblog.org/and-then-there-was-q/ And then there was Q.] Bart Ehmran blog. 2017.

''Some scholars have called into question this hypothetical document Q — especially my friend and colleague at Duke, Mark Goodacre, who is on the blog. But its existence is still held by the great majority of scholars as the most likely explanation for the accounts, mainly sayings, of Matthew and Luke not in Mark...''

''...Matthew and Luke obviously share a number of stories with Mark, but they also share with each other a number of passages not found in Mark. Most of these passages (all but two of them) involve sayings of Jesus — for example, the Beatitudes and the Lord’s Prayer. Since they didn’t get these passages from Mark, where did they get them? Since the 19th century scholars have argued that Matthew did not get them from Luke or Luke from Matthew (for reasons I’ll suggest below); that probably means they got them from some other source, a document that no longer survives…''</ref> It is believed they both used Mark as a key source too.<ref>Ibid.

''...Most scholars think that Q must have been a written document; otherwise it is difficult to explain such long stretches of verbatim agreement between Matthew and Luke. It is not certain, however, that Matthew and Luke had Q in precisely the same form: they may have had it available in slightly different editions. The same, I should add, could be true of their other source, the Gospel of Mark.''</ref>

Ehrman (2001) notes, through careful examination of the earliest and most likely authentic material (e.g. multiply and independently attested, avoiding anachronisms, dissimilarity (unlikely to be added by later Christians)<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 92). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

''“Dissimilar” traditions, that is, those that do not support a clear Christian agenda, or that appear to work against it, are difficult to explain unless they are authentic. They are therefore more likely to be historical.''</ref> and matching the contemporary context), we can see early Christians believed in and recorded the beliefs and saying of Jesus's imminent apocalyptic sayings.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 128). Oxford University Press.

''Throughout the earliest accounts of Jesus’ words are found predictions of a Kingdom of God that is soon to appear, in which God will rule. This will be an actual kingdom here on earth. When it comes, the forces of evil will be overthrown, along with everyone who has sided with them, and only those who repent and follow Jesus’ teachings will be allowed to enter. Judgment on all others will be brought by the Son of Man, a cosmic figure who may arrive from heaven at any time.''</ref> Allison (2009) comes to the same conclusion using different methods.<ref>Dale C. Allison Jr.. The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus. 2009. (Kindle Location 720 - 796). Kindle Edition. (Chapter 3) How to Proceed: The Wrong Tools for the Wrong Job)

''...Results, one might suppose, are determined by method. In my case, however, different methods, with and without criteria of authenticity, have produced the same result...'' (Kindle Location 796)

</ref>

Beginning with the earliest writings on Jesus, the authentic [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistles letters of Paul], we see some explicit references, Paul writes (~C. 49 C.E.):
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Thessalonians%204%3A15-17&version=NIV 1 Thessalonians 4:15-17]|2=15 According to the Lord’s word, we tell you that we who are still alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will certainly not precede those who have fallen asleep. 16 For the Lord himself will come down from heaven, with a loud command, with the voice of the archangel and with the trumpet call of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. 17 After that, we who are still alive and are left will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air. And so we will be with the Lord forever.}}
I.e. Paul considers himself and his contemporaries to be among those who will still be alive when Christ returns. Paul further advises time is short as the world in its present form is passing away (~C. 54-55 C.E.).
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%207%3A29-31&version=NIV 1 Corinthians 7:29-31]|2=29 What I mean, brothers and sisters, is that the time is short. From now on those who have wives should live as if they do not; 30 those who mourn, as if they did not; those who are happy, as if they were not; those who buy something, as if it were not theirs to keep; 31 those who use the things of the world, as if not engrossed in them. For this world in its present form is passing away.}}
This sense of urgency of the end being imminent is continued in the Gospels (which did not use Paul as a source),<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 202). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.

''..The synoptic authors did not copy Paul, since they wrote before his letters were published..''

</ref> in fact, the very first words Jesus utters in the first gospel (Mark ~70CE) to be written are:
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201%3A15&version=NIV Mark 1:15]|2=“The time has come. The kingdom of God has come near. Repent and believe the good news”}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2013%3A3-31&version=NIV Mark 13:3-30]|2=…[after describing what will happen in the apocalypse]… 29 Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that it is near, right at the door. 30 Truly I tell you}}
Jesus tells his followers that they will not die before the Kingdom of God comes into power and judgment by the Son of Man occurs. (''The Son of man was a cosmic judge for the hour.)''<ref>[https://ehrmanblog.org/at-last-jesus-and-the-son-of-man/ At Last. Jesus and the Son of Man.] Bart Ehrman Blog. 2020. </ref>
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209%3A1&version=NIV Mark 9:1]|2=And he said to them, “Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see that the kingdom of God has come with power.”}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208%3A38-9%3A1&version=NIV Mark 8:38–9:1]|2=38 “Whoever is ashamed of me and of my words in this adulterous and sinful generation, of that one will the Son of Man be ashamed when he comes in the glory of his Father with the holy angels. 1 Truly I tell you, there are some standing here who will not taste death until they see that the Kingdom of God has come in power” .}}
Along with direct statements, we have other guidance given at odds with the the Qur'anic Jesus. E.g. as Ehrman (2001) notes, Jesus's followers are told to essentially give away all of their possessions, which makes far more sense in an imminent apocalyptic environment where they would not need them over a long-term life, let alone a sustainable long-term society. If the Jesus truly was the Qur'anic one, it is difficult to imagine why his early followers would have believed such things so contrary to Islam.

{{Quote|Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 168). Oxford University Press.|As a corollary, people should give all they have for the sake of others. In our earliest accounts Jesus not only urges indifference to the good things of this life (which, when seen from an apocalyptic perspective, are actually not all that good-since they too will be destroyed in the coming Kingdom), he rails against them, telling his followers to be rid of them. And thus, when a rich person comes to Jesus to ask about inheriting eternal life, upon finding out that he has already observed the commandments of God found in the Law he hasn't murdered, committed adultery, stolen, or borne false witness, for example-Jesus tells him, "You still lack one thing: go, sell everything you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven" (Mark 10:17-21)}}

''(Allison (2009) also notes [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2014%3A33&version=NRSVA Luke 14:33] where his followers are told they can't become his disciple if they don't give up all of their possessions,<ref>Dale C. Allison Jr.. The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus (Kindle Locations 834-837). Kindle Edition.</ref> and Jesus sends forth missionaries without staff, food, or money: [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206%3A8-9&version=NIV Mark 6:8-9]; [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010%3A9-10&version=NIV Matt. 10:9-10]; [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2010%3A4&version=NIV Luke 10:4].<ref>Dale C. Allison Jr.. The Historical Christ and the Theological Jesus (Kindle Location 829). Kindle Edition.</ref> Followers are also commanded to never refuse someone who wants to borrow money from you. ([https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%205%3A42&version=NRSVA Matthew 5:42])<ref>Madison, David. Ten Things Christians Wish Jesus Hadn't Taught: And Other Reasons to Question His Words (pp.26) Insighting Growth Publications. Kindle Edition.</ref>).''

These direct statements continue in the next Gospel, the Gospel of Matthew (~80-90CE).
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2016%3A28&version=NIV Matthew 16:28]|2=“Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom.”}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010%3A23&version=NIV Matthew 10:23]|2=When you are persecuted in one place, flee to another. Truly I tell you, you will not finish going through the towns of Israel before the Son of Man comes.}}
Further statements include.
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2024%3A3-34&version=NIV Matthew 24:3-34]|2=3 As Jesus was sitting on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately. “Tell us,” they said, “when will this happen, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the end of the age?”... [after describing various signs] ...31 And he will send his angels with a loud trumpet call, and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from one end of the heavens to the other. 32 “Now learn this lesson from the fig tree: As soon as its twigs get tender and its leaves come out, you know that summer is near. 33 Even so, when you see all these things, you know that it is near, right at the door. 34 Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened.}}{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%203%3A2-10&version=NLT Matthew 3:2-10]|2=2 “Repent of your sins and turn to God, for the Kingdom of Heaven is near.. ..10 Even now the axe of God’s judgment is poised, ready to sever the roots of the trees. Yes, every tree that does not produce good fruit will be chopped down and thrown into the fire.}}
In the next Gospel of Luke, we continue to see early apocalyptic traditions, however as Ehrman (2001) and Sanders (1993) note, we also begin to see a slight 'de-apocalypting' of the message in Luke,<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 130). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

''The earliest sources record Jesus as propounding an apocalyptic message. But, interestingly enough, some of the most clearly apocalyptic traditions come to be “toned down” as we move further away from Jesus’ life in the 20s to Gospel materials produced near the end of the first century. Let me give one example.''

''I’ve already pointed out that Mark was our earliest Gospel and was used as a source for the Gospel of Luke (along with Q and L). It’s a relatively simple business, then, to see how the earlier traditions of Mark fared later in the hands of Luke. Interestingly, some of the earlier apocalyptic emphases begin to be muted. In Mark 9:1, for example, Jesus says, “Truly I tell you, there are some who are standing here who will not taste death until they see that the Kingdom of God has come in power.” Luke takes over this verse—but it is worth noting what he does with it. He leaves out the last few words, so that now Jesus simply says: “Truly I tell you, there are some who are standing here who will not taste death until they see the Kingdom of God” (Luke 9:27). The difference might seem slight, but in fact it’s huge: for now Jesus does not predict the imminent arrival of the Kingdom in power, but simply says that the disciples (in some sense) will see the Kingdom. And strikingly, in Luke (but not in our earlier source, Mark), the disciples do see the Kingdom—but not its coming in power. For according to Luke, the Kingdom has already “come to you” in Jesus own ministry (Luke 11:20, not in Mark), and it is said to “be among you” in the person of Jesus himself (Luke 17:21, also not in Mark).''</ref><ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 196). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.

''Of the three gospels, Luke is most concerned to minimize and de-emphasize Jesus’ future expectation. This concern surfaces, for example, in the author’s preface to a parable, in which the readers are cautioned not to expect the kingdom immediately (Luke 19.11). Even 19.11, however, does not deny that the kingdom will come.9 Both passages (17.20f. and 19.11) are Luke’s own modifications of previously existing material. Luke 17.20f. does not appear in Luke’s source (here Mark), while 19.11 is the author’s comment on the point of a parable. The saying in 17.20f. is the author’s own attempt to reduce the significance of the dramatic verses that follow, which discuss the arrival of the Son of Man and the impending judgement.''

</ref> who edits some of the earlier traditions from Mark and the earlier lost 'Q' source, so that it is no longer Jesus's generation, but the next generation that the eschaton will arrive.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 130-131). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

''Let me stress that Luke continues to think that the end of the age is going to come in his own lifetime. But he does not seem to think that it was supposed to come in the lifetime of Jesus’ companions. Why not? Evidently because he was writing after they had died, and he knew that in fact the end had not come.''

''To deal with the “delay of the end,” he made the appropriate changes in Jesus’ predictions. This is evident as well near the end of the Gospel. At Jesus’ trial before the Sanhedrin in Mark’s Gospel, Jesus boldly states to the high priest, “You will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of power and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mark 14:62). That is, the end would come and the high priest would see it. Luke, writing many years later, after the high priest was long dead and buried, changes the saying: “from now on the Son of Man will be seated at the right hand of the power of God” (Luke 22:69). No longer does Jesus predict that the high priest himself will be alive when the end comes.''</ref>
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2021:7-33 Luke 21:7-33]|2=...[after talking about 'the hour'] …29 He told them this parable: “Look at the fig tree and all the trees. 30 When they sprout leaves, you can see for yourselves and know that summer is near. 31 Even so, when you see these things happening, you know that the kingdom of God is near. 32 “Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. 33 Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.}}
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%209%3A27&version=NIV Luke 9:27]|2=27 “Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see the kingdom of God.”}}
Jesus tells his audience to be ready because the Son of Man (and accompanying judgement) will arrive at any moment, rather than e.g. death could arrive at any moment.
{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2012%3A40&version=NIV Luke 12:40]|2=40 You also must be ready, because the Son of Man will come at an hour when you do not expect him.”}}
These are very unlikely to be added by Christians after the fact, as of course the events didn't transpire, so would not naturally be words one would want attributed to their saviour.<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 202). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.

''Scholars who try to ‘test’ sayings of Jesus for authenticity will see that this tradition passes with flying colours. First, the predicted event did not actually happen; therefore the prophecy is not a fake. An unfulfilled prophecy is much more likely to be authentic than one that corresponds precisely to what actually happened, since few people would make up something that did not happen and then attribute it to Jesus.''

</ref>

What we do see is in the The Gospel of John writing (~90-100CE), several decades later again, and after the 40-50 years later after the first and second generations began passing away, the message of Jesus is de-apocalycised much further.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 131). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

''Here, then, is a later source that appears to have modified the earlier apocalyptic sayings of Jesus. You can see the same tendency in the Gospel of John, the last of our canonical accounts to be written. In this account, rather than speaking about the Kingdom of God that is soon to come (which is never spoken of here), Jesus talks about eternal life that is available here and now for the believer. The Kingdom is not future, it is available in the present, for all who have faith in Jesus.''

</ref> In fact, the imminent apocalyptic message is completely absent in John, as it became more apparent the prophecy was not happening, and so 'kingdom of heaven' only now becomes a metaphor for Jesus's ministry.<ref>Ibid. pp. 130-131.</ref>

So we can trace the development of a Jewish preacher who believed the eschaton was imminent, being changed over time the further away from his message the writer is. Later apocrypha works written after the Gospel of John, and even further away from the time of Jesus, go further in its denial, and explicitly condemn the view.<ref>Ibid. pp. 131.

''This “de-apocalypticizing” of Jesus’ message continues into the second century. In the Gospel of Thomas, for example, written somewhat later than John, there is a clear attack on anyone who believes in a future Kingdom here on earth. In some sayings, for example, Jesus denies that the Kingdom involves an actual place but “is within..''

Ibid. pp. 134.

''Before moving on to a consideration of the specific criteria that historians use with the Gospel traditions, let me stress again here, in conclusion, my simple point about our rules of thumb. The earliest sources that we have consistently ascribe an apocalyptic message to Jesus. This message begins to be muted by the end of the first century (e.g., in Luke), until it virtually disappears (e.g., in John), and begins, then, to be explicitly rejected and spurned (e.g., in Thomas). It appears that when the end never did arrive, Christians had to take stock of the fact that Jesus said it would and changed his message accordingly. You can hardly blame them.''</ref> The earliest sources of Jesus and his followers do not align with the Qur'anic portrayal, by which time recalling their failed apocalyptic expectations was no more of an option than for Christian writers.

==== The historical John the Baptist ====
John the Baptist whom Jesus closely preached with and is mentioned many times in the New Testament, is incidentally mentioned in the Quran. Unlike the Islamic John however, along with Jesus, he was also considered to have been an imminent apocalyptic preacher by academics. As Sanders (1993)<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 203). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.

''..entirely by studying the individual sayings. Only they can give us any of the nuances of Jesus’ thought, but the best evidence in favour of the view that Jesus expected that God would very soon intervene in history is the context of the movement that began with John the Baptist (ch. 7 above). John expected the judgement to come soon. Jesus started his career by being baptized by John. After Jesus’ death and resurrection, his followers thought that within their lifetimes he would return to establish his kingdom. After his conversion, Paul was of the very same view.''</ref> and Ehrman (2001) note:
{{Quote|Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 138). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.|John the Baptist appears to have preached a message of coming destruction and salvation. Mark portrays him as a prophet in the wilderness, proclaiming the fulfilment of the prophecy of Isaiah that God would again bring his people from the wilderness into the Promised Land (Mark 1:2–8). When this happened the first time, according to the Hebrew Scriptures, it meant destruction for the nations already inhabiting the land. In preparation for this imminent event, John baptized those who repented of their sins, that is, those who were ready to enter into this coming Kingdom. The Q source gives further information, for here John preaches a clear message of apocalyptic judgment to the crowds that have come out to see him: “Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruits worthy of repentance.… Even now the ax is lying at the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire” (Luke 3:7–9). Judgment is imminent: the ax is at the root of the tree. And it will not be a pretty sight.}}
We have seen that in the earliest sources of his life, John the Baptist was an apocalyptic preacher who focused on repentance in preparation for the coming judgment of God, and baptized Jesus early on.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 184). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.

''We have already seen that there is overwhelming evidence that Jesus was baptized by and became a follower of John the Baptist. The baptism itself is described in our earliest narrative, Mark, followed by the other Synoptics; it is alluded to independently by John (Mark 1:9–11; Matt. 3:13–17; Luke 3:21–22; John 1:29–34). The Q source gives a lengthy account of John’s apocalyptic preaching, evidently at the very outset of its account of Jesus’ teaching (see Luke 3:7–18; Matt. 3:7–12).''

</ref> Jesus, who initially associated with and followed John before starting his own ministry,<ref>Sanders, E.. The Historical Figure of Jesus (p. 110). Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition.

''In view of this, it is most unlikely that the gospels or earlier Christians invented the fact that Jesus started out under John. Since they wanted Jesus to stand out as superior to the Baptist, they would not have made up the story that Jesus had been his follower. Therefore, we conclude, John really did baptize Jesus. This, in turn, implies that Jesus agreed with John’s message: it was time to repent in view of the coming wrath and redemption.''</ref> spoke of him positively throughout his life. Despite differences in emphasis—John's fiery call to repentance and Jesus’ message of hope and the coming restoration—both shared the belief in an imminent divine judgment and the importance of preparing for it.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium (p. 185). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref>

== See Also ==

* [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]
* [[Prophecies in the Quran]]

== External Links ==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aZhi-e4jPlE&t=660s Part 42: Noah's Flood], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UKl9744lWKc Part 75: Crucifixion] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ESfQpmmVig&t=649s Part 13: Christian Teachings in the Quran] ''-'' ''islamwhattheydonttellyou164 - YouTube videos''

== References ==
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]

Women in Islamic Law

2026-03-20T22:53:00Z

Lightyears: Merged sections and more accurate regarding divorce

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=4|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}Women are legally disadvantaged by Islamic law in several domains of life. Particularly, women are disadvantaged in matters of sexual, domestic, legal, financial, sartorial, and physical autonomy. According to Islamic legal theory, while not all of Islamic law necessarily has a perceptibly rational basis, legal restrictions on women may be due to their supposed intellectual deficiency, which was pronounced by Muhammad according to Sahih Bukhari.

The writings of Professor [[w:Kecia Ali|Kecia Ali]] are renowned regarding the historical and modern Islamic approaches to women. Before her, ''Women and Gender in Islam'' by Leila Ahmed was also regarded as a seminal book on the subject. Ali's book ''Sexual Ethics and Islam'' is particularly wide-ranging.<ref>Kecia Ali,''Sexual Ethics and Islam'', England: Oneworld Publications, 2006</ref> She argues that the Quran is androcentric in terms of almost always addressing men and privileging male sexual agency.<ref>Ibid. pp. 131-132</ref> Ali also notes in her book the "very real dissonance between the cultural assumptions undergirding the classical edifices of jurisprudence and exegesis and the modern notions influencing Muslim intellectuals and ordinary people everwhere".<ref>Ibid. Introduction p. xxvii</ref> Throughout the book she critiques feminist and modernist interpretations while noting where they may have merit, as well as apologetics that misquote, mistranslate, or side step difficult issues. She also criticises some aggressively patriarchal and indeed misogynist interpretations. While warning against blind optimism on the prospects for transformation, she suggests the importance of rejecting medieval interpretations and not taking the Quran and hadiths as a repository of regulations to be applied at all times and places.<ref>Ibid. pp. 153-157</ref>

==Genital mutilation==
{{Main|Female Genital Mutilation in Islamic Law}}
Female genital mutilation (FGM), while not mentioned in the Quran, is obligatory in the Shafi'i madhab<ref>[https://www.answering-islam.org/Sharia/fem_circumcision.html Section on FGM in the standard manual of Shafi'i law]</ref> and optional but recommended to varying degrees by the remaining three madhabs, namely the Hanafi, Hanbali, and Maliki. Salafi scholars also encourage the practice. In universally conceiving of FGM as being either an obligatory or favorable practice, the schools of Islamic law agree that ''prohibiting'' FGM altogether would not be acceptable, as this would be tantamount to contravening God's laws and preferences. Views on the specific type of FGM required or permitted vary within and between the madhhabs. Some prominent modern Islamic scholars have dissented from the favorable consensus of the Islamic tradition and ruled it to be unlawful.
{{Quote|''Reliance of the Traveler'' [''Umdat al-Salik''], Section e4.3 on Circumcision|'''Obligatory (on every male and female) is circumcision.''' (And it is the cutting-off of the skin [''qat' al-jaldah''] on the glans of the male member and, '''as for the circumcision of the female, that is the cutting-off of the ''badhar'' [''qat' al-badhar'', ''badhar'' or بَظْرٌ either means the clitoris or the prepuce of the clitoris; Lane says that the precise usage was confused at some point in history<ref>[http://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/02_b/137_bZr.html Lane's Lexicon بَظْرٌ]</ref>]''' (and this is called ''khufad''))}}The Islamic legal tradition, while differing on its implementation, embraced FGM wholeheartedly, and, in the hadith literature, Muhammad is recorded as incidentally assuming women are circumcised ({{Muslim||349|reference}}), prescribing circumcision in general without specifying the gender ({{Bukhari|||5889|darussalam}}), and commenting that it should not be done severly ({{Abu Dawud||5271|darussalam}} this one is graded weak by some hadith scholars, though not by the legal schools who most strongly support FGM). Nowhere is Muhammad recorded prohibiting the practice.

In 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood worked to decriminalize FGM. According to Mariz Tadros (a reporter),"the Muslim Brotherhood have offered to circumcise women for a nominal fee as part of their community services, a move that threatens to reverse decades of local struggle against the harmful practice [...] Many of the Brothers (and Salafis) argue that while it is not mandatory, it is nevertheless ''mukarama'' (preferable, pleasing in the eyes of God)."<ref>Tadros, Mariz (24 May 2012). "[https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/mutilating-bodies-muslim-brotherhoods-gift-to-egyptian-women/ Mutilating bodies: the Muslim Brotherhood's gift to Egyptian women]". ''openDemocracy''</ref>

==Marriage==

===Restrictions on choice===

====Prohibition on marrying non-Muslim men====

Islamic law prohibits Muslim women from marrying disbelievers. If a Muslim woman converts to Islam, her marriage to a non-Muslim husband is nullified. If a Muslim woman's husband apostatizes, their marriage is also nullified.

This ruling, derived from verses in the Qur'an, has enjoyed legally-binding scholarly consensus (''ijma'')<ref name="IndianaLawJournal">Leeman, Alex B. (2009) "Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions," Indiana Law Journal: Vol. 84 : Iss. 2 , Article 9. pp.754-759
Available at: http://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf and https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol84/iss2/9</ref><ref>[https://www.islamawareness.net/Marriage/fatwa_11.html Verses on Interfaith Marriage: Still Binding? Archive of islamonline.net]</ref><ref>[https://archive.islamonline.net/?p=1187 Why a Muslim Woman Is Not Allowed to Marry a Non-Muslim Man]</ref>,

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|221}}|Wed not idolatresses till they believe; for lo! a believing bondwoman is better than an idolatress though she please you; '''and give not your daughters in marriage to idolaters till they believe''', for lo! a believing slave is better than an idolater though he please you. These invite unto the Fire, and Allah inviteth unto the Garden, and unto forgiveness by His grace, and expoundeth His revelations to mankind that haply they may remember.}}

In a verse about the treaty of Hudaybiyyah (before the conquest of Mecca), believing women and disbelieving men were declared unlawful for each other.

{{Quote|{{Quran|60|10}}|O ye who believe! When believing women come unto you as fugitives, examine them. Allah is Best Aware of their faith. '''Then, if ye know them for true believers, send them not back unto the disbelievers. They are not lawful for them (the disbelievers), nor are they (the disbelievers) lawful for them.''' And give them (the disbelievers) that which they have spent (upon them). And it is no sin for you to marry such women when ye have given them their dues. And hold not to the ties of disbelieving women; and ask for (the return of) that which ye have spent; and let them (the disbelievers) ask for that which they have spent. That is the judgment of Allah. He judgeth between you. Allah is Knower, Wise.}}

After the conquest of Mecca, Muslim men, by contrast, were given fewer restrictions and were permitted to marry Muslim women and people of the Book (this includes Jewish and Christian women).

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|5}}|This day are (all) good things made lawful for you. The food of those who have received the Scripture is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them. '''And so are the virtuous women of the believers and the virtuous women of those who received the Scripture before you (lawful for you) when ye give them their marriage portions''' and live with them in honour, not in fornication, nor taking them as secret concubines. Whoso denieth the faith, his work is vain and he will be among the losers in the Hereafter.}}

In recent times, some Islamic modernists have argued that the classical view does not necessarily follow from the Qur'anic verses and that Muslim women should be given more freedom, though in both the scholarly and lay communities this remains a fringe view ''vis-a-vis'' the traditional view.<ref>[https://www.huffingtonpost.ca/junaid-jahangir/muslim-women-marriage_b_15472982.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer_us=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_cs=Gv3znsP7rlc9K98rQxNZAQ Muslim Women Can Marry Outside The Faith - Blog on Huffington Post by Junaid Jahangir]</ref>

====Child marriage====
{{Main|Child Marriage in Islamic Law}}
A father or guardian must ask the consent of his virgin daughter before offering her in marriage, based on a well known sahih hadith. However, according to the same hadith, if she remains silent when asked, offering no explicit acceptance, this counts as consent ({{Muslim||1419a|reference}}, {{Muslim||1420|reference}}). As a result, while women have the decision as adults to decide whom they marry, young girls may be married off before they are physically (or, much less, mentally) capable of providing anything in the way of consent. All schools of Islamic law agreed that a virgin girl could be contracted in marriage before puberty and without consent, with consummation of the marriage permitted once she was old enough to avoid physical harm, not necessarily having reached puberty. The Quran, in providing guidelines on the procedure for divorce, states what must be done in the case of wife who has not yet reached puberty. Child marriage was practiced by Muhammad himself, who married Aisha at the age of six and copulated with her at the age of nine, while he was in his fifties.{{Quote|{{Quran|65|4}}| [speaking of the prescribed waiting period for a divorce] And those of your women as have passed the age of monthly courses, for them the 'Iddah (prescribed period), if you have doubts (about their periods), is three months, and '''for those who have no courses''' their 'Iddah (prescribed period) is three months likewise.}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3896|darussalam}}; see also: {{Bukhari|||5133|darussalam}}| Narrated Hisham's father: Khadija died three years before the Prophet departed to Medina. He stayed there for two years or so and then he married 'Aisha when she was a girl of six years of age, and he consumated that marriage when she was nine years old.}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1422c|reference}}| 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) reported that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) married her when she was seven years old, and he was taken to his house as a bride when she was nine, and her dolls were with her; and when he (the Holy Prophet) died she was eighteen years old.}}

Ayatollah Khomeini, the Iranian Shi'ite religious leader, married a ten-year-old girl when he was twenty-eight. Khomeini called marriage to a prepubescent girl "a divine blessing," and advised the faithful: "Do your best to ensure that your daughters do not see their first blood in your house."

Today, child marriages occur [[Child Marriage in the Muslim World|all over the world]], but the practice is especially common in Muslim-majority countries, particularly in those that practice Shari'a. Most Muslim-majority countries have now raised the female age of marriage to 16 or 18, often in the face of opposition (though sometimes support) from Islamic scholars. [http://www.un.org/youthenvoy/2016/03/new-un-initiative-aims-to-protect-millions-of-girls-from-child-marriage The UN] regards child marriage as a human rights violation and aims to eradicate it by 2030. The girl is vulnerable to spousal abuse and childhood pregnancy which greatly jeopardizes her health and future.

====Polygamy (four wives per husband)====
{{Main|Polygamy in Islam|Dealing Justly with Wives and Orphans (Qur'an 4:3)}}Islamic law permits men to marry up to four wives (alongside an unlimited number of concubines). {{Quran|4|3}}, which permits Muslim men to take up to four wives, also demands that they do 'justice' to their wives. According to most Muslim scholars, this does not prohibit any sort of romantic favoritism, and serves only to make sure that those who take on multiple wives have the minimum necessary financial wherewithal to do so. Muhammad himself (who was exempt from the four-wife limit per the Quran,<ref>{{Quran|33|50}}</ref> married nearly a dozen wives (having eleven at once), and kept concubines) openly pronounced and practiced his preference for Aisha, who was his favorite and youngest wife.{{Quote|{{Quran|4|3}}|And if you fear that you cannot act equitably towards orphans, then marry such women as seem good to you, two and three and four; but if you fear that you will not do justice (between them), then (marry) only one or what your right hands possess; this is more proper, that you may not deviate from the right course.}}Muhammad also restricted his son-in-law Ali (who was also his first cousin) from engaging in polygamy and demanded that he remain monogamous with his daughter Fatima.{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5230|darussalam}}| Narrated Al-Miswar bin Makhrama:
I heard Allah's Apostle who was on the pulpit, saying, "Banu Hisham bin Al-Mughira have requested me to allow them to marry their daughter to Ali bin Abu Talib, but I don't give permission, '''and will not give permission unless 'Ali bin Abi Talib divorces my daughter in order to marry their daughter, because Fatima is a part of my body, and I hate what she hates to see, and what hurts her, hurts me."'''}}

Under the Hanbali school alone, women may stipulate conditions in the marriage contract to have the marriage dissolved if her husband takes an additional wife.<ref>John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", Second edition, 2001, p. 22</ref> Such a stipulation is unenforcable according to the Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Maliki schools on the basis that it cannot overide his Quranic rights.<ref>Kecia Ali, ''Marriage and Slavery in early Islam'', Harvard University Pross, 2010, p. 74 and ftn. 31 on p. 220</ref> All schools agree though that he may delegate to his wife his powerful, Quranic ''talaq'' (divorce) rights at any time. This is called ''talaq al-tafwid'', and can be conditional such as in the event that he takes another wife (the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools allow him to later revoke this delegation).<ref>Muhammad Ifzal Mehmood (2019) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338688656_A_Study_of_Talaq_Al-Tafwid_in_Islamic_Law_and_Contemporary_Legislations_Should_Malaysia_Follow_Suit A Study of Talaq Al-Tafwid in Islamic Law and Contemporary Legislations: Should Malaysia Follow Suit?]'', Bahria University</ref> In most cases such a stipulation or delegation will not have been agreed ahead of the marriage, though an increasing number of countries in the Muslim world have made reforms to family law to limit polygamy or provide other legal routes for the first wife to seek divorce. Otherwise the husband's rights are automatic.

{{Quote|John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", 2001, p. 22|One important right granted by the Hanbali (but not Hanafi) law school that gives women a certain amount of independence and status in marriage is her right to insert conditions that are favourable to her directly into the marriage contract. The wife's ability to make conditions, provided that they are not contrary to the object of marriage, can resolve many inequities in areas such as polygamy and divorce. For example, clauses may be added that eliminate the husband's right to take a second wife or that grant the wife greater freedom of movement. These conditions limit the husband's somewhat automatic and extensive legal control over his wife. Because these conditions can be enforced by granting the wife her husband's power of divorce if they are violated, they bestow more equal rights of divorce on the wife.}}

====Autonomy of virgins vs. non-virgins====
A hadith recorded in the Muwatta of Imam Malik, one of the earliest written collections of hadiths, states that women who have already been married are entitled to greater autonomy in who they marry than virgins (who have never been married). The various schools of Islamic law have interpreted this and hadiths to a similar effect in various ways and have given women who have married at least once greater rights with respect to their marital lives than those who have not.{{Quote|{{Muwatta|28|2|4}}|Malik related to me from Abdullah ibn al-Fadl from Nafi ibn Jubayr ibn Mutim from Abdullah ibn Abbas that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "A woman who has been previously married is more entitled to her person than her guardian, and a virgin must be asked for her consent for herself, and her consent is her silence "}}

===Mahr===
{{Main|Purpose of the Mahr|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Mahr}}Islamic scriptures describe the ''mahr,'' or primarily financial gift made by a groom to his bride upon the marital ''nikah'' (sexual intercourse) contract, as 'the recompense for your having had the right to intercourse with her'.{{quote | {{Muslim||1493c|reference}} |
Ibn Umar (Allah be pleased with them) reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) saying to the invokers of curse: Your account is with Allah. One of you must be a liar. You have now no right over this woman. ''''He said: Messenger of Allah, what about my wealth (dower that I paid her at the time of marriage)? He said: You have no claim to wealth. If you tell the truth, it (dower) is the recompense for your having had the right to intercourse with her'''', and if you tell a lie against her, it is still more remote from you than she is. Zuhair said in his narration: Sufyan reported to us on the authority of 'Amr that he had heard Sa'id b Jubair saying: I heard Ibn Umar (Allah be pleased with them) saying that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) had said it. }}The purpose of the mahr is to serve as a payment from a man to a woman for the future sexual relations (nikah) he will have with her. This is further illustrated by the requirement for a ''mahr'' in temporary ''mut'ah'' marriages, other similar statements of Muhammad, and the logic inherent in the Quranic verses which stipulate that mahr cannot be taken back in divorce (except under extenuating circumstances) once a man has had intercourse with his wife.
===Nikah===
{{Main|The Meaning of Nikah}}The Arabic word for "marriage" is "zawaj". In Islamic law, marriage is considered under the concept of ''nikah'', a legal and financial contract between a male and a female Muslim. Nikah literally means "sexual intercourse".{{Quote|Ruxton (1916: 106). Quoted by Ziba Mir-Hosseini in volume five of Voices of Islam, pp. 85-113|When a woman marries, she sells a part of her person. In the market one buys merchandise, '''in marriage the husband buys the genital ''arvum mulieris'''''. As in any other bargain and sale, only useful and ritually clean objects may be given in dower.}}{{Quote|Ronak Husni, Daniel L. Newman, Muslim women in law and society: annotated translation of al-Tahir al Haddad al-Ṭāhir Ḥaddād, p. 182|The Arabic word for marriage is zawaj or '''nikah, the latter being derived from the verb nakaha (‘to have sexual intercourse’): cf. Qur. II: 230'''. Nikah is also used to denote the marriage contract (cf. ‘aqd, ‘aqd qiran).}}{{Quote|The Risala of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani (310/922 - 386/996) A Treatise on Maliki Fiqh (Inc. commentary from ath-Thamr ad-Dani by al-Azhari) Ch. 32|[These are eight things. The first, marriage, is the root and rest are consequences. Each has a linguistic meaning and usage which we will mention in its proper place. Marriage '''(nikah) linguistically means intercourse''' and is used as a metaphor for the contract. In technical usage, it is actual for the contract and metaphorical for intercourse. It is used in custom to mean to mean intercourse as the Almighty says, "Until she marries a husband other than him," '''(2:230) and so it is known from this that nakaha is used for intercourse between any man and woman. Marriage in the sense of intercourse''' is only permitted in the Shari'a by one of two matters: the contract of marriage or ownership by the words of the Almighty, "those who guard their private parts – except from their wives or those they own as slaves, in which case they are not blameworthy." (23:5-6)}}

===Temporary ''Mut'ah'' marriages===
''Mut'ah'', in Islamic law, is a temporary arrangement whereby a man and a woman enter into a contractual arrangement to marry each other for a specified period of time. The time can be as little as one hour or as long as several years, though most Mutah contracts are for hours or a few days. The man gives the woman something of value, and in exchange he is allowed to enter into sexual relations with her, legally, without committing fornication, since they are married. As within all Islamic marriages, the woman is not allowed to refuse her husband's sexual advances or commands. At the end of the period specified in the contract, each party walks separate ways and neither is indebted to the other. The practice dates back to Arabia's pre-Islamic days, and was recorded as far back as by the Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus in the 300's. Historians have identified the institution of Mutah as being comparable in practice to modern day prostitution.

Mutah is practiced mainly by Shi'ites today, although at one time Muhammad permitted it for all Muslims. This is one of many areas of disagreement between Sunnis and Shi'ites. Sunnis believe Muhammad abrogated Mutah, while Shi'ites disagree and still practice Mut'ah as allowed by Muhammad.

The Sunni Shafi'i scholar al-Baydawi said of Mutah, "The purpose of the contractual marriage is the mere pleasure of intercourse with a woman, and her own enjoyment in what she has given."<ref>p. 108, ''The Interpretation of the Baydawi''</ref>

The practice of Mutah is mentioned in several authentic hadiths.{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4615|darussalam}}| Narrated Abdullah:
We used to participate in the holy wars carried on by the Prophet and we had no women (wives) with us. So we said (to the Prophet ). "Shall we castrate ourselves?" But the Prophet forbade us to do that and thenceforth he allowed us to marry a woman (temporarily) by giving her even a garment, and then he recited: "O you who believe! Do not make unlawful the good things which Allah has made lawful for you." {{Quran|5|87}} }}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5117|darussalam}} and {{Bukhari|||5119|darussalam}}| Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah and Salama bin Al-Akwa':
While we were in an army, Allah's Apostle came to us and said, "You have been allowed to do the Mut'a (marriage), so do it." Salama bin Al-Akwa' said: Allah's Apostle's said, "If a man and a woman agree (to marry temporarily), their marriage should last for three nights, and if they like to continue, they can do so; and if they want to separate, they can do so." I do not know whether that was only for us or for all the people in general. Abu Abdullah (Al-Bukhari) said: 'Ali made it clear that the Prophet said, "The Mut'a marriage has been cancelled (made unlawful)."}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1406a|reference}}|Sabra Juhanni reported: Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) permitted temporary marriage for us. So I and another person went out and saw a woman of Bana 'Amir, who was like a young long-necked she-camel. We presented ourselves to her (for contracting temporary marriage), whereupon she said: What dower would you give me? I said: My cloak. And my companion also said: My cloak. And the cloak of-my companion was superior to my cloak, but I was younger than he. So when she looked at the cloak of my companion she liked it, and when she cast a glance at me I looked more attractive to her. She then said: Well, you and your cloak are sufficient for me. I remained with her for three nights, and then Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: He who has any such woman with whom he had contracted temporary marriage, he should let her off.}}{{Quote|{{Muslim||1405c|reference}}|Ibn Uraij reported:

'Ati' reported that jibir b. Abdullah came to perform 'Umra, and we came to his abode, and the people asked him about different things, and then they made a mention of temporary marriage, whereupon he said: Yes, we had been benefiting ourselves by this temporary marriage during the lifetime of the Prophet (ﷺ) and during the time of Abu Bakr and 'Umar.}}The following quotation regarding Mut'ah marriage is taken from a Shi'ite website.<ref>[http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/mutah/en/index.php-http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/mutah/en/index.php The Marriage of Mut'ah: Introduction: Preface] - Answering Ansar</ref>{{Quote||Whenever man sets foot on the earth the need to travel always emerges. Sometimes traveling can involve man going thousands of miles away from home, sometimes for moths, even years. Do one's sexual desires just evaporate when an individual is traveling? Sexual desire isn't like some light switch that turns off when a man leaves his wife to set off on his travels, and turns back home when he gets back! Sexual desire is something that remains permanently with a human, when it accompanies him at all times then how can he curtail such sexual feelings? When someone is traveling and accessing his wife is impossible, and he is incapable of summing her to join him, then what will a young red-blooded male do? Miles away from home, feeling sexually aroused his situation is not one wherein he can get permanently married, so what is he to do? He will feel the only way that he can relieve himself is by amalgamating himself into the society around him. Islam does not permit a person to sexually relieve himself through masturbation nor is he permitted to adopt the ways of the kufr and indulge himself in fornication, it offers him a legitimate mechanism with which to relieve himself and that is temporary marriage.

It is not just traveling, that might necessitate Mutah, there are many in society who just does not have the financial ability / standing to get permanent married, yet they still have sexual desires, again Mut'ah is there to ensure that they practice sex within the boundaries set by Allah (swt).
Islam is a religion that is suited for all nations and ages. Mut'ah is a good example of that. It is only the Deen of Islam that caters for sexual desire by permitting a legitimate method of control. For others societies the only mechanism that they see as the solution to relieving sexual feelings is through the practice of fornication. In the western world adultery and fornication are common and openly performed. Mut'ah is a way of protecting a person from committing these serious sins and vices.}}
==Domestic lives==
===Obedience===
Under Islamic law, women are obligated to obey their husbands in their domestic, social, professional, sexual and, to a limited extent, religious lives.{{Quote|{{Quran|4|34}}|'''Men are the maintainers of women''' because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded…}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5195|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:
Allah's Apostle said, "It is not lawful for a lady to fast (Nawafil) without the permission of her husband when he is at home; and she should not allow anyone to enter his house except with his permission; and if she spends of his wealth (on charitable purposes) without being ordered by him, he will get half of the reward."}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|14|3|14|2388}}|It was narrated from 'Amr bin Shu'aib, from his father that he delivered:
“It is not permissible for a woman to dispose of her wealth except with her husband's permission, once he has married her.” }}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|10|1160}}|Talq bin Ali narrated that The Messenger of Allah said:

“When a man calls his wife to fulfill his need, then let her come, even if she is at the oven.” (Darussalam: Sahih)}}{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir - [http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=4&tid=11021 Qualities of the Righteous Wife]|[Tafsir ibn Kathir records the following hadith:] "The best woman is she who when you look at her she '''obeys you''', and when you are absent, she protects her honor and your property."}}In his book ''The Ideal Muslimah'', Dr. Muhammad Ali al-Hashimi writes:{{Quote|{{cite web|url=http://www.iupui.edu/~msaiupui/chapter4.html |title=The ideal Muslimah - Chapter 4 |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20161006190029/http://www.iupui.edu/~msaiupui/chapter4.html |deadurl=no}}|The true Muslim woman devotes herself to taking care of her house and husband. She knows her husband's rights over her, and how great they are, as was confirmed by the Prophet's words:

"No human being is permitted to prostrate to another, but if this were permitted I would have ordered wives to prostrate to their husbands, because of the greatness of the rights they have over them."

A woman came to ask the Prophet (PBUH) about some matter, and when he had dealt with it, he asked her, "Do you have a husband?" She said, "Yes." He asked her, "How are you with him?" She said, "I never fall short in my duties, except for that which is beyond me." He said, "Pay attention to how you treat him, for he is your Paradise and your Hell."

How can the Muslim woman complain about taking care of her house and husband when she hears these words of Prophetic guidance? She should fulfil her household duties and take care of her husband in a spirit of joy, because she is not carrying a tiresome burden, she is doing work in her home that she knows will bring reward from Allah.

One of the most important ways in which the Muslim woman obeys her husband is by respecting his wishes with regard to the permissible pleasures of daily life, such as social visits, food, dress, speech, etc. The more she responds to his wishes in such matters, the happier and more enjoyable the couple's life becomes, and the closer it is to the spirit and teachings of Islam.

"It is not permitted for a woman who believes in Allah (SWT) to allow anyone into her husband's house whom he dislikes; or to go out when he does not want her to; or to obey anyone else against him; or to forsake his bed; or to hit him. If he is wrong, then let her come to him until he is pleased with her, and if he accepts her then all is well, Allah (SWT) will accept her deeds and make her position stronger, and there will be no sin on her."

It is a great honour for a woman to take care of her husband every morning and evening, and wherever he goes, treating him with gentleness and good manners which will fill his life with joy, tranquility and stability.

`Aisha urged women to take good care of their husbands and to recognize the rights that their husbands had over them. She saw these rights as being so great and so important that a woman was barely qualified to wipe the dust from her husband's feet with her face, as she stated: "O womenfolk, if you knew the rights that your husbands have over you, every one of you would wipe the dust from her husband's feet with her face." [...] 

Marriage in Islam is intended to protect the chastity of men and women alike, therefore it is the woman's duty to respond to her husband's requests for conjugal relations. She should not give silly excuses and try to avoid it. For this reason, several hadith urge a wife to respond to her husband's needs as much as she is able, no matter how busy she may be or whatever obstacles there may be, so long as there is no urgent or unavoidable reason not to do so.
 ... 
The issue of protecting a man's chastity and keeping him away from temptation is more important than anything else that a woman can do, because Islam wants men and women alike to live in an environment which is entirely pure and free from any motive of fitnah or haram pleasures. The flames of sexual desire and thoughts of pursuing them through haram means can only be extinguished by means of discharging that natural energy in natural and lawful ways.}}Saudi feminist Wajeha Al-Huwaider describes the lives of many Arab women as similar to a prisoner. As she puts it, "the Arab woman is a prisoner in her own home, has committed no crime, was not captured in battle, does not belong to any terrorist group."

===Punishment===
====Wife-beating====
{{Main|Wife Beating in Islamic Law|Wife Beating in the Qur'an|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Wife Beating}}[https://quranx.com/4.34 Quran 4:34] instructs Muslims men to, among other things, beat their wives if they fear disobedience from them. Muslim scholars agree on the permissibility of the practice but disagree on the conditions for and nature of the beating permitted. Some modernist Islamic scholars argue that the term "[[Wife Beating in Islamic Law|and beat them]]" speaks only metaphorically. Some other scholars, including historically, have argued that it means only a simple strike, as with hitting them with a feather or toothpick. The Islamic tradition and scriptures militate against this rereading, which, as a result, has failed to achieve widespread purchase amongst Muslim scholars.
Muhammad made attempts to limit the degree of violence, saying, "None of you should flog his wife as he flogs a slave and then have sexual intercourse with her in the last part of the day"<ref>{{Bukhari|||5204|darussalam}}</ref>, but also declared "A man should not be asked why he beats his wife."<ref>{{Ibn Majah||3|9|1986}} (graded Hasan)</ref> Hadiths report that Muhammad hit Aisha,<ref>{{Quote|{{Muslim||974b|reference}}|...He (Muhammad b. Qais) then reported that it was 'A'isha who had narrated this: Should I not narrate to you about myself and about the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him)? We said: Yes. ... he (the Holy Prophet) entered the (house), and said: Why is it, O 'A'isha, that you are out of breath? I said: There is nothing. He said: Tell me or the Subtle and the Aware would inform me. I said: Messenger of Allah, may my father and mother be ransom for you, and then I told him (the whole story). He said: Was it the darkness (of your shadow) that I saw in front of me? I said: Yes. ''He struck me on the chest which caused me pain'', and then said: Did you think that Allah and His Apostle would deal unjustly with you?}}</ref> who is herself reported to have said, "I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"<ref>"...''so when Allah's Apostle came, 'Aisha said, "I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"...''" - {{Bukhari|||5825|darussalam}}</ref>{{Quote|{{Quran|4|34}}|Men are overseers over women, by reason of that wherewith Allah hath made one of them excel over another, and by reason of that which they expend of their substance. Wherefore righteous women are obedient, and are watchers in husbands absence by the aid and protection of Allah. And those wives whose refractoriness ye fear, exhort them, and avoid them in beds, and beat them; but if they obey you, seek not a way against them; verily Allah is ever Lofty, Grand.}}One of the earliest and arguably most important biographies on Muhammad's life, that of Ibn Ishaq, records the following:

{{Quote|Sirat Rasul Allah, ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume, translator. Oxford University Press, 1955, page 651.|You have rights over your wives and they have rights over you. You have the right that they should not defile your bed and that they should not behave with open unseemliness. If they do, '''God allows you to put them in separate rooms and to beat them but not with severity'''. If they refrain from these things they have the right to their food and clothing with kindness.}}

Ibn Kathir, the author of one of the most relied-upon exegetical works on the Quran, elaborates what constitutes ill conduct:

{{Quote||[It is] the woman from whom you see ill conduct with her husband,''' such as when she acts as if she is above her husband, disobeys him, ignores him, dislikes him, and so forth'''. When these signs appear in a woman, her husband should advise her and remind her of Allah's torment if she disobeys him. Indeed, '''Allah ordered the wife to obey her husband''' and prohibited her from disobeying him, because of the ''enormity of his rights'' and all that he does for her.<ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir - [http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=4&tid=11037 Dealing with the Wife's Ill-Conduct] - Tafsir.com</ref>}}

The Scholar Abdul-latif Mushtahiri states:

{{Quote||If admonishing and sexual desertion fail to bring forth results and the woman is of a cold and stubborn type, '''the Qur'an bestows on man the right to straighten her out by way of punishment and beating provided he does not break her bones nor shed blood'''. Many a wife belongs to this querulous type and requires this sort of punishment to bring her to her senses!<ref> Quoted in: [http://www.answering-islam.org/BehindVeil/btv3.html The Veil of Equality and Justice: Section 2] - Answering Islam</ref>}}
====Divine wrath====
Women who fail to obey their husbands, particularly when it comes to their husband's sexual desires, face the wrath of God and the angels.{{Quote|1={{Bukhari|||5193|darussalam}}; see also {{Muslim||1436a|reference}}|2= Narrated Abu Huraira:
The Prophet said, "If a man invites his wife to sleep with him and she refuses to come to him, then the angels send their curses on her till morning."}}{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi|2|1|2|360}}|Abu Umamah narrated that : Allah's Messenger said: "There are three whose Salat would not rise up beyond their ears: The runaway slave until he returns, a woman who spends a night while her husband is angry with her, and a people's Imam whom they dislike."}}

===Rights===
Women are also accorded a number of rights under the ''nikah'' contract. Men are obligated to provide for their wives financially and not to be too harsh to them, although the meaning of this latter requirement is set by the marital and gender norms of 7th century Arabia, where wife-beating was commonplace and acceptable. {{Quote|{{Quran|4|19}}|O ye who believe! '''Ye are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should ye treat them with harshness'''…except where they have been guilty of open lewdness; on the contrary '''live with them on a footing of kindness and equity'''. If ye take a dislike to them it may be that ye dislike a thing, and Allah brings about through it a great deal of good.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|65|6}}|'''Lodge them where you lodge according to your means, and do not injure them''' in order that you may straiten them…}}

Women whose husbands fail to fulfill the right to maintenance may be eligible for requesting divorce, though this differs between schools of jurisprudence:

{{Quote|John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", 2001, p. 26|In classical Hanafi law, the wife is put at a further disadvantage economically by the fact that neither inability nor refusal to maintain is considered sufficient grounds for dissolution of a marriage. This is contrary to the principles of both the Malaki and Shafii schools. The hardships resulting from the traditional Hanafi position are numerous.}}

==Divorce==

===Requirements for divorce===
Whereas a husband has the Quranic right to divorce his wife by pronouncing ''talaq'', the situation is more difficult for a wife. A wife can ask her husband to divorce her, and if he releases her from the marriage, she makes a payment to him of the ''mahr'' (item or sum of financial worth) she had received or some other agreed payment. This is known as [[Khul']]. If he refuses, she can try to get a dissolution (faskh) of the marriage by judicial decree when there are grounds for which his consent is not required (such as inability or failure to fulfill his marital obligations, desertion, insanity, or cruelty).{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|228|229}}|Divorced women shall wait concerning themselves for three monthly periods. Nor is it lawful for them to hide what Allah Hath created in their wombs…. And their husbands have the better right to take them back in that period, if they wish for reconciliation. And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them. A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold Together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness. It is not lawful for you, (Men), to take back any of your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah. If ye (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah, there is no blame on either of them if she give something for her freedom. These are the limits ordained by Allah; so do not transgress them if any do transgress the limits ordained by Allah, such persons wrong (Themselves as well as others).}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|128}}|If a wife fears cruelty or desertion on her husband's part, there is no blame on them if they arrange an amicable settlement between themselves; and such settlement is best; even though men's souls are swayed by greed.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2450|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha:

Regarding the explanation of the following verse:-- "If a wife fears Cruelty or desertion On her husband's part." (4.128) A man may dislike his wife and intend to divorce her, so she says to him, "I give up my rights, so do not divorce me." The above verse was revealed concerning such a case.}}Ibn Kathir, quoting Sahih Muslim, writes:

{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol 1, page 633|Fear Allah regarding your women, for you have taken them by Allah's covenant and were allowed to enjoy them sexually by Allah's words. You have the right on them that they do not allow anyone you dislike to sit on your mat. If they do that, then discipline them leniently. They have the right to be spent on and to be bought clothes in what is reasonable.}}

{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir, vol 2, page 601|The apparent wording of the Ayah [Quran 4:128] refers to the settlement where the wife forfeits some of the rights she has over her husband, with the husband agreeing to this concession, and that this settlement is better than divorce. For instance, the Prophet kept Sawdah bint Zam'ah as his wife after she offered to forfeit her day for A'isha. By keeping her among his wives, his ''Ummah ''may follow this kind of settlement."}}The requirements for men to divorce their wives differ significantly and are far less restrictive than those imposed on the wife. Men can divorce their wives on the basis of simple dissatisfaction and can even recall their divorce thereafter a limited number of times.{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2694|darussalam}}| Narrated Aisha:
The following Verse: If a woman fears cruelty or desertion on her husband's part (i.e. '''the husband notices something unpleasant about his wife, such as old age or the like, and wants to divorce her''', but she asks him to keep her and provide for her as he wishes). Quran 4:128 "There is no blame on them if they reconcile on such basis."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|229}}|The divorce is twice, after that either you retain her on reasonable terms or release her with kindness..}}{{Quote|Tafsir Ibn Kathir (abridged), Shaykh Safiur-Rahman Al-Mubarakpuri et al, translators (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2000), vol 1, p. 635.|Divorce is thrice. This honorable ayah abrogated the previous practice in the beginning of Islam, when the man had the right to take back his divorced wife even if he had divorced her a hundred times. This situation was harmful for the wife, and this is why Allah made the divorce thrice, where the husband is allowed to take back his wife after the first and the second divorce… The divorce becomes irrevocable after the third divorce.}}

===Triple-''talaq''===
If a man divorces his wife three times, his wife can remarry him only if she first marries another man, consummates the marriage with the other man, and then divorces that man. A man may issue multiple divorces at the same time, in what is known as a double- or, more often, triple-talaq (talaq meaning 'divorce' in Arabic, this can entail as little as saying the word 'divorce' two or three times). While this practice is discouraged and even illegal in Islamic law, it has been considered binding by the majority of Islamic scholars.

The ruling in Islamic law that deems multiple simultaneous divorces to be binding has proven controversial across the world and has been outlawed in countries including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Controversy around the law has emerged largely where men have issued triple-talaqs to absolve themselves of the financial responsibility for and maintenance of their elderly or otherwise dependent wives. The ruling has also proven controversial where couples have tried to remarry after a husband declares a triple-talaq in a fit of anger, with or without realizing the fact that the declaration is considered legally binding and irrevocable (leaving the wife in the position of having to marry and sleep with another man in order to restore her original marriage). {{Quote|{{Quran|2|230}}| So if a husband divorces his wife (irrevocably), He cannot, after that, re-marry her until after she has married another husband and He has divorced her.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2639|darussalam}}| Narrated Aisha:
The wife of Rifa'a Al-Qurazi came to the Prophet and said, "I was Rifa'a's wife, but he divorced me and it was a final irrevocable divorce. Then I married AbdurRahman bin Az-Zubair but he is impotent." The Prophet asked her 'Do you want to remarry Rifa'a? You cannot unless you had a complete sexual relation with your present husband."}}

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|28|7|17}}|Yahya related to me from Malik … that Rifa'a ibn Simwal divorced his wife, Tamima bint Wahb, in the time of the messenger of Allah three times. She then married 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn az-Zubayr and he turned from her and could not consummate the marriage and so he parted from her. Rifa'a wanted to marry her again and it was mentioned to the Messenger of Allah, and he forbade him to marry her. He said, 'She is not ''halal'' for you until she has tasted the sweetness of intercourse.'}}

===The marriages of female converts and those with apostate husbands are nullified===
There is a consensus among classical Islamic scholars that if a woman converts to Islam and her husband fails to, their marriage is nullified.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/3408/stories-of-women-who-became-muslim-and-left-their-non-muslim-husbands Stories of Women who Became Muslim and Left their Non-Muslim Husbands - IslamQA.info]</ref><ref name="IndianaLawJournal" /> This ruling is derived, in part, from {{Quran|60|10}}. The classical scholars also ruled that if on the other hand a husband converts to Islam, the marriage remains intact so long as his wife is a Christian or Jew. If a Muslim husband or wife leaves Islam, the marriage to his or her Muslim spouse is immediately annulled, though some held that the marriage is unaffected if only the wife leaves the religion, while others said that she becomes the husband's slave.<ref name="IndianaLawJournal" />

{{Quote|{{Quran|60|10}}|O ye who believe! When believing women come unto you as fugitives, examine them. Allah is Best Aware of their faith. Then, if ye know them for true believers, send them not back unto the disbelievers. They are not lawful for them (the disbelievers), nor are they (the disbelievers) lawful for them. And give them (the disbelievers) that which they have spent (upon them). And it is no sin for you to marry such women when ye have given them their dues. And hold not to the ties of disbelieving women; and ask for (the return of) that which ye have spent; and let them (the disbelievers) ask for that which they have spent. That is the judgment of Allah. He judgeth between you. Allah is Knower, Wise.}}

==Concubinage==
===Permissibility of female sexual slavery===
{{Main|Rape in Islamic Law|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Rape|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Al-'Azl}}
In nearly every instance where the Quran commands (men) to be chaste, it repeats that they need not be chaste with their wives and 'those whom their right hand possesses', which is universally acknowledged by historians and Islamic scholars as an Arabic euphemism which refers to one's slaves.{{Quote|{{Quran|23|6}}; see also {{Quran|4|3}} & {{Quran|4|24}}| Those who humble themselves in their prayers; Who avoid vain talk; Who are active in deeds of charity; Who abstain from sex, Except with those joined to them in the marriage bond, '''or (the captives) whom their right hands possess,'''- for (in their case) they are free from blame.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|33|50}}| O Prophet! We have made lawful to thee thy wives to whom thou hast paid their dowers; and '''those whom thy right hand possesses out of the prisoners of war whom Allah has assigned to thee;'''}}

An entire chapter in Sahih Muslim (chapter 29) is dedicated to the topic and is entitled: 'It is permissible to have sexual intercourse with a captive [i.e. slave] woman after she is purified (of menses or delivery). In case she has a husband, her marriage is abrogated after she becomes captive.'

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1456a|reference}}|...Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah her pleased with him) reported that at the Battle of Hanain Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) sent an army to Autas and encountered the enemy and fought with them. Having overcome them and taken them captives, the Companions of Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) seemed to refrain from having intercourse with captive women because of their husbands being polytheists. Then Allah, Most High, sent down regarding that:" And women already married, except those whom your right hands possess (iv. 24)" (i. e. they were lawful for them when their 'Idda period came to an end).}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1438a|reference}}|...Abu Sirma said to Abu Sa'id al Khadri (Allah he pleased with him): 0 Abu Sa'id, did you hear Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) mentioning al-'azl? He said: Yes, and added: We went out with Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) on the expedition to the Bi'l- Mustaliq and took captive some excellent Arab women; and we desired them, for we were suffering from the absence of our wives, (but at the same time) we also desired ransom for them. So we decided to have sexual intercourse with them but by observing 'azl (Withdrawing the male sexual organ before emission of semen to avoid conception). But we said: We are doing an act whereas Allah's Messenger is amongst us; why not ask him? So we asked Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him), and he said: It does not matter if you do not do it, for every soul that is to be born up to the Day of Resurrection will be born.}}

Ibn Taymiyyah writes:

{{quote|''Majmoo al-Fatawa'' (''Collected Fatwas''), vol. 32, p. 7|'''"It is lawful for a Muslim to (have sex) with as many as he wishes of those whom his right hand possesses,''' … Muslims are not prohibited from having more than four concubines provided that no two sisters are among them."}}

{{quote|''Majmoo al-Fatawa'' (''Collected Fatwas''), vol. 89, p. 7|'''"Islam has made it lawful to its followers to have sex through marriage as well as with what the right hand possesses,''' while (for Jews and Christians) they may have sex through marriage only. They are not (allowed to have sex with) what their hand possesses.}}

====Permissibility of raping captives and slaves====
Rape, a crime known in [[Islamic law]] as ''zina bil-ikrah'' or ''zina bil-jabr'' (literally "[[Zina|fornication]] by force"), is generally defined by Muslim jurists as forced intercourse by a man with a [[Islam and Women|woman]] who is not his wife or [[Slavery|slave]] and without her consent. As with enslaved females, according to Islamic law, married women are required to oblige their husbands' sexual advances, and raping one's wife is explicitly permissible in the Hanafi Madhab.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Muh Endriyo |last=Susila | year= 2013 |url=https://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/jmh/article/download/271/234| title=Islamic Perspective on Marital Rape |issue=2|volume=20|publisher=Jurnal Media Hukum, p.328}}</ref> The concept of "rape" is thus deemed to be equally non-existent in the contexts of both marriage and slavery.
A small number of hadiths are cited to support the Islamic punishments for rape. These narrations relate to the rape of free women and of female slaves who are not owned by the perpetrator. However, the Qur'an, on numerous occasions, permits Muslim men to have sexual relations with their own female slaves (famously referred to as "what your right hand possesses"), often in conjunction with the commandment for men to keep otherwise chaste. In addition, there are hadith narrations in which female captives were raped prior to being ransomed back to their tribe.{{Quote|1={{Bukhari|||2229|darussalam}}|2=Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: that while he was sitting with Allah's Apostle he said, "O Allah's Apostle! '''We get female captives as our share of booty, and we are interested in their prices, what is your opinion about coitus interruptus'''?" The Prophet said, "Do you really do that? It is better for you not to do it. No soul that which Allah has destined to exist, but will surely come into existence."}}

====Prohibition on male sexual slavery====
In his exegesis of the Qur'an, Abul A'la Maududi explains how and why the Islamic tradition holds that women are not allowed to have sex with male slaves and captives.
{{Quote|[[w:Abul A'la Maududi|Abul A'la Maududi]]. [http://www.englishtafsir.com/Quran/23/index.html Tafhim al-Qur'an - The Meaning of the Qur'an 23:1-7]. Archived at [http://www.webcitation.org/6mJ45IZ0w]. |"Most certainly those Believers have attained true success who perform their Salat with humility: who refrain from vain things. who spend their Zakat dues in appropriate ways. who guard their private parts scrupulously. except with regard to their wives and those women who are legally in their possession, for in that case they shall not be blame-worthy. but those who go beyond this (in lust for sexual desires), shall be transgressors" [...] 

7: This is a parenthesis which is meant to remove the common misunderstanding that sex desire is an evil thing in itself and satisfying it even in lawful ways is not desirable, particularly for the righteous and godly people. This misunderstanding would have been strengthened had it been only said that the Believers guard their private parts scrupulously, because it would have implied that they live unmarried lives, away from the world, like monks and hermits. [...] 

The law prescribed in the parenthesis is only applicable to men as is clear from the Text. A woman in the time of Hadrat `Umar did not understand this fine point of the language and indulged in sexual gratification with her slave. When her case was brought before the consultative body of the Companions, they gave the unanimous decision: "She misinterpreted the Book of Allah.".... The wisdom of why '''the slave has been forbidden to the woman''' is that he can only satisfy her sexual desire but cannot become guardian and governor of herself and her household, which leaves a serious flaw in the family life.}}
==Attire==
===Hijab===
{{Main|Hijab|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Hijab}}Islamic scriptures set out dress requirements for Muslim women and for Muhammad's wives. Umar bin Al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, wished that Muhammad would reveal verses from Allah requiring his wives to cover themselves when in public. When Muhammad did not oblige, Umar followed Muhammad's wives out at night and in the dark when they went to go to the toilet and made his presence known, later informing the prophet that he had spied his wives relieving themselves in the dark, and that had his wives been cloaked, he would not have been able to identify the women as being the prophet's wives. Having heard of this, Muhammad received the revelation that Umar had requested, and the verse of hijab was sent down from Allah stating that Muhammad's wives may be spoken to by visitors to their home only behind a screen.

Other verses set out requirements for believing women in general to wear an outer garment called the ''jilbab'' and a cloth or ''khimar'', covering the bosom. Islamic scholars differ in their interpretation of the verses prescribing female attire. All four madhabs agree by consensus that women must cover their entire body, excluding their hands and face, except for Hanafis, who also permit women to reveal their feet. These clothing requirements only apply in the presence of unrelated men (in addition to some male relations) and during prayers. Hanafis and some other scholars also require women to observe these requirements in the presence of non-Muslim women, fearing that these non-Muslim women may describe a Muslim woman's physical features to other men.

{{Quote|{{Quran|33|53}}|O you who have believed, do not enter the houses of the Prophet except when you are permitted for a meal, without awaiting its readiness. But when you are invited, then enter; and when you have eaten, disperse without seeking to remain for conversation. Indeed, that [behavior] was troubling the Prophet, and he is shy of [dismissing] you. But Allah is not shy of the truth. And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts. And it is not [conceivable or lawful] for you to harm the Messenger of Allah or to marry his wives after him, ever. Indeed, that would be in the sight of Allah an enormity.}}

{{quote |{{Quran|33|59}}|O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|31}}| And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments.}}

==Value of testimony==

===Half value of testimony in general===
Islamic scriptures dictate that, in a court setting, a woman's testimony is worth half a man's. The reasoning given in Sahih Bukhari is the deficiency of the female intellect. Islamic jurists have variously endorsed some exceptions to this rule-of-thumb, however. In legal cases relating to matters of female anatomy or specialty, a woman's testimony may be equal to a man's. On the other hand, Islamic jurists have also dictated that there are certain domains of law where a woman's testimony cannot be counted for anything at all. The diminution of female testimony in Islamic law has proven especially problematic where it has disabled women from testifying that they were raped. In some reported cases that were described as rape by the women involved and where there existed evidence of those women having had some sort of sexual encounter, the women have, at times, been prosecuted for adultery (with stoning to death) or fornication (with 100 lashes).
{{Quote|{{quran|2|282}}|[...] And call for evidence two witnesses among your men. And if not there are two men then one man and two women of whom you agree of [the] witnesses, (so) that (if) [she] errs, one of the two, then will remind one of the two the other. [...]}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri:
Once Allah's Apostle went out to the Musalla (to offer the prayer) of 'Id-al- Adha or Al-Fitr prayer. Then he passed by the women and said, "O women! Give alms... I have not seen anyone more deficient in intelligence and religion than you. A cautious sensible man could be led astray by some of you." The women asked, "O Allah's Apostle! What is deficient in our intelligence and religion?" He said, '''"Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man?" They replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her intelligence.'''}}

{{Quote|''I’laam al-Muwaqqa’een''. Part 1, p.75.|Allah has commanded the testimony of two women so as to be sure that they remember, because the mind and memory of two women takes the place of the mind and memory of one man.}}

==Segregation==
===Sex Segregation in Islam===
{{Main|Sex Segregation in Islam}}In Islamic law, unrelated women and men are not allowed to be alone together, have any sort of physical contact, engage in frivolous conversation, look at one another for any reason other than momentarily for the purpose of identification, or pray such that a woman is located in front of or adjacent to any man (women must stand behind men in prayer). Muhammad's wives are instructed in the Quran to remain at home as much as possible and in hadiths Muhammad permitted women to live and travel on significant journeys only under the supervision of a male guardian or relative. Islamic law, as a result, virtually excludes the possibility of male-female friendships. Islamic scholars have traditionally taken these specific limitations on women's presence and participation in the public sphere and have implemented them through more comprehensive policies of sex segregation. While some modern Islamic scholars have argued against broader restrictions, such as gender-segregated classrooms or other society-wide gender segregation measures, on the basis of other hadiths and because these broader restrictions are not explicitly mentioned in Islamic scriptures, the majority have embraced what they perceive as common-sense modern-day extensions of the specific rulings and attitudes found throughout Islamic scripture.
===Adult suckling permits co-mingling===
{{Main|Adult Suckling}}Adult suckling (Arabic: رَضَاعَةُ الْكَبِيرِ), or the act of breastfeeding a male adult, is an abrogated practice mentioned in several relied-upon collections of hadiths. According to five hadiths in Sahih Muslim, Muhammad at one time plainly instructed the daughter (or wife -- sources are unclear) of a companion named Suhail to suckle a "grown-up" freedman named Salim so that Salim would become the daughter's mahram, or a relation whom the daughter could no longer marry, and thus render Salim's cohabitation with the family appropriate and legal. The practice, sanctioned by a number of traditional jurists, is popularly rejected by Islamic scholars today, but was the subject of a controversial fatwa from a scholar at Azhar in 2007. A minority of Islamic scholars continue to endorse the practice.{{Quote|{{Muslim||1453b|reference}}|'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) reported that Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hadhaifa, lived with him and his family in their house. She (i.e. the daughter of Suhail) came to Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) and said: Salim has attained (puberty) as men attain, and he understands what they understand, and he enters our house freely, I, however, perceive that something (rankles) in the heart of Abu Hudhaifa, whereupon '''Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said to her: Suckle him and you would become unlawful for him''', and (the rankling) which Abu Hudhaifa feels in his heart will disappear. '''She returned and said: So I suckled him, and what (was there) in the heart of Abu Hudhaifa disappeared'''.}}
==Inheritance==
{{Main|Inheritance Laws|Contradictions in the Quran}}
Generally, Islam grants women half the share of inheritance available to men if they inherit from the same father. This forms part of a wider Quranic and cultural context in which men were expected to provide for women and to pay a dower for marriage. However, it is easy to imagine scenarios even in the 7th century where the beneficiaries are at different stages of their lives or marital circumstances such that no rationale would justify the allocation fixed in the Quran.

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|11}}|Allah instructs you concerning your children: for the male, what is equal to the share of two females. But if there are [only] daughters, two or more, for them is two thirds of one's estate. And if there is only one, for her is half. And for one's parents, to each one of them is a sixth of his estate if he left children. But if he had no children and the parents [alone] inherit from him, then for his mother is one third. And if he had brothers [or sisters], for his mother is a sixth, after any bequest he [may have] made or debt. Your parents or your children - you know not which of them are nearest to you in benefit. [These shares are] an obligation [imposed] by Allah. Indeed, Allah is ever Knowing and Wise.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|176}}|They request from you a [legal] ruling. Say, "Allah gives you a ruling concerning one having neither descendants nor ascendants [as heirs]." If a man dies, leaving no child but [only] a sister, she will have half of what he left. And he inherits from her if she [dies and] has no child. But if there are two sisters [or more], they will have two-thirds of what he left. If there are both brothers and sisters, the male will have the share of two females. Allah makes clear to you [His law], lest you go astray. And Allah is Knowing of all things.}}

==See also==

*[[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Women]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Sex]]
[[Category:Slavery]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[ar:المرأة_في_الشريعة_الإسلامية]]

Islam and Women

2026-03-20T22:45:54Z

Lightyears: Improved accuracy on divorce

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{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}Islamic scriptures generally employ the masculine pronoun in Arabic, which is used to refer to both men and women. On occasion, the scriptures diverge from this standard, inclusive usage, and comment specifically on men or women. The perspective taken by Islamic scriptures on women is of special interest in recent times due to frequent collision with modern values.

Women are legally disadvantaged by Islamic law in several domains of life. Particularly, women are disadvantaged in matters of sexual, domestic, legal, financial, sartorial, and physical autonomy. According to Islamic legal theory, while not all of Islamic law necessarily has a perceptibly rational basis, legal restrictions on women may be due to their supposed intellectual deficiency, which was pronounced by Muhammad according to a hadith collected in Sahih Bukhari.

It should also be noted that whereas the patriarchal arrangements of early Islamic society hardly deserve indictment, given their historical situation and the fact that they were in a limited sense an improvement upon pre-Islamic gender norms, the same can, perhaps, not be said about the perpetual enshrinement of those patriarchal norms - however much an improvement in 7th century Arabia - as took place in the ideas of Islamic law that finally emerged.

The writings of Professor [[w:Kecia Ali|Kecia Ali]] are renowned regarding the historical and modern Islamic approaches to women. Before her, ''Women and Gender in Islam'' by Leila Ahmed was also regarded as a seminal book on the subject. Ali's book ''Sexual Ethics and Islam'' is particularly wide-ranging.<ref>Kecia Ali,''Sexual Ethics and Islam'', England: Oneworld Publications, 2006</ref> She argues that the Quran is androcentric in terms of almost always addressing men and privileging male sexual agency.<ref>Ibid. pp. 131-132</ref> Ali also notes in her book the "very real dissonance between the cultural assumptions undergirding the classical edifices of jurisprudence and exegesis and the modern notions influencing Muslim intellectuals and ordinary people everwhere".<ref>Ibid. Introduction p. xxvii</ref> Throughout the book she critiques feminist and modernist interpretations while noting where they may have merit, as well as apologetics that misquote, mistranslate, or side step difficult issues. She also criticises some aggressively patriarchal and indeed misogynist interpretations. While warning against blind optimism on the prospects for transformation, she suggests the importance of rejecting medieval interpretations and not taking the Quran and hadiths as a repository of regulations to be applied at all times and places.<ref>Ibid. pp. 153-157</ref>

==Verses addressed to women==
Hadiths record a tradition that Umm Salamah prompted a couple of Quran verses directly addressing or about women.

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3211}}|Narrated Umm 'Umarah Al-Ansariyyah:

that she came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said: "I do not see but that everything is for the men, and I do not see anything being mentioned for the women." So this Ayah was revealed: 'Indeed the Muslim men and the Muslim women, the believing men and the believing women... (33:35)'}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|33|35}}|For Muslim men and women,- for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in Charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah's praise,- for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward.}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|44|3023}}|Narrated 'Amr bin Dinar:

from a man among the children of Umm Salamah, from Umm Salamah that she said: "O Messenger of Allah! I have not heard Allah mentioning anything about women and emigration." So Allah, Blessed and Most High, revealed: "Never will I allow to be lost the work of any of you, be he male or female. You are members one of another (3:195)."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|195}}|And their Lord hath accepted of them, and answered them: "Never will I suffer to be lost the work of any of you, be he male or female: Ye are members, one of another: Those who have left their homes, or been driven out therefrom, or suffered harm in My Cause, or fought or been slain,- verily, I will blot out from them their iniquities, and admit them into Gardens with rivers flowing beneath;- A reward from the presence of Allah, and from His presence is the best of rewards."}}

There are a couple of similar verses:

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|97}}|Whoever does righteousness, whether male or female, while he is a believer - We will surely cause him to live a good life, and We will surely give them their reward [in the Hereafter] according to the best of what they used to do.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|40|40}}|Whoever does an evil deed will not be recompensed except by the like thereof; but whoever does righteousness, whether male or female, while he is a believer - those will enter Paradise, being given provision therein without account.}}

==Kindness and tranquility between Husbands and Wives==
{{Quote|{{Quran|30|21}}|And of His signs is that He created for you from yourselves mates that you may find tranquillity in them; and He placed between you affection and mercy. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|19}}|O you who have believed, it is not lawful for you to inherit women by compulsion. And do not make difficulties for them in order to take [back] part of what you gave them unless they commit a clear immorality. And live with them in kindness. For if you dislike them - perhaps you dislike a thing and Allah makes therein much good.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|187}}|Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments. Allah knoweth what ye used to do secretly among yourselves; but He turned to you and forgave you; so now associate with them, and seek what Allah Hath ordained for you, and eat and drink, until the white thread of dawn appear to you distinct from its black thread; then complete your fast Till the night appears; but do not associate with your wives while ye are in retreat in the mosques. Those are Limits (set by) Allah: Approach not nigh thereto. Thus doth Allah make clear His Signs to men: that they may learn self-restraint.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|9|71}}|The believing men and believing women are allies of one another. They enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and establish prayer and give zakah and obey Allah and His Messenger. Those - Allah will have mercy upon them. Indeed, Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise.}}}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3895}}|Narrated 'Aishah:

that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "The best of you is the best to his wives, and I am the best of you to my wives, and when your companion dies, leave him alone."}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1468b|reference}}|Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him) reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

A believing man should not hate a believing woman; if he dislikes one of her characteristics, he will be pleased with another.}}

==Being good to your Mother==
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|1}}|O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear Allah, through whom you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed Allah is ever, over you, an Observer.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|31|14}}|And We have enjoined upon man [care] for his parents. His mother carried him, [increasing her] in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Be grateful to Me and to your parents; to Me is the [final] destination.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|46|15}}|We have enjoined on man kindness to his parents: In pain did his mother bear him, and in pain did she give him birth. The carrying of the (child) to his weaning is (a period of) thirty months. At length, when he reaches the age of full strength and attains forty years, he says, "O my Lord! Grant me that I may be grateful for Thy favour which Thou has bestowed upon me, and upon both my parents, and that I may work righteousness such as Thou mayest approve; and be gracious to me in my issue. Truly have I turned to Thee and truly do I bow (to Thee) in Islam."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2408|darussalam}}|Narrated Al-Mughira bin Shu`ba:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Allah has forbidden for you, (1) to be undutiful to your mothers, (2) to bury your daughters alive, (3) to not to pay the rights of the others (e.g. charity, etc.) and (4) to beg of men (begging). And Allah has hated for you (1) vain, useless talk, or that you talk too much about others, (2) to ask too many questions, (in disputed religious matters) and (3) to waste the wealth (by extravagance).}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||3|22|2706}}|It was narrated that Abu Hurairah said:

“A man came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said: “O Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), tell me, which of the people has most right to my good companionship?' He said: 'Yes, by your father, you will certainly be told.' He said: 'Your mother,' He said: 'Then who?' He said: Then your mother.' He said: 'Then who?' He said: Then your mother.' He said: 'Then who?' He said: Then your father.' He said: 'Tell me, O Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) about my wealth- how should I give in charity?' He said: 'Yes, by Allah (SWT) you will certainly be told. You should give in charity when you are still healthy and greedy for wealth, hoping for a long life and fearing poverty. Do not tarry until your soul reaches here and you say: “My wealth of for so-and-so,” and “My wealth of for so-and-so,” and it will be for them even though you dislike that.'”}}

==The Value of Daughters==
The Quran famously condemns the mushrikeen for feeling shame or even burying their female newborn children.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|16|57|58}}|And they attribute to Allah daughters - exalted is He - and for them is what they desire. And when one of them is informed of [the birth of] a female, his face becomes dark, and he suppresses grief. He hides himself from the people because of the ill of which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the ground? Unquestionably, evil is what they decide.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|42|49|50}}|To Allah belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth; He creates what he wills. He gives to whom He wills female [children], and He gives to whom He wills males. Or He makes them [both] males and females, and He renders whom He wills barren. Indeed, He is Knowing and Competent.}}

==Statements about women==
===Women as a fitnah to men===
{{Main|Women (Primary Sources)}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5096|darussalam}}|Narrated Usama bin Zaid: '''The Prophet said, "After me I have not left any trial [fitnah] more harmful to men than women."'''}}
===Women as intellectually deficient===
{{Main|Women are Deficient in Intelligence}}

Muhammad declared that the ''majority of the inhabitants of Hell are women''.<ref>{{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}</ref> When asked why, he said it was because they are deficient in intelligence and religion and because they are ungrateful to their husbands. He also advanced in the same narration that their deficiency in intelligence was responsible for some of their legal disabilities.

{{quote | {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}|

Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri:

Once Allah's Apostle went out to the Musalla (to offer the prayer) o 'Id-al-Adha or Al-Fitr prayer. Then he passed by the women and said, "O women! Give alms, as I have seen that the majority of the dwellers of Hell-fire were you (women)." They asked, "Why is it so, O Allah's Apostle ?" He replied, "You curse frequently and are ungrateful to your husbands. '''I have not seen anyone more deficient in intelligence and religion than you.''' A cautious sensible man could be led astray by some of you." The women asked, "O Allah's Apostle! What is deficient in our intelligence and religion?" He said, '''"Is not the evidence of two women equal to the witness of one man?"''' They replied in the affirmative. '''He said, "This is the deficiency in her intelligence.''' Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her religion." }}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1462|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri:
On 'Id ul Fitr or 'Id ul Adha Allah's Apostle (p.b.u.h) went out to the Musalla. After finishing the prayer, he delivered the sermon and ordered the people to give alms. He said, "O people! Give alms." Then he went towards the women and said. "O women! Give alms, for I have seen that the majority of the dwellers of Hell-Fire were you (women)." The women asked, "O Allah's Apostle! What is the reason for it?" He replied, "'''O women! You curse frequently, and are ungrateful to your husbands. I have not seen anyone more deficient in intelligence and religion than you'''. O women, some of you can lead a cautious wise man astray." Then he left.}}
Muhammad also disapproved of female heads of state in severe terms.

{{quote | {{Bukhari|||7099|darussalam}}|

Narrated Abu Bakra:

During the battle of Al-Jamal, Allah benefited me with a Word (I heard from the Prophet). When the Prophet heard the news that the people of the Persia had made the daughter of Khosrau their Queen (ruler), he said, "Never will succeed such a nation as makes a woman their ruler."}}

===Most of Hell's inhabitants are women===
{{Quran-range|37|22|23}}, in speaking of Hell-bound wrongdoers, states that the inhabitants of Hell will have their wives enter alongside them, apparently irrespective of their guilt. While the Arabic text of the Quran uses the word ''zawj'', which can also mean 'spouses', it is clear in context that the term is referring to wives. The early pseudo-Ibn Abbas tafsir from the 8th or 9th century, along with many other classical authorities, specifically points out that this verse uses the word ''zawj'' to mean "wives".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=73&tSoraNo=37&tAyahNo=22&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 |title=Tanwir al-Miqbas min Tafsir Ibn Abbas 37:22 |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

Narrations in Sahih Bukhari state the majority of Hell's inhabitants will be women. The reasons given for this outcome is that women are ungrateful to their husbands.
{{Quote|{{cite web|url=http://islamawakened.com/quran/37/st22.htm#22 |title=Qur'an 37:22-23 |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}|(And it is said unto the angels): Assemble those who did wrong, together with their wives and what they used to worship instead of Allah, and lead them to the path to hell;}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||29|darussalam}}; see also {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||1462|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||5196|darussalam}}, & {{Bukhari|||5198|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:
The Prophet said: '''"I was shown the Hell-fire and that the majority of its dwellers were women who were ungrateful."''' It was asked, "Do they disbelieve in Allah?" (or are they ungrateful to Allah?) He replied, "They are ungrateful to their husbands and are ungrateful for the favors and the good (charitable deeds) done to them.}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1052|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin Abbas:
The people say, "O Allah's Apostle! We saw you taking something from your place and then we saw you retreating." The Prophet replied, "I saw Paradise and stretched my hands towards a bunch (of its fruits) and had I taken it, you would have eaten from it as long as the world remains. '''I also saw the Hell-fire and I had never seen such a horrible sight. I saw that most of the inhabitants were women'''." The people asked, "O Allah's Apostle! Why is it so?" The Prophet replied, "Because of their ungratefulness."}}
===Women compared to prisoners===
One of the earliest and most important biographies of Muhammad, that of Ibn Ishaq, reports Muhammad to have described women as 'prisoners' during his [[Farewell Sermon]] in the valley of Arafat.{{Quote||"Lay injunctions on women kindly, '''for they are prisoners with you having no control of their persons.''' You have taken them only as a trust from God, and you have the enjoyment of their persons by the words of God, so understand (T. and listen to) my words, O men, for I have told you.<ref> ibn Ishaq, p. 651</ref>}}

This statement is found in the most widely transmitted version of the farewell sermon, as recorded also by al-Tabari, and the hadith collectors Ibn Majah and al-Tirmidhi (see [[Farewell Sermon]] for details). According to traditional exegesis of the sermon, ʿawān means prisoners, though the English translator of the sermon in al-Tabari renders it as "domestic animals" in line with classical Arabic dictionaries.

In a hadith in Sahih Bukhari, Sad bin Ar-Rabi hands over his wives in a purely transactional manner, the spirit of which was reinforced by the institution of ''mahr''.{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2048|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibrahim bin Sad from his father from his grand-father: Abdur Rahman bin Auf said, "When we came to Medina as emigrants, Allah's Apostle established a bond of brotherhood between me and Sad bin Ar-Rabi'. Sad bin Ar-Rabi' said (to me), 'I am the richest among the Ansar, so '''I will give you half of my wealth and you may look at my two wives and whichever of the two you may choose I will divorce her''', and when she has completed the prescribed period (before marriage) '''you may marry her'''.'}}

===Women passing by interupt prayers===

{{Quote|{{Muslim||510a|reference}}; see also {{Abu Dawud||704|darussalam}}| Abu Dharr reported:
The Messenger of 'Allah (ﷺ) said: When any one of you stands for prayer and there is a thing before him equal to the back of the saddle that covers him and in case there is not before him (a thing) equal to the back of the saddle, his prayer would be cut off by (passing of an) ass, woman, and black Dog. I said: O Abu Dharr, what feature is there in a black dog which distinguish it from the red dog and the yellow dog? He said: O, son of my brother, I asked the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) as you are asking me, and he said: The black dog is a devil.}}

In other hadiths Aisha disputes the claim

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||511|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha: The things which annul the prayers were mentioned before me. They said, "Prayer is annulled by a dog, a donkey and a woman (if they pass in front of the praying people)." I said, "You have made us (i.e. women) dogs. I saw the Prophet praying while I used to lie in my bed between him and the Qibla. Whenever I was in need of something, I would slip away. for I disliked to face him."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||514|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha: The things which annual prayer were mentioned before me (and those were): a dog, a donkey and a woman. I said, "You have compared us (women) to donkeys and dogs. By Allah! I saw the Prophet praying while I used to lie in (my) bed between him and the Qibla. Whenever I was in need of something, I disliked to sit and trouble the Prophet. So, I would slip away by the side of his feet."}}

===Temptation of Women compared to devils===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1403a|reference}}|
Jabir reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) saw a woman, and so he came to his wife, zainab, as she was tanning a leather and had sexual intercourse with her. He then went to his Companions and told them: '''The woman advances and retires in the shape of a devil,''' so when one of you sees a woman, he should come to his wife, for that will repel what he feels in his heart.}}

===Women compared to a tilth===
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|223}}| Your women are a tilth for you (to cultivate) so go to your tilth as ye will, and send (good deeds) before you for your souls, and fear Allah, and know that ye will (one day) meet Him. Give glad tidings to believers, (O Muhammad).}}

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|10|1160}}|Talq bin Ali narrated that The Messenger of Allah said:

“When a man calls his wife to fulfill his need, then let her come, even if she is at the oven.” (Darussalam: Sahih)}}

===Menstruation as an illness===
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|222}}| They question thee (O Muhammad) concerning menstruation. Say: It is an illness, so let women alone at such times and go not in unto them till they are cleansed. And when they have purified themselves, then go in unto them as Allah hath enjoined upon you. Truly Allah loveth those who turn unto Him, and loveth those who have a care for cleanness.}}Whilst this meant that sex was prohibited with women on their periods,<ref>See classical commenteries on ''[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/2.222 Verse 2:222]''</ref> if Muhammad wanted to fondle his wives during this, he would according to sahih hadith narrated by Aisha,<ref>{{Bukhari|||302|darussalam}} ''Narrated `Abdur-Rahman bin Al-Aswad:''

''(on the authority of his father) `Aisha said: "Whenever Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) wanted to fondle anyone of us during her periods (menses), he used to order her to put on an Izar and start fondling her." `Aisha added, "None of you could control his sexual desires as the Prophet (ﷺ) could."''</ref> put on an Izaar (a fabric garment for the lower body) before doing so.

===Barren Women===
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2050|darussalam}}|Narrated Ma'qil ibn Yasar:

A man came to the Prophet (ﷺ) and said: I have found a woman of rank and beauty, but she does not give birth to children. Should I marry her? He said: No. He came again to him, but he prohibited him. He came to him third time, and he (the Prophet) said: Marry women who are loving and very prolific, for I shall outnumber the peoples by you.}}

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|26|3229}}|Narrated Ma'qil bin Yasar:

It was narrated that Ma'qil bin Yasar said: "A man came to the Messenger of Allah and said: 'I have found a woman who is from a good family and of good status, but she does not bear children, should I marry her?' He told him not to. Then he came to him a second time and he told him not to (marry her). Then he came to him a third time and he told him not to (marry her), then he said: 'Marry the one who is fertile and loving, for I will boast of your great numbers.'"}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3922|darussalam}}|It was narrated from 'Abdullah bin 'Umar that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

"An omen is in a dwelling, a woman or a horse." Abu Dawud said: This tradition was read out to al-Harith b. Miskin and I was witness. It was said to him that Ibn Qasim told him that Malik was asked about evil omen in a horse and in a house. He replied: There are many houses in which people lived and perished and again others lived therein and they also perished. This is its explanation so far as we know. Allah knows best. '''Abu Dawud said: 'Umar (ra) said: A mat in a house better than a woman who does not give birth to a child.'''}}

=== The guile of women is great ===
Quran 12:23-12:34 relates a story following prophet Yusuf, where the wife of al-'Aziz tries to seduce him. Her husband catches her and she accuses Yusuf of being the one to try and to seduce her. However, the husband does not believe his wife due to Yusuf's shirt being ripped on the back (and not the front). When referring to the adulterous woman's behaviour, her husband states that the guile (kayd) of women is great using the female plural.
{{Quote|{{Quran|12|28}}|So when he saw his shirt torn from behind, he said: Lo! this is of the guile of you women. Lo! the guile of you is very great.}}
Yusuf himself uses the female plural a few verses later about the guile of the specific women who try to tempt him ({{Quran-range|12|33|34}}). The point of the story seems to be the victory of the prophet over temptation.

While some modern commentators emphasise this and other aspects of the story, the vast majority of classical commentators took the second part of verse 28 spoken by al-'Aziz to indicate a defining feature of women in general. Some, such as al-Zamakhshari, even contrast it with another verse about the weakness of Satan's guile. Al-Qurtubi presents this idea in the form of a hadith (with a weak chain):<ref name="Amin2023">Taira Amin (2023), [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371278020_The_Discursive_Construction_of_Women%27s_Guile_in_the_Muslim_Exegetical_Tradition The Discursive Construction of Women’s Guile in the Muslim Exegetical Tradition] in (Eds.) A. Aghdassi and A.W. Hughes, ''New Methodological Perspectives in Islamic Studies'' pp.46-72, Leiden:Brill DOI:10.1163/9789004536630_005.</ref>

{{Quote|1=Tafseer al-Qurtubi for Q 12:28 translated by Taira Amin<ref name="Amin2023" /> ([https://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=1&tTafsirNo=5&tSoraNo=12&tAyahNo=27&tDisplay=yes&Page=3&Size=1&LanguageId=1 arabic])|2=It has been reported by Yahya bin Abī Kathīr from Abu Hurayrā that the messenger of God said in the Qurʾān: Indeed the deception of Satan is weak (Q 4:76) and he said: Indeed, your deception [Oh you women] is great (Q 12:28).}}
==Virgins in Paradise==
{{Main|Houri (Heavenly Virgin)}}

The Qur'anic Paradise is sensual in nature, promising Muslim men voluptuous, gigantic, and transparent-skinned virgins, but does not specify their exact number. The hadith literature complement the Qur'anic text by specifying the exact number of virgins as 72 and providing detailed descriptions of their characteristics. These narrations vary in strength from good (''hasan'') to authentic (''sahih'') and have been accepted by the Islamic tradition. There are also given details on the physical attributes given to men to sustain 72 virgins, namely, ever-erect penises that never soften and the sexual strength to satisfy 100 women. Although it is said they will receive a "great reward" and there are also hadith which refer to 72 virgins as one of the "seven blessings from Allah" to the martyr, the Qur'an does not specify these virgins are a reward exclusively for jihadists/martyrs, but rather for any Muslim male who gains admittance to Paradise.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4879|darussalam}}| Narrated Abdullah bin Qais:
Allah's Apostle said, "In Paradise there is a pavilion made of a single hollow pearl sixty miles wide, in each corner of which there are wives who will not see those in the other corners; and the believers will visit and enjoy them.}}

==In Islamic law==
{{Main|Women in Islamic Law}}Women are legally disadvantaged by Islamic law in several domains of life. Particularly, women are disadvantaged in matters of sexual, domestic, legal, financial, sartorial, and physical autonomy. According to Islamic legal theory, while not all of Islamic law necessarily has a perceptibly rational basis, legal restrictions on women may be due to their supposed intellectual deficiency, which was pronounced by Muhammad according to Sahih Bukhari.
===Genital Mutilation (FGM)===
Female genital mutilation (FGM), while not mentioned in the Quran, is obligatory in the Shafi'i madhab<ref>[https://www.answering-islam.org/Sharia/fem_circumcision.html Section on FGM in the standard manual of Shafi'i law]</ref> and encouraged by the remaining three madhabs, namely the Hanafi, Hanbali, and Maliki. Salafi scholars also encourage the practice. In universally conceiving of FGM as being either an obligatory or favorable practice, the schools of Islamic law agree that ''prohibiting'' FGM altogether would not be acceptable, as this would be tantamount to contravening God's laws and preferences. Views on the specific type of FGM required or permitted vary within and between the madhhabs. Some prominent modern Islamic scholars have dissented from the favorable consensus of the Islamic tradition and ruled it to be unlawful.{{Quote|''Reliance of the Traveler'' [''Umdat al-Salik''], Section e4.3 on Circumcision|'''Obligatory (on every male and female) is circumcision.''' (And it is the cutting-off of the skin [''qat' al-jaldah''] on the glans of the male member and, '''as for the circumcision of the female, that is the cutting-off of the ''badhar'' [''qat' al-badhar'', ''badhar'' or بَظْرٌ either means the clitoris or the prepuce of the clitoris; Lane says that the precise usage was confused at some point in history<ref>[http://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/02_b/137_bZr.html Lane's Lexicon بَظْرٌ]</ref>]''' (and this is called ''khufad''))}}The Islamic legal tradition, while differing on its implementation, embraced FGM wholeheartedly, and, in the hadith literature, Muhammad is recorded as tacitly approving of the practice ({{Muslim|3|684|}}) , prescribing circumcision in general without specifying the requirements thereof per gender ({{Bukhari|7|72|777|}}), and commenting generically on its implementation ({{Abu Dawud|41|5251|}}). Nowhere is Muhammad recorded prohibiting the practice.

In 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood worked to decriminalize FGM. According to Mariz Tadros (a reporter),"the Muslim Brotherhood have offered to circumcise women for a nominal fee as part of their community services, a move that threatens to reverse decades of local struggle against the harmful practice [...] Many of the Brothers (and Salafis) argue that while it is not mandatory, it is nevertheless ''mukarama'' (preferable, pleasing in the eyes of God)."<ref>Tadros, Mariz (24 May 2012). "[https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/mutilating-bodies-muslim-brotherhoods-gift-to-egyptian-women/ Mutilating bodies: the Muslim Brotherhood's gift to Egyptian women]". ''openDemocracy''</ref>

===Marriage===
{{Main|Polygamy in Islam|Purpose of the Mahr|The Meaning of Nikah|Dealing Justly with Wives and Orphans (Qur'an 4:3)}}
Islamic law prohibits Muslim women from marrying non-Muslim men based on {{Quran|2|221}} and {{Quran|60|10}} (while Muslim men may marry Christian and Jewish women according to {{Quran|5|5}}). Islamic law permits men to marry up to four wives (alongside an unlimited number of concubines), while women are restricted to a single husband and are prohibited from any other form of sexual activity. Modern Islamic scholars differ on whether or not a bride may stipulate as a condition of her marriage that her husband remain monogamous.

Islamic scriptures describe the ''mahr,'' or primarily financial gift made by a groom to his bride upon the marital ''nikah'' (sexual intercourse) contract, as 'the recompense for your having had the right to intercourse with her'. The Arabic word for "marriage" is "zawaj". In Islamic law, marriage is considered under the concept of ''nikah'', a legal and financial contract between a male and a female Muslim. Nikah literally means "sexual intercourse".

For some time as a prophet, Muhammad permitted temporary ''mut'ah'' marriages whereby men would be permitted to engage in sexual activity with a woman for a predetermined period of time in exchange for compensation. While prohibited by Sunni scholars today, the practice is still considered legitimate by many Shi'ite scholars.

===Control over movement and taking additional wives===
Under Islam, a husband has a right to take up to four wives and has significant control over his wives. Under the Hanbali school alone, women may stipulate conditions in the marriage contract to grant greater freedom of movement or to have the marriage dissolved if her husband takes an additional wife.<ref>John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", Second edition, 2001, p. 22</ref> Such stipulations are unenforcable according to the Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Maliki schools on the basis that they cannot overide his Quranic rights.<ref>Kecia Ali, ''Marriage and Slavery in early Islam'', Harvard University Pross, 2010, p. 74 and ftn. 31 on p. 220</ref> All schools agree though that he may delegate to his wife his powerful, Quranic ''talaq'' (divorce) rights at any time. This is called ''talaq al-tafwid'', and can be conditional such as in the event that he takes another wife (the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools allow him to later revoke this delegation).<ref>Muhammad Ifzal Mehmood (2019) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338688656_A_Study_of_Talaq_Al-Tafwid_in_Islamic_Law_and_Contemporary_Legislations_Should_Malaysia_Follow_Suit A Study of Talaq Al-Tafwid in Islamic Law and Contemporary Legislations: Should Malaysia Follow Suit?]'', Bahria University</ref> In most cases such a stipulation or delegation will not have been agreed ahead of the marriage, though an increasing number of countries in the Muslim world have made reforms to family law to limit polygamy or provide other legal routes for the first wife to seek divorce. Otherwise the husband's rights are automatic.

{{Quote|John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", 2001, p. 22|One important right granted by the Hanbali (but not Hanafi) law school that gives women a certain amount of independence and status in marriage is her right to insert conditions that are favourable to her directly into the marriage contract. The wife's ability to make conditions, provided that they are not contrary to the object of marriage, can resolve many inequities in areas such as polygamy and divorce. For example, clauses may be added that eliminate the husband's right to take a second wife or that grant the wife greater freedom of movement. These conditions limit the husband's somewhat automatic and extensive legal control over his wife. Because these conditions can be enforced by granting the wife her husband's power of divorce if they are violated, they bestow more equal rights of divorce on the wife.}}

===Child marriage===
{{Main|Child Marriage in Islamic Law|Forced Marriage}}
The major schools of Islamic jurisprudence were in agreement that a pre-pubescent child could be contracted in marriage by his or her father [[Forced Marriage|and without consent]]. They based this view variously on [[Muhammad]]'s marriage to [[Aisha]], the example of his [[Sahabah|companions]], and the Quran (particularly {{Quran|65|4}}). The Maliki and Shafi'i schools even allowed a father to forcibly contract his daughter in marriage who had already reached puberty if she was still a virgin, despite hadith evidence indicating otherwise. The family were to hand over the betrothed wife for consummation of the marriage when they determined that the girl was now able to endure intercourse without physical harm rather than this being tied to any particular age (though Ibn Hanbal specified the age of nine due to the example of Aisha's marital consummation with Muhammad). Some Quranic commentators interpreted the Quran such that only females who had reached puberty can be contracted in marriage, though most thought that marriage of minors was permitted. The Byzantines around this time allowed girls to be married from the age of thirteen and the Persian Sassanids allowed marital consummation from the age of twelve.

Today, [[w:Marriageable_age|many modern Muslim countries]] have legislated to raise the minimum age of marriage, in many cases to the age of 16 or 18 for girls (though often with loopholes or with ineffective enforcement) and to prevent forced marriage, often in the face of opposition (though sometimes support) from Islamic scholars. Many Muslim campaign groups and charities have been involved in this reform process and continue to offer help to those at risk (see the article [[Forced Marriage]] which includes sources of help).<ref>For example [https://www.mwnuk.co.uk/Forced_Marriage_7_factsheets.php Muslim Women's Network UK] and [https://preventforcedmarriage.org/forced-marriage-overseas-pakistan/ Tahirih Justice Center Forced Marriage Initiative]</ref> In collaboration with activists, in 2019 the deputy Grand Imam of al-Azhar University in Cairo issued a fatwa calling for marriage based on mutual consent with a minimum age set as 18.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/jun/21/senior-islamic-cleric-issues-fatwa-against-child-marriage Senior Islamic cleric issues fatwa against child marriage] - Guardian.com</ref> Unicef say that the prevalence of child marriages are decreasing globally but are nevertheless common (including among non-Muslim populations in some regions of the world).

====Muhammad's encouragement to marry and fondle young virgins====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4052|darussalam}}|Narrated Jabir: "Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said to me, "Have you got married O Jabir?" I replied, "Yes." He asked "What, a virgin [bikr] or a matron [thayyib]?" I replied, "Not a virgin but a matron." He said, "Why did you not marry a young girl [jariyah] who would have fondled with you?}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2309|darussalam}}| Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah:
I was accompanying the Prophet on a journey and was riding a slow camel that was lagging behind the others. ... When we approached Medina, I started going (towards my house). The Prophet said, "Where are you going?" I said, "I have married a widow." '''He said, "Why have you not married a virgin to fondle with each other?'''"}}{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||299|darussalam}}| Narrated 'Aisha:
The Prophet and I used to take a bath from a single pot while we were Junub. During the menses, '''he used to order me to put on an Izar (dress worn below the waist) and used to fondle me.'''}}

====Silence of a virgin implies her consent to marriage====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1421b|reference}}|Ibn Abbas (Allah be pleased with them) reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

A woman who has been previously married (Thayyib) has more right to her person than her guardian. And a virgin should also be consulted, and her silence implies her consent.}}

===Domestic rights and beating wives===
{{Main|Wife Beating in Islamic Law|Wife Beating in the Qur'an|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Wife Beating}}Under Islamic law, women are obligated to obey their husbands in their domestic, social, professional, sexual and, to a limited extent, religious lives. Marital rape is not considered a crime. {{Quran|4|34}} instructs Muslims men to, among other things, beat their wives if they fear nushuz (a word of unclear meaning but to be compared with similar usage in {{Quran|4|128}}). Muslim scholars agree on the permissibility of the practice but disagree on the conditions for and nature of the beating permitted. Women are also accorded a number of rights under the ''nikah'' contract. Men are obligated to provide for their wives financially and not to be too harsh to them, although the meaning of this latter requirement is set by the marital and gender norms of 7th century Arabia, where wife-beating was commonplace and acceptable. Women whose husbands fail to fulfill these rights are eligible for requesting divorce.

===Divorce===
Whereas a husband has the Quranic right to divorce his wife by pronouncing ''talaq'', the situation is more difficult for a wife. A wife can ask her husband to divorce her, and if he releases her from the marriage, she makes a payment to him of the ''mahr'' (item or sum of financial worth) she had received or some other agreed payment. This is known as ''khula'''. If he refuses, she can try to get a dissolution (faskh) of the marriage by judicial decree when there are grounds for which his consent is not required (such as inability or failure to fulfill his marital obligations, desertion, insanity, or cruelty).

There is a consensus among classical Islamic scholars that if a woman converts to Islam and her husband fails to, their marriage is nullified.<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/3408/stories-of-women-who-became-muslim-and-left-their-non-muslim-husbands Stories of Women who Became Muslim and Left their Non-Muslim Husbands - IslamQA.info]</ref><ref name="IndianaLawJournal">Leeman, Alex B. (2009) "Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions," Indiana Law Journal: Vol. 84 : Iss. 2 , Article 9. pp.754-759 Available at: http://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf and https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol84/iss2/9</ref> This ruling is derived, in part, from {{Quran|60|10}}. The classical scholars also ruled that if on the other hand a husband converts to Islam, the marriage remains intact so long as his wife is a Christian or Jew. If a Muslim husband or wife leaves Islam, the marriage to his or her Muslim spouse is immediately annulled, though some held that the marriage is unaffected if only the wife leaves the religion, while others said that she becomes the husband's slave.<ref name="IndianaLawJournal2">Leeman, Alex B. (2009) "Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions," Indiana Law Journal: Vol. 84 : Iss. 2 , Article 9. pp.754-759 Available at: http://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf and https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ilj/vol84/iss2/9</ref>

One verse grants similar rights to men and women during the divorce period, in some sense granting the husband a degree above his wife.
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|228}}|Divorced women remain in waiting for three periods, and it is not lawful for them to conceal what Allah has created in their wombs if they believe in Allah and the Last Day. And their husbands have more right to take them back in this [period] if they want reconciliation. And due to the wives is similar to what is expected of them, according to what is reasonable. But the men have a degree over them [in responsibility and authority]. And Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise.}}

===Concubinage===
{{Main|Slavery in Islamic Law|Rape in Islamic Law|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Rape of Slaves, Prisoners, and Wives|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Slavery}}In nearly every instance where the Quran commands (men) to be chaste, it repeats that they need not be chaste with their wives and 'those whom their right hand possesses', which is universally acknowledged by historians and Islamic scholars as an Arabic euphemism which refers to one's slaves. An entire chapter in Sahih Muslim (chapter 29) is dedicated to the topic and is entitled: 'It is permissible to have sexual intercourse with a captive [i.e. slave] woman after she is purified (of menses or delivery).

Even Muhammad is granted sexual (or at least marital) rights over his female captives in {{Quran-range|33|50|52}}. In case she has a husband, her marriage is abrogated after she becomes captive.'{{Quote|{{Quran-range|23|1|6}}; see also {{Quran|4|3}} & {{Quran|4|24}}|Certainly will the believers have succeeded: They who are during their prayer humbly submissive And they who turn away from ill speech And they who are observant of zakah '''And they who guard their private parts Except from their wives or those their right hands possess, for indeed, they will not be blamed -'''}}

===Iddah (Female Menstrual Waiting Period)===
{{Main|'Iddah (Female_Menstrual_Waiting_Period)}}
The 'iddah is the period of time a woman must observe after the death of her husband or after a divorce, during which she has to face numerous restrictions. These restrictions include being largely confined at home and the clothes she is allowed to wear. For a widowed woman the waiting period is 4 months and 10 days; for a pregnant woman the waiting period is up to 9 months (till the birth of the baby); and for a divorced woman the waiting period is 3 menstrual cycles.

===Inheritance===
{{Main|Inheritance Laws|Contradictions in the Quran}}
Generally, Islam grants women half the share of inheritance available to men if they inherit from the same father. This forms part of a wider Quranic and cultural context in which men are expected to provide for women and to pay a dower for marriage. However, it is easy to imagine scenarios even in the 7th century where the beneficiaries are at different stages of their lives or marital circumstances such that no rationale would justify the allocation fixed in the Quran.

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|11}}|Allah instructs you concerning your children: for the male, what is equal to the share of two females. But if there are [only] daughters, two or more, for them is two thirds of one's estate. And if there is only one, for her is half. And for one's parents, to each one of them is a sixth of his estate if he left children. But if he had no children and the parents [alone] inherit from him, then for his mother is one third. And if he had brothers [or sisters], for his mother is a sixth, after any bequest he [may have] made or debt. Your parents or your children - you know not which of them are nearest to you in benefit. [These shares are] an obligation [imposed] by Allah. Indeed, Allah is ever Knowing and Wise.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|176}}|They request from you a [legal] ruling. Say, "Allah gives you a ruling concerning one having neither descendants nor ascendants [as heirs]." If a man dies, leaving no child but [only] a sister, she will have half of what he left. And he inherits from her if she [dies and] has no child. But if there are two sisters [or more], they will have two-thirds of what he left. If there are both brothers and sisters, the male will have the share of two females. Allah makes clear to you [His law], lest you go astray. And Allah is Knowing of all things.}}

===Attire===
{{Main|Hijab|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Hijab}}Islamic scholars differ in their interpretation of the verses prescribing female attire. All four madhabs agree by consensus that women must cover their entire body, excluding their hands and face, except for Hanafis, who also permit women to reveal their feet. These clothing requirements only apply in the presence of unrelated men (in addition to some male relations) and during prayers. Hanafis and some other scholars also require women to observe these requirements in the presence of non-Muslim women, fearing that these non-Muslim women may describe a Muslim woman's physical features to other men. Some modern interpretations disagree with the traditional views (see main article).

===Testimony===
Islamic scriptures dictate that, in a court setting, a woman's testimony is worth half a man's. The reasoning given in {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}} is the deficiency of the female intellect. Islamic jurists have variously endorsed some exceptions to this rule-of-thumb, however. In legal cases relating to matters of female anatomy or specialty, a woman's testimony may be equal to a man's. On the other hand, Islamic jurists have also dictated that there are certain domains of law where a woman's testimony cannot be counted for anything at all.

The Quran itself mentions the principle in the context of loan contracts.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|282}}|O you who have believed, when you contract a debt for a specified term [...] And bring to witness two witnesses from among your men. And if there are not two men [available], then a man and two women from those whom you accept as witnesses - so that if one of the women errs, then the other can remind her. [...]}}

===Punishment for lewdness===
The Qur'an states that women found guilty of lewdness (l-fāḥishata) should be confined to house arrest until death or mysteriously 'God ordains another way'. The next verse ({{Quran|4|16}}) on the other hand ordains (unspecified) punishment if two men are found guilty of lewdness, but who are to be left alone if they repent and amend their ways:
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|15}}|If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, Take the evidence of four (Reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or Allah ordain for them some (other) way}}

Most scholars believe the above verse (Quran 4:15) was [[Naskh (Abrogation)|abrogated]] by the punishment of 100 lashes for both men and women who commit fornication (zina) in Quran 24:2, or stoning if either is married to someone else as set out in the hadith (such as {{Bukhari|||7332|darussalam}}and {{Muslim||1691a|reference}}):
{{Quote|{{Quran|24|2}}|The [unmarried] woman or [unmarried] man found guilty of sexual intercourse - lash each one of them with a hundred lashes, and do not be taken by pity for them in the religion of Allah, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day.}}

===Gender Segregation===
{{Main|Sex Segregation in Islam}}In Islamic law, unrelated women and men are not allowed to be alone together, have any sort of physical contact, engage in frivolous conversation, look at one another for any reason other than momentarily for the purpose of identification, or pray such that a woman is located in front of or adjacent to any man (women must stand behind men in prayer). Muhammad's wives are instructed in the Quran to remain at home as much as possible and according to hadiths Muhammad did not permit women to travel on significant journeys except under the supervision of a male guardian or relative. Some medieval scholars forbade women to leave their homes at all without permission. Modernist scholars generally contest these interpretations using other hadiths and arguments.

=== "Blood money" (diya) ===
{{Quote|1={{Quran|178-179}}|2=O you who have faith! Retribution is prescribed for you regarding the slain: freeman for freeman, slave for slave, and female for female. But if one is granted any extenuation by his brother, let the follow up [for the blood-money] be honourable, and let the payment to him be with kindness. That is a remission from your Lord and a mercy; and should anyone transgress after that, there shall be a painful punishment for him. There is life for you in retribution, O you who possess intellects! Maybe you will be Godwary!}}{{Quote|{{Muwatta|43||4}}|Yahya related to me from Malik that Ibn Shihab and also Urwa ibn az-Zubayr said the same as Said ibn al-Musayyab said about a woman. Her blood-money from a man is the same up to a third of the blood-money of a man. If what she is owed exceeds a third of the blood-money of the man, she is given up to half of the blood-money of a man.

Malik said, "The explanation of that is that she has blood-money for a head wound that lays bare the bone and one that splinters the bone and for what is less than the brain wound and the belly wound and the like of that of those which obliges a third of the blood-money or more. If the amount owed her exceeds that, her blood- money in that is half of the blood-money of a man."}}
Women are classed as a separate category of people than men, as are slaves to free people, to take retribution on for murder.<ref>Lowry, Joseph E.. ''"[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/asia-2023-0017/html?lang=en&srsltid=AfmBOopgJ7jZKaeahTy4etRPfjtYdhZMkRb9zLEi1AHJltXuAu8aYh-p Quranic Law and Its ‘Biblical’ Intertexts]" pp. 452–453.'' Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques, vol. 78, no. 3, 2024, pp. 431-467. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1515/asia-2023-0017</nowiki> ''The rules set forth at Q. 5:45 are fairly congruent with the tort legislation found at Q. 2:178–179 and Q. 4:92–93. In Sūrat al-Baqara (Q. 2) the Quran licenses retaliation (qiṣāṣ) against socially equivalent individuals (naming free persons, enslaved per�sons, and women) in cases of homicide (v. 178) and identifies deterrence as the policy behind such retaliation (v. 179). That passage refers only to victims of homicide in general (al-qatlà, slain persons) and does not deal with intent, though it would be reasonable to infer that the rules there refer only to intentional killing.58 The passage in Sūrat al-Nisāʾ distinguishes between intent and mistake in cases of homicide when the victim is a believer, requiring, in the case of mistaken killing, the freeing of a believing slave as penance (or fasting if the perpetrator is too poor to own a slave) and the payment of a blood price (diya) to the victim’s kin, which they may waive (v. 92). The Quran does not, in these two passages, address battery, and it does not expressly address intentional killing beyond declaring that it leads to perdition and divine wrath (Q. 4:93)''.' ''All three passages share an important substantive element, which is the possi�bility of waiver of the claim for retaliation by the victim’s kin. In Sūrat al-Baqara (Q. 2), this idea is referred to relative to the perpetrator, using the verb “to pardon” (man ʿufiya la-hu, “whoever is pardoned,” v. 178). In Sūrat al-Nisāʾ (Q. 4) and Sūrat al�Māʾida (Q. 5) it is referred to relative to the claimants, using the verb meaning “to (charitably) waive” (illā an yaṣṣaddaqū, “unless they waive it,” Q. 4:92; man taṣad�daqa,“whoever waives it,” Q. 5:45). The biblical intertexts do not refer to waiver; that fact suggests that the possibility of waiver is part of quranic tort law and that the passage in Sūrat al-Māʾida should not be understood solely as a historical reference. The passage from Sūrat al-Māʾida also shares with that from Sūrat al-Baqara the idea of divine imposition of a law through scripture (prescription: kutiba, “it is/was prescribed”; katabnā, “We prescribe”) and the technical term qiṣāṣ (retaliation). The terminological and doctrinal similarities make it possible to read all three passages together to form a coherent legislative whole.59 They address intentional homicide (Q. 2:178–179; Q. 4:93; Q. 5:45), homicide by mistake (Q. 4:92), intentional wounding (Q. 5:45), and waiver of retaliation for intentional homicide and wounding (Q. 2:178; Q. 5:45). The only topic left unaddressed is unintentional wounding. Subtracting the verse from Sūrat al-Māʾida (Q. 5) form quranic tort law (i.e., reading it solely as a historical reference) would leave intentional wounding unaddressed.''</ref> Both classical<ref>[https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/384850/a-woman%E2%80%99s-diyyah-is-half-of-that-of-the-man A Woman’s Diyyah is Half of That of the Man.] Islamnet.web fatwa. 2018</ref> (including all four Sunni schools of Islamic thought: Hanbali, Maliki, Hanafi, and Shafi'i)<ref name=":0">Syed Naeem Badshah, & Kifait Ullah Hamdani. (2016). ''The issue of "blood money" or recompense for loss of a life of female; A detailed analysis in the light of Quran, traditions and intellect: The issue of "blood money" or recompense for loss of a life of female; A detailed analysis in the light of Quran, traditions and intellect.'' Al-Azhār University, 2(01), 22–50. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.al-azhaar.org/index.php/alazhar/article/view/379</nowiki></ref> and modern (including Al-Azhar university)<ref>See: ''Ahmed ibn Naqib al-Misri, Reliance of the Traveller: A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law, Nuh Ha Mim Keller, trans. (Beltsville, Maryland: Amana Publications, 1999), xx; o4.9. pp590.'' (Can be found in page 608/1251 of the free [https://archive.org/details/relianceofthetravellertheclassicmanualofislamicsacredlaw/page/n607/mode/2up?q=indemnity PDF on internetarchive]) a book on Islamic law which is certified by Al-Azhar University on page xx - xxi (page 16/1251 of PDF)</ref><ref name=":0" /> Islamic authorities have taken the value paid for murdered women to avoid retaliation to be half that of a murdered man.
==Muhammad and Women==

===Wives and Concubines of Muhammad===

:''Main Articles: [[List of Muhammads Wives and Concubines|List of Muhammad's Wives and Concubines]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammads Wives and Concubines|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammad's Wives and Concubines]] and [[Ages of Muhammads Wives at Marriage|Ages of Muhammad's Wives at Marriage]]''

According to multiple sources, Muhammad had many wives and concubines, and was known to others as a "womanizer".<ref>"....''Layla’s people said, "’What a bad thing you have done! You are a self-respecting woman, but the Prophet is a womanizer. Seek an annulment from him.’ She went back to the Prophet and asked him to revoke the marriage and he complied with [her request]''...." - al Tabari vol.9 p.139</ref> Muhammad consummated his marriages with thirteen women, divorced another six, and had concubines. It is reported that he used to visit eleven wives in one night:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|1|5|268|}}|Narrated Qatada: Anas bin Malik said, "The Prophet used to visit all his wives in a round, during the day and night '''and they were eleven in number.'''" I asked Anas, "Had the Prophet the strength for it?" Anas replied, "We used to say that the Prophet was given the strength of thirty (men)." And Sa'id said on the authority of Qatada that Anas had told him about nine wives only (not eleven).}}

====Aisha====
{{Main|Aisha}}

''Aisha'', sometimes spelt as 'Ayesha' or 'Aysha', was the nine year old child-bride of Muhammad. She was engaged to him at the age of six, when he was in his fifties. She was also the daughter of Abu Bakr, a close friend of Muhammad. Historically, she is known as Muhammad's "favorite wife." It has also been recorded in authentic Islamic sources that Muhammad struck Aisha<ref>"''...He said: Was it the darkness (of your shadow) that I saw in front of me? I said: Yes. He struck me on the chest which caused me pain, and then said: Did you think that Allah and His Apostle would deal unjustly with you?...''" - {{Muslim||974b|reference}}</ref> and also allowed Abu Bakr to do the same.<ref>"''....Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) then got up went to 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) and slapped her on the neck, and 'Umar stood up before Hafsa and slapped her saying: You ask Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) which he does not possess....''" - {{Bukhari|||334|darussalam}}</ref> Aisha was not 'offered' to Muhammad by her father (as would have normally been the case for the marriage of so young a girl), rather it was Muhammad who approached Abu Bakr, and Abu Bakr originally protested.<ref>"''....The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother."....''" - {{Bukhari|||5081|darussalam}}</ref> However, Muhammad justified his desire for Aisha with a divine vision from Allah.<ref>"''....You were shown to me twice (in my dream) before I married you. I saw an angel carrying you in a silken piece of cloth, and I said to him, 'Uncover (her),' and behold, it was you. I said (to myself), 'If this is from Allah, then it must happen.....''" - {{Bukhari|||7012|darussalam}}</ref>

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1422b|reference}}|'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) reported: Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) married me when I was six years old, and I was admitted to his house when I was nine years old.}}
The age of Muhammad's child-bride Aisha has in recent times become an actively contested issue, with a few modern Islamic scholars arguing that she was in fact older than nine when married or when the marriage was consummated. The overwhelming majority of modern Islamic scholars have, however, rejected this view as contravening authentic scripture.

====Khadijah====
{{Main|Khadijah bint Khuwaylid}}

''Khadijah bint Khuwailid/Khuwaylid'' (555 – 619 AD) was the first wife of Muhammad and also a distant cousin. Belonging to the Bani Asad tribe, Khadijah was the daughter of Khuwaylid bin Asad bin. ‘Abd al-‘Uzza bin Qusayy, the Grand son Qusayy. She was a wealthy woman aged forty who ran her own business, and her marriage with Muhammad was a controversial one which almost sparked in bloodshed. Khadija's high social standing is often cited as evidence by some modern Islamic scholars that women were empowered by Islam.<ref>For example, take a look at [http://www.wikiislam.net/w/index.php?title=Women_are_Deficient_in_Intelligence&diff=prev&oldid=67738 this] bit of vandalism.</ref> It is important to note, however, that she was a "great independent businesswoman" ''before'' Islam, during the so-called "Period of Ignorance" (''Jahiliyah''). Indeed, after Islam, Muhammad prohibited women from taking leadership positions, along with dictating other legal disabilities for women.<ref>"''Narrated Abu Bakra: During the battle of Al-Jamal, Allah benefited me with a Word (I heard from the Prophet). When the Prophet heard the news that the people of the Persia had made the daughter of Khosrau their Queen (ruler), he said, "Never will succeed such a nation as makes a woman their ruler.''" - {{Bukhari|||7099|darussalam}}</ref>

====Safiyah====
{{Main|Safiyah}}

''Safiyah bint Huyayy'' (610 - 670 AD) was the bride of Kinana and the chief mistress of the Jewish tribes of Quraiza and An-Nadir. When Muhammad's followers invaded and conquered Khaibar, the opposition's fighting men were killed and Safiya was taken captive (along with the rest of the women and children) and allotted as booty to Dihya Al-Kalbi, a Muslim.<ref>{{Bukhari|||947|darussalam}}</ref> Kinana, Safiyah's suitor or husband, was tortured and executed by Muhammad's followers in order to discover the hiding places of treasure,<ref>Ishaq. I (Author), Guillaume. A (Translator). (2002). [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Muhammad-I-Ishaq/dp/0196360331/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252901691&sr=8-1#reader ''The Life of Muhammad'']. (p. 515). Oxford University Press - Tabari vol. 8, p.123 - Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=5QMMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The Life of Mahomet, New Edition'']. (pp. 390-391) London:Smith, Elder and Co.</ref> and one source relates that he and Safiya had been married only one day.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=5QMMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The Life of Mahomet, New Edition'']. (pp. 392) London:Smith, Elder and Co.</ref> She was so beautiful that the Muslims began praising her in the presence of [[Muhammad]],<ref>{{Muslim||1365f|reference}}</ref> and so the prophet commanded that Dihya be brought before him along with Safiya. Upon seeing her, Muhammad said, "Take any slave girl other than her from the captives"<ref>{{Bukhari|||371|darussalam}}</ref> and he selected her to be his slave rather than the slave of any of his companions.

She was held captive until their marriage, and when Muhammad decided that she would be his wife rather than his concubine, he made known to her that her manumission was her ''mahr''.

====Mariyah====
{{Main|Maria the Copt (Mariyah Al-Qibtiyyah)|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Slavery}}
''Mariyah the Copt'' was one of the prophet’s wives’ maids and bore him a son who later died, called Ibrahim. Muhammad slept with her without any ceremony, which caused uproar among his wives. It is said that the controversy was finally settled by verses {{Quran-range|66|1|6}}, allowing Muhammad to continue sleeping with her after he had placated his wives by rescinding this right.

{{Quote||Waqidi has informed us that Abu Bakr has narrated that the messenger of Allah (PBUH) had sexual intercourse with Mariyyah in the house of Hafsah. When the messenger came out of the house, Hafsa was sitting at the gate (behind the locked door). She told the prophet, O Messenger of Allah, do you do this in my house and during my turn? The messenger said, control yourself and let me go because I make her haram to me. Hafsa said, I do not accept, unless you swear for me. That Hazrat (his holiness) said, by Allah I will not contact her again. Qasim ibn Muhammad has said that this promise of the Prophet that had forbidden Mariyyah to himself is invalid – it does not become a violation (hormat).<ref>Tabaqat v. 8 p. 223 Publisher Entesharat-e Farhang va Andisheh Tehran 1382 solar h ( 2003) Translator Dr. Mohammad Mahdavi Damghani</ref>}}

===Muhammad's exemptions from sexual laws===
{{Main|Convenient Revelations}}Muhammad often received revelations from God which would absolve him from or resolve for him various personal restrictions and controversies. These revelations would form part of the Quran and hadith. Critics have suggested that such verses would scarcely merit inclusion in an eternal document of divine importance that conceives of itself as "guidance for all of mankind". According to Sahih Bukhari, Aisha, Muhammad's wife, once said to him after one such revelation, "I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires."<ref>{{Bukhari|6|60|311|}}</ref>
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4788|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha:

I used to look down upon those ladies who had given themselves to Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and I used to say, "Can a lady give herself (to a man)?" But when Allah revealed: "You (O Muhammad) can postpone (the turn of) whom you will of them (your wives), and you may receive any of them whom you will; and there is no blame on you if you invite one whose turn you have set aside (temporarily).' (33.51) I said (to the Prophet), "I feel that your Lord hastens in fulfilling your wishes and desires."}}

===Women and the Farewell Sermon===
{{Main|Farewell Sermon}}

''The Farewell Sermon'' (خطبة الوداع‎, Khuṭbatu l-Wadā') is Muhammad's last sermon before his death in 632 CE. One widely distributed modern redacted and edited version of the sermon differs significantly from the original versions found in {{Abu Dawud||1905|darussalam}}, {{Muslim||1218a|reference}}, al-Tabari's History, and ibn Ishaq's ''Sirat''. Muhammad's order in the sermon to men to control their women by beating them confirms and slightly moderates the Qur'anic order of wife-beating in {{Quran|4|34}}. In al-Tabari's version, Muhammad also compares women to domestic animals (ʿawān). In ibn Ishaq's version, quoted below, the translator renders the same Arabic word as prisoners, in line with traditional exegesis of the sermon.

{{Quote||"You have rights over your wives and they have rights over you. You have the right that they should not defile your bed and that they should not behave with open unseemliness. '''If they do, God allows you to put them in separate rooms and beat them but not with severity'''. If they refrain from these things they have the right to their food and clothing with kindness. Lay injunctions on women kindly, '''for they are prisoners with you having no control of their persons.''' You have taken them as a trust from God, and you have the enjoyment of their persons by the words of God, so understand…"<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, p. 651</ref>}}
==Women in the modern Muslim world==

===Honor Violence and Islam===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Honor Killing}}
Honor killing has occurred in many cultures, and is the murder by family members, usually of females, who are perceived to have brought shame on the family. The attitude is that the honor of the family in the community can be protected or restored in this way. Common triggers for honour killing occur when young couples have unmarried relations with each other, or when a woman marries someone against the wishes of her parents.

In Islamic law, there is no punishment merely for the shame caused upon a family by their female relations, nor to restore family honor by killing them. There are, however, punishments for various types of [[w:Zina|Zina]] (unlawful sexual relations) in Islam. Zina includes both fornication (when an unmarried person has intercourse), for which the punishment is flogging, and adultery (when a married person has intercourse with someone other than their spouse), for which the punishment is death by stoning. These punishments are only to be applied by the authorities. A punishment in a private setting is mandated in {{Quran|4|34}} which tells men to beat their wives as a last resort in certain circumstances.

Honour killing has been condemned in a recent fatwa,<ref>[https://islamqa.info/en/101972 Fatwa 101972 Ruling on honour killing]</ref> which says that the punishment for fornication by the unmarried is flogging, and must be carried out by the proper authorities.

However, some statements about women and the rules to control them as outlined above in this article may contribute to the perceived social consequences of failing to exert such control and the underlying attitudes towards women and girls held by those who commit honor killing and honor violence. This includes such rules as those concerning gender segregation and zina (especially the prohibition of sexual intercourse between an unmarried couple, even the suspicion of which is a common trigger for honor violence against girls), and a woman marrying without the approval of her wali. Underlining the seriousness in which some of these are regarded, certain punishments such as stoning, flogging, and even death by being thrown off a tall building are prescribed for sexual crimes in Islamic law, though these are to be carried out by the authorities. In the modern age, there have been many reported incidents of honor violence when young women are perceived to have violated Islamic requirements about dress and adornments when using photo and video based social media. A connection between Islam and honor violence is disputed by some on the basis that honor killing in the Muslim world is largely associated with certain countries like Pakistan and in parts of the Middle East and North Africa rather than universal. The problem has also been documented in a Hindu religious context in countries such as India and Nepal, particularly involving couples of differing castes.

While Islamic law does not order honor violence, parents who murder their children are not punishable with the ''Qisas'' (retaliation) under the Sharia. The standard manual of law for the Shafi'i school sets out this exemption in plain terms.{{Quote|'Umdat al-Salik (Reliance of the Traveller), section o1.1-2|Retaliation is obligatory [...] against anyone who kills a human being purely intentionally and without right [...] The following are not subject to retaliation [...] (4) a father or mother (or their fathers or mothers) for killing their offspring.}}

Efforts in modern Muslim countries have been made to deter such killings by changing the law to enable prosecution of the perpetrators, for example Pakistan in 2016 (after a change that had left a large loophole in 2004)<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-37578111</ref>, though as of 2022 the effect there has been limited.<ref>[https://thediplomat.com/2022/07/honor-killings-continue-unabated-in-pakistan/ ‘Honor Killings’ Continue Unabated in Pakistan] - The Diplomat, 2022</ref>

The United Nations Population Fund estimated in September 2000 that as many as 5,000 women and girls fall victim to such killings each year. Cases of non-fatal honor violence would likely be far higher.
===Strict enforcement of hijab===
In a few countries today (notably Iran and Afghanistan), the wearing of hijab is legally enforced, though in most Muslim-majority countries this is not the case though there may be social pressure. In the holy city of Mecca in March 2002, fifteen teenage girls perished in a fire at their school when the Saudi religious police, the muttawa'in, refused to let them out of the building, because in the female-only school environment, they had shed the outer garments that women are required to wear in the presence of men. They had not put these garments back on before trying to flee from the fire. The muttawa'in, favoring the victims' death to the transgression of Islamic law, battled police and firemen who tried to open the school's doors to save the girls.<ref>Christopher Dickey and Rod Nordland - [http://www.islamawareness.net/MiddleEast/Saudi/fire.html The Fire That Won't Die Out] - Islamawareness, 2002</ref> In 2018 Saudi Arabia rescinded its laws relating to head coverings.

===Domestic abuse===
According to the Pakistan Institute of Medical Sciences, over 90% of married women report being kicked, slapped, beaten or sexually abused when husbands were dissatisfied by their cooking or cleaning, or when the women had 'failed' to bear a child or had given birth to a girl instead of a boy.<ref>[http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA33/010/2002/en-http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA33/010/2002/en Pakistan: Violence against women: Media briefing] - Amnesty International</ref>

===Prosecution of rape cases===
{{Main|Rape in Islamic Law}}
Islamic law traditionally has required four reliable muslim male witnesses or a confession in order to convict a man for rape (as an extension of the legal treatment of [[Zina|zina]]), though some modern legal approaches have sought to reduce this evidentiary burden. In some modern jurisdictions there is even a risk that a woman alleging rape can herself by prosecuted for slander or fornication if she lacks sufficient evidence, though this is not the position of most schools of traditional jurisprudence (see main article).

In March 2007, a 19-year-old Saudi woman received a sentence of 90 lashes. A man had threatened to tell her father that they were having an affair unless she met him alone. When she did, she was kidnapped and repeatedly raped, after which her brother beat her because the rapes brought shame to the family. After this, a Saudi court sentenced her to be lashed ninety times because she had met a man alone who was not related to her. Fuziyah Al Ouni, a feminist activist, said she was outraged by the case. 'By sentencing her to 90 lashes they are sending a message that she is guilty.'<ref>[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticleNew.asp?section=middleeast&xfile=data/middleeast/2007/march/middleeast_march71.xml Saudi gang-rape victim faces 90 lashes] - Khaleej Times Online, March 5, 2007</ref>

In 2004, a sixteen-year old girl, Atefeh Rajabi, was hanged in a public square in Iran. Rajabi was charged with adultery, although it had likely been a case of rape. Her rapist was not executed. Rajabi told the mullah-judge, Haji Rezaii, that he ought to punish men who rape, not their victims. The judge both sentenced and personally hanged Rajabi because, in addition to her crime, he said that she had 'a sharp tongue.'<ref>Alasdair Palmer - [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2004/08/29/do2903.xml&sSheet=/portal/2004/08/29/ixportal.html Death and the maiden in Iran] - The Telegraph, August 29, 2004</ref>

On November 1, 2008 a 13-year-old girl in Somalia was stoned to death after being raped by three men. She was unable to produce the required four witnesses to the rape and was therefore accused of adultery as required by Shari'a law. It was reported that the girl begged for mercy before being buried waist high in the ground and pummeled to death with stones by a crowd of some 1,000 Muslims.<ref>[http://www.news24.com/News24/Africa/News/0,,2-11-1447_2419716,00.html Raped girl, 13, stoned to death] news24.com,2008-11-01</ref><ref>David Williams - [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1081214/Somali-girl-pleaded-mercy-Islamists-stoned-death-raped.html?ITO=1490 Somali girl 'pleaded for mercy' before Islamists stoned her to death for being raped] - Daily Mail, November 5, 2008</ref>

===Strict segregation of genders===
In February 2008, an American businesswoman of Jordanian descent was arrested in Saudi Arabia after being found by the religious police sitting in the family area of a Starbucks with a male business associate. They had been working together at their nearby office when power was lost, and they decided to go to Starbucks to use the wireless internet. She was released from jail a day later, bruised and crying after being detained and beaten for being in the presence of another man who was not her relative.<ref>Sonia Verma - [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,329605,00.html American Woman Boasted of Saudi Freedoms To Bush Brother Before Arrest at Starbucks] - Fox News, February 7, 2008</ref>

==See Also==

*[[Women in Islamic Law]]
*[[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Women]]
*[[Umm Qirfa]]
*[[Cousin Marriage in Islamic Law]]

==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Shamoun/women_in_islam1.htm Women in Islam]
*[http://www.faithfreedom.org/Articles/abulkazem/Women_in_Islam.htm Women in Islam: An exegesis]
*[http://www.faithfreedom.org/Articles/abulkazem/SexualityinIslam.htm Sex and sexuality in Islam]
*[https://fgmtruth.wordpress.com/2018/10/22/23-s-b-zakis-arab-women-before-and-after-islam-opening-the-door-of-pre-islamic-arabian-history/ Arab Women Before and After Islam - by S. B. Zaki]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
__NOEDITSECTION__
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]

Polygamy in Islamic Law

2026-03-20T22:35:14Z

Lightyears:

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==Muhammad and Polygamy==

According to traditional sources, [[Muhammad]] practiced polygamy. Besides his numerous concubines, he married fifteen women and consummated his marriages with thirteen.<ref>al-Tabari vol.9 p.126-127</ref> According to Tabari, he was accused of being a "womanizer."<ref>"....''Layla’s people said, "’What a bad thing you have done! You are a self-respecting woman, but the Prophet is a womanizer. Seek an annulment from him.’ She went back to the Prophet and asked him to revoke the marriage and he complied with [her request]''...." - al Tabari vol.9 p.139</ref> He was also attributed the sexual prowess of many men:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||268|darussalam}}|Narrated Qatada: Anas bin Malik said, "The Prophet used to visit all his wives in a round, during the day and night '''and they were eleven in number.'''" I asked Anas, "Had the Prophet the strength for it?" Anas replied, "We used to say that the Prophet was given the strength of thirty (men)." And Sa'id said on the authority of Qatada that Anas had told him about nine wives only (not eleven).}}

==Reasons for Muhammad's Marriages==

Islamic scholarship justifies polygamy as a means of caring for widows and poor women, although many of Muhammad's wives were neither. In fact, one of his wives (his cousin, Zainab bint Jash) was originally the wife of his step-son Zaid bin Haritha. As was the case with [[Safiyah|Safiyah bint Huyayy]], the traditional sources indicate that many of his marriages were the results of Muhammad's desire, not compassion for widows or poor women. This is evident in his six divorces. For example, he divorced ‘Amrah bint Yazid on their wedding night,<ref>{{Tabari|9|p. 139}}; {{Tabari|39|pp. 187-188}}.</ref> due to her suffering from [[leprosy]].<ref>Ibn Ishaq, cited in Guillaume, A. (1960). ''New Light on the Life of Muhammad'', p. 55. Manchester: Manchester University Press</ref><ref>Ibn Hisham note 918 (here he has apparently confused her with Asma bint Al-Numan).</ref><ref>Bewley/Saad 8:100-101.</ref><ref> Women in Islam, By Anne Sofie Roald - Page 221 [Quoted: Najla Hamadeh, Page 335-6]</ref> He also divorced a women named Ghaziyyah bint Jabir when he realized that she was "old."<ref>al-Tabari vol.9 p.139</ref>

Muhammad nevertheless refused to allow Ali bin Abu Talib (the husband of his daughter Fatima) to take a second wife because "what hurts her, hurts me."<ref>{{Bukhari|||5230|darussalam}}</ref><ref>''"An indication of their special relationship is found in the fact that Ali never married another woman as long as Fatima was alive. Sunni sources explain this curiosity in a tradition in which Ali asks for Abu Jahl's daughter in marriage, but the Prophet does not allow him to marry her because it would upset Fatimah."'' - "The Image of Fatima in Classical Muslim Thought," Denise L. Soufi, PhD dissertation, Princeton, 1997, p. 51-52</ref> This seems to indicate that at least in the case of his own daughter, he thought polygyny was hurtful to women.

==Polygamy Permitted in Islam==

Islamic law traditionally allows a man to marry up to four wives at any one time:

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|3}}|And if you fear that you cannot act equitably towards orphans, then marry such women as seem good to you, two and three and four; but if you fear that you will not do justice (between them), then (marry) only one or what your right hands possess; this is more proper, that you may not deviate from the right course.}}

Islam also does not traditionally require that the man have the permission of his first wife before marrying a second:

{{Quote|1=[http://www.fatwaislam.com/fis/index.cfm?scn=fd&ID=1052 The Acceptance of the first Wife is not a Condition for the one who wishes to marry another] FatwaIslam, Permanent Committee for Research and Verdicts: Fatawa Islamiyah Darussalam Vol: 5 No. 353|2=It is not obligatory for the husband, when he wishes to marry another, to get his first wife's acceptance, but it is a noble trait of character and good relations for him to appease her by whatever decreases the pain which woman naturally feel in such situations. This may be achieved by smiling,greeting her warmly and speaking kindly to her, and by whatever money you can afford,if her acceptance requires it }}

==The Consequences of Polygamy==

===Female Genital Mutilation and & other Chastity Assurance practices===
Compared with monogamous arrangements, polygamous men must meet the needs of many more wives. Possibly in order to assure themselves of the chastity and fidelity of their many wives, polygamous men have developed a variety of chastity assurance practices, particularly in Islamic socieities:

*'''harems''', which keep wives locked away, guarded by eunuchs;
*'''footbinding''' (as once practiced by the Chinese), which keeps wives from being unfaithful by reducing their mobility and independence;
*'''chaperoning and gender segregation''', which hamper and eliminate interactions between the sexes;
*'''arranged marriages''', which obviate the dangers that romance and courting poses to a girl's chastity and reputation;
*'''veiling''', which makes girls less interesting and identifiable to males;
*'''<nowiki/>"honor" culture''', which exacts disproportionate punishments for (perceived or actual) 'un-chastity';
*'''female genital mutilation (FGM),''' which reduces a girl's capacity for sexual pleasure both physically (through the removal of the clitoris and labia) and mentally (through the effects of trauma). If a girl has been infibulated, her chastity is further guaranteed, because her vaginal opening is sealed with a covering of skin, the penetration of which is extremely painful and which leads to severe hemorrhaging that is difficult to conceal.

===Bride-Price (mahr)===
[[File:Polygamydowry2.jpg|alt=Maps comparing the global distributions of polygamy and of dowry systems|thumb|450x450px|Maps comparing the global distributions of polygamy and of dowry systems]]
A bride-price ([[Mahr (Marital Price)|mahr]]) is a payment made by the bride-groom (or his family) to the bride (or her family). Since polygamy creates a scarcity of marriageable women, marriages in polygamous kinship systems often require that some form of bride-price be paid. This can make marriage unaffordable to low-ranking young men, even if they manage to find a bride. The heroes of folk tales in polygamous societies (such as ''One Thousand and One Nights'') are often poor young men (such as Aladdin) struggling to find the wealth necessary to pay the bride-price of the girl he loves. The story is resolved when he becomes rich and powerful enough to marry her.

Nobel prize-winning economist Gary Becker argues in his book ''A Treatise on the Family''<ref>[https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674906990 A Treatise on the Family] Gary S. Becker, Harvard University Press</ref> that families of young women become the biggest supporters of polygamy because they possess an inherently scarce resource. Love matches and courtship are frowned upon because they risk reducing the bride-price (the couple may be tempted to elope, or the bride request a merely symbolic bride-price). Thus, in order to preserve their market value, the chastity and reputation of unmarried women must protected by such measures as FGM, ''purdah'', child marriage, and arranged marriage.

===Child Marriage===
[[File:Polygamychildmarriage.jpg|alt=Maps comparing the global distributions of polygamy and of child marriage|thumb|450x450px|Maps comparing the global distribution of polygamy and of child marriage]]
Child marriage is common in polygynous societies. One way of alleviating the 'bride famine' that polygyny creates among men in the lower strata of society is to allow prepubescent girls to be married. Dowry further incentivizes parents to sell off their daughters before adolescence, when there is a greater risk of her reputation being spoiled. If the bride is still a child, the dowry usually goes to her father, not to the bride. The bride-price for a child is also generally less than for an adolescent or adult woman. This makes children a more affordable option for poor and low status men.

===The polygamous family===

According to Somayya Jabarti of Arab News, Saudi Arabia has the second-highest divorce-rate in the world. Abdullah Al-Fawzan, a professor and sociologist at King Saud University in Riyadh, states that polygamy is responsible for up to 55 percent of divorces. He added that the loss of trust, sincerity, compassion and cooperation were also factors in the failure of marriages.<ref>Somayya Jabarti - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.arabnews.com/node/239330|2=2013-01-01}} Alarming Divorce Rate ‘Must Be Addressed Urgently’] - Arab News, October 24, 2003</ref> The Maldives, an Islamic country with a 100% Muslim population,<ref>The Maldives is the only country after Saudi Arabia that claims to have a 100 percent Muslim population. As per its constitution, only a Muslim can be a citizen of the country. Propagating any faith other than Islam, importing/publicly carrying literature that contradicts Islam or translation into the Dhivehi language of such books and writings, displaying in public any symbols or slogans belonging to any religion other than Islam, or creating interest in such articles are all against the law and are punishable with imprisonment, fines or banishment.</ref> also has the highest divorce rate in the world, with 10.97 divorces per 1,000 inhabitants per year.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-11000/highest-divorce-rate/|2=2013-01-05}} Highest divorce rate] - Guinness World Records, accessed January 5, 2013</ref> Polygamy is legal in both countries, though in the Maldives, it is today relatively uncommon and subject to legal restrictions.

==Islamic Defense of Polygamy==
Muslim scholars often claim that the reason why Allah allowed men to marry four wives is that men are killed in battle, resulting in women outnumbering men. They also claim that the practice of polygyny curbs adultery, leading to happier marriages and fewer divorces. Nevertheless, world population and birth statistics today indicate a global male surplus.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People Global Population Statistics] - CIA.gov</ref>

==Divorce rights in the event of polygamy==
Under the Hanbali school alone, women may stipulate conditions in the marriage contract to grant greater freedom of movement or to have the marriage dissolved if her husband takes an additional wife.<ref>John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", Second edition, 2001, p. 22</ref> Such stipulations are unenforcable according to the Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Maliki schools on the basis that they cannot overide his Quranic rights.<ref>Kecia Ali, ''Marriage and Slavery in early Islam'', Harvard University Pross, 2010, p. 74 and ftn. 31 on p. 220</ref> All schools agree though that he may delegate to his wife his powerful, Quranic ''talaq'' (divorce) rights at any time. This is called ''talaq al-tafwid'', and can be conditional such as in the event that he takes another wife (the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools allow him to later revoke this delegation).<ref>Muhammad Ifzal Mehmood (2019) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338688656_A_Study_of_Talaq_Al-Tafwid_in_Islamic_Law_and_Contemporary_Legislations_Should_Malaysia_Follow_Suit A Study of Talaq Al-Tafwid in Islamic Law and Contemporary Legislations: Should Malaysia Follow Suit?]'', Bahria University</ref> In most cases such a stipulation or delegation will not have been agreed ahead of the marriage, though an increasing number of countries in the Muslim world have made reforms to family law to limit polygamy or provide other legal routes for the first wife to seek divorce. Otherwise the husband's rights are automatic.

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.geohive.com/earth/pop_gender.aspx|2=2011-10-30}} Total Population by Gender and Gender ratio, by Country] ''- UN Statistics Division population 2009 (est.)''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120124093142.htm|2=2012-03-12}} Monogamy Reduces Major Social Problems of Polygamist Cultures] ''- University of British Columbia, ScienceDaily, January 24, 2012''
*[http://webarchiv.ethz.ch/soms/teaching/OppFall09/MackieFootbinding.pdf Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account] Gerry Mackie, American Sociological Review
*[https://henrich.fas.harvard.edu/files/henrich/files/henrich_boyd_richerson_2012.pdf The puzzle of monogamous marriage] Joseph Henrich et al, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sex]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]

Shari'ah (Islamic Law)

2026-03-20T22:32:38Z

Lightyears: /* Polygamy */

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'''Islamic Laws''' are made up of Shariah|Shari'ah ('‎شريعة Šarīʿah) and ''Islamic jurisprudence'' (فقه‎ [[Fiqh]]). Shari'ah is seen as sacred and constitutes the [[Qur'an]] and [[Muhammad]]'s [[Sunnah]] (way), which is found in the [[Hadith]] and [[Sira]]. Islamic jurisprudence is a complimentary expansion and explanation of the former by Islamic jurists and scholars, belonging to various legal schools ([[Madh'hab|Madhabs]]), who rely also on [[Daleel|Ijma and Qiyas]] (consensus and analogy). The term Shari'ah is also often applied to its body of law.

Sharia based laws exist in about half of the world's Muslim-majority countries, typically as a basis for personal status laws (areas such as marriage and divorce, inheritance, and child custody), and about a dozen Muslim countries apply sharia to criminal law, in part or in full.<ref>Kali Robinson[https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/understanding-sharia-intersection-islam-and-law Understanding Sharia: The Intersection of Islam and the Law] Council on Foreign Relations, 2021</ref> Most Muslim-majority countries also legislate punishments for blasphemy (as do many Christian countries).<ref>[https://persecution.exmuslims.org/countries Persecution tracker - Countries profile] - exmuslims.org</ref>

In modern times, Islamic modernist scholars have grown in influence, "reopening the door of [[Ijtihad]]" (independent legal reasoning).<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/sharia/Reform-of-sharia-law Reform of Sharia Law] - Encyclopedia Britannica website</ref> Islamic modernists tend to reject or contextualise traditional Islamic jurisprudence and take a historical-critical approach to the authenticity of hadiths. Dr. Khaled Abou El Fadl is a Professor of Law at UCLA and an example of a prominent modernist Islamic scholar and jurist. The concepts of maqasid (overall aims) and maslaha (public interest) have been used in various countries in an attempt to balance modern needs with Islamic principles. Moving in the opposite direction, the revived Taliban regime in Afghanistan and various Salafi-Jihadist and Islamist political groups around the world have implemented or seek to enforce Sharia based laws, sometimes with an extreme methodology.<ref>Amal Sethi (2025) [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5037098 The Rule Of Law In Afghanistan: Prospects Under The Taliban Rule] in Marek Safjan (ed), The Revival of the Rule of Law Issue, 57-78</ref>

==Shari'ah==

Shari'ah not only governs public life, but also many facets of ones personal life. It has laws covering Muslim interactions with non-Muslims, sexuality, food, rituals, leisure activities, dress, hygiene etc. This is due to Muhammad's pivotal role in both the practice of Islam and the formation of Islamic law. He is considered by all Muslims, in Islamic theology, as the [[Uswa Hasana|uswa hasana]] (perfect example). Since both the practice of Islam and its laws are based on the same source, they are inseparable from one another.

{{Quote|1=[http://www.readingislam.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1123996016202&pagename=IslamOnline-English-AAbout_Islam/AskAboutIslamE/AskAboutIslamE The Importance of Shari`ah] Salem Al-Hasi, May 26, 2004|2=...Shari`ah is life for the Muslims’ souls and a way of life for them. 

...Shari`ah, conceptually, refers to a set of rules, regulations, teachings, and values governing the lives of Muslims. However, these rules and regulations, contrary to how they are often described by many non-Muslims, cover every aspect of life. Shari`ah embraces worship, morals and conduct, as well as it embraces the political, social and economic, as well as other spheres.}}

===Sharia in modern legal systems===
Sharia is incorporated to a widely varying extent into the legal systems of the modern Muslim world. Kali Robinson of the Council on Foreign Relations writes, "European-style law also influences legal systems in Muslim countries, even in Iran and Saudi Arabia, which claim to only follow Islamic law. This owes in part to the effects of colonialism, the requirements for economic modernization, and the fact that many of the elite who built the legal systems in Muslim-majority countries had Western educations". She describes the general situation as follows:

{{Quote|[https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/understanding-sharia-intersection-islam-and-law Understanding Sharia: The Intersection of Islam and the Law] Kali Robinson, Council on Foreign Relations, 2021|About half of the world’s Muslim-majority countries have some sharia-based laws, typically governing areas such as marriage and divorce, inheritance, and child custody. Only about a dozen Muslim countries apply sharia to criminal law, in part or in full.
[...]
Opinions on the best balance of Islamic law and secular law vary, but political systems tend to incorporate sharia-based laws in three ways:
'''Dual legal system''' In some countries with large Muslim populations, such as Malaysia and Nigeria, the government has a secular judicial system but Muslims can choose to bring certain matters to Islamic courts. The exact jurisdiction of these courts varies by country but usually includes marriage, divorce, inheritance, and guardianship.
'''Government under God''' In countries where Islam is the official religion, the constitution designates sharia as “a source,” or sometimes “the source,” of the law. Examples of the former include Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia, while Bahrain, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates are among those that apply Islamic law in personal but not civil or criminal matters. In Pakistan, Iran, and Iraq, among others, it is forbidden to enact legislation that is antithetical to Islam. Non-Muslims are not expected to obey sharia, and, in most countries, they are under the jurisdiction of special government committees and adjunct courts.
'''Secularism''' Muslim countries where the government is formally secular include Azerbaijan, Chad, Senegal, Somalia, Tajikistan, and Turkey. Still, Islamist parties run for office and occasionally take power in these countries. Turkey’s ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) is one such example.}}

For details on the incorporation of sharia into specific areas of modern legal systems, see the sections below.

Regarding Muslim-minority countries, Robinson adds:
{{Quote|[https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/understanding-sharia-intersection-islam-and-law Understanding Sharia: The Intersection of Islam and the Law] Kali Robinson, Council on Foreign Relations, 2021|Some governments let independent religious authorities apply and adjudicate their faith’s laws in certain situations. For instance, the United Kingdom (UK) allows Islamic tribunals governing marriage, divorce, and inheritance to make legally binding decisions if both parties agree. Similar mechanisms exist for Jewish and Anglican communities. In Israel, Christians, Jews, and Muslims can adjudicate matters of family law in religious courts, as can members of a few other faiths. Additionally, Muslim-minority countries such as Australia, Japan, the UK, and the United States allow Islamic banking, or sharia-compliant banking.}}

===Shari'ah and Human Rights===

Many respected bodies, including the [[European Court of Human Rights on Shariah Law|European Court of Human Rights]], have concluded that Shari'ah is incompatible with accepted modern standards of [[Portal: Islam and Human Rights|human rights]].

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://encyclopedia.stateuniversity.com/pages/7197/European-Court-Human-Rights-ECHR.html|2=2011-11-01}} European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)] Cambridge Encyclopedia, Vol. 24|2=In 2003 and 2004, the court [European Court of Human Rights] ruled that "that sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy" (13/02/2003) ., because the sharia rules on inheritance, women rights and religious freedom violate human rights as established in the European Convention on Human Rights. }}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/oct/23/religion-islam|2=2011-11-01}} Sharia law incompatible with human rights legislation, Lords say] Afua Hirsch, legal affairs correspondent, The Guardian, October 23, 2008|2=The House of Lords today drew stark attention to the conflict between sharia and UK law, calling the Islamic legal code "wholly incompatible" with human rights legislation. The remarks came as the Lords considered the case of a woman who, if she was sent back to Lebanon, would be obliged under sharia law to hand over custody of her 12-year-old son to a man who beat her, threw her off a balcony and, on one occasion, attempted to strangle her.}}

The Islamic laws on human rights (and their laws in general) are based on the views and actions of (or attributed to) Muhammad. While other systems of law have adapted and changed with the passage of time, the basis of Shari'ah is largely defined by the Qur'an and Hadiths. For traditionalists, to reform it would be to replace or rid of it and Islam along with it. To them, Shari'ah (in terms of the Qur'an and Sunnah) are seen as Allah's unalterable holy laws. To attempt to change it would be considered blasphemous, as it constitutes [[Bid'ah]] (innovation in matters of religion), something which was forbidden by Muhammad himself.<ref>"''A'isha reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: He who innovates things in our affairs for which there is no valid (reason) (commits sin) and these are to be rejected.''" - {{Muslim||1718a|reference}}</ref><ref>"''Narrated Aisha: Allah's Apostle said, "If somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected.''" - {{Bukhari|||2697|darussalam}}</ref> What can be altered is Islamic jurisprudence, but as that is extracted from, and cannot contradict shari'ah,<ref>Khalid Baig - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.albalagh.net/general/bidah.shtml|2=2011-11-01}} Sunnah and Bid'ah] - Albalagh, May 5, 2001</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.alahazrat.net/islam/concept-of-bidah-in-islam.php|2=2011-11-01}} Concept of Bidah in Islam] - Alahazrat International Islamic Web</ref> for neo-traditionalists, room for reinterpretation of shari'ah is rather limited. Islamic modernists, however, argue that medieval jurisprudence, the traditional authenticity of certain hadiths, and medieval interpretations of the Qur'an can reasonably be questioned and rejected today, particularly with the aid of modern academic methods.

The following is an excerpt taken from a popular fatwa website in objection to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/97827|2=2011-11-01}} Western human rights organizations and the ruling on referring to them for judgement] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 97827|2=....These so called rights and freedoms which they call for all people to enjoy regardless of religion make the monotheist and the polytheist equally entitled to these rights and freedoms, so the slave of Allaah and the slave of the Shaytaan are placed on the same level, and every worshipper of rocks, idols or people is given the complete right and freedom to enjoy his kufr and heresy. This is contrary to the laws of Allaah in this world and the Hereafter. ''[Quotes {{Quran|68|35-36}}, {{Quran|38|28}}, & {{Quran|32|18}}]'' 

It is a call to abolish the ruling on apostasy, and to openly flaunt the principles of kufr and heresy. It is a call to open the door to everyone who wants to criticize Islam or the Prophet of Islam Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and to have the freedom to criticize and express oneself with no restrictions.
These are corrupt principles. Even if they suit their lives, values and religion, they do not suit us and they are contrary to our pure sharee’ah, which brought rulings that are suited to individuals and societies, and establish noble morals, and protect minds, honour, physical well being and wealth, and show people the religion which Allaah loves and is pleased with....}}

In 1981 the Iranian representative to the United Nations declared that "the Universal Declaration of Human Rights represented a secular interpretation of the Judeo-Christian tradition, which could not be implemented by Muslims."<ref>David G. Littman - [{{Reference archive|1=http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=ODkzM2Q2NGE5ODQzZWI2Y2QyMzhlYjA4NWRlOWYzMzE=|2=2011-11-01}} Human Rights and Human Wrongs] - National Review, January 19, 2003</ref> Due to this conflict between Islamic and Western, liberal notions of human rights, in 1990, the OIC (Organisation of the Islamic Conference) who represent all 57 Muslim majority nations, created the [[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]], using Islamic scripture as its sole source.<ref>Articles 24 and 25 of the [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.religlaw.org/interdocs/docs/cairohrislam1990.htm|2=2011-11-01}} Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]</ref> This declaration has been severely criticized by many, including; the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), the Association for World Education (AWE) and the Association of World Citizens (AWC) for its incompatibility with human rights, women's rights, religious freedom and freedom of expression, by "imposing restrictions on nearly every human right based on Islamic Sharia law."<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iheu.org/node/3162|2=2011-11-01}} The Cairo Declaration and the Universality of Human Rights] - International Humanist and Ethical Union, May 28, 2008</ref>

Furthermore, according to the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ):

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=ODkzM2Q2NGE5ODQzZWI2Y2QyMzhlYjA4NWRlOWYzMzE=|2=2011-11-01}} Feb. 1992 Joint Statement to the UNCHR] The International Commission of Jurists and the International Federation for Human Rights|2=1) It gravely threatens the inter-cultural consensus on which the international human rights instruments are based; 2) It introduces, in the name of the defence of human rights, an intolerable discrimination against both non-Muslims and women; 3) It reveals a deliberately restrictive character in regard to certain fundamental rights and freedoms, to the point that certain essential provisions are below the legal standard in effect in a number of Muslim countries; 4) It confirms under cover of the "Islamic Shari'a (Law)" the legitimacy of practices, such as corporal punishment, that attack the integrity and dignity of the human being.}}

===Separation of 'Church' and State===

It is a generally accepted that there is nothing in Islam that could be described as the "separation of 'Church' and State".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islam_judaism_christianity.htm |title=Comparison of Islam, Judaism and Christianity |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/comparison_charts/islam_judaism_christianity.htm |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - ReligionFacts</ref> At the same time, neo-traditionalists represented by the scholars (ulema) graduating from institutions like the prestigious al-Azhar University in Cairo, the Shi'i seminaries, or the Indonesian Nahdlatul Ulama, see Islam as a theological doctrine, a moral code, and spiritual source, and is not conditional on establishing political government. Loyalty and patriotism towards the modern nation-state that grants them freedom of worship is advocated and a virtue (see [[History of Islamic Thought]]). For Islamists however, Shari'ah remains inseparable from the public and the personal aspects of practicing Islam. Islam, unlike many other faiths, was implemented as a theocracy during its founder's lifetime. As the founder and head of the first Islamic state, Muhammad did not differentiate between "rendering unto Caesar what is Caesar's and what is God's unto God", and this is a view reflected in the following quote.

{{Quote|1=[http://www.islaam.com/Article.aspx?id=559 Separation Of Church And State] Muslim scholar, Dr. Ja`far Sheikh Idris, AlJumuah Magazine, Volume 13 Issue 3|2=So how are Muslims to approach the modern trend of separation of religion and state? The basic belief in Islam is that the Qur'an is one hundred percent the word of Allah, and the Sunna was also as a result of the guidance of Allah to the Prophet sallallahu allayhe wasalam. Islam cannot be separated from the state because it guides us through every detail of running the state and our lives. Muslims have no choice but to reject secularism for it excludes the law of Allah.....

Secularists....will point out that under Islamic law, people are not all equal. No non-Muslim, for example, could become the president. Well, in response to that fact, in turn, secularism is no different. No Muslim could become president in a secular regime, for in order to pledge loyalty to the constitution, a Muslim would have to abandon part of his belief and embrace the belief of secularism — which is practically another religion. For Muslims, the word 'religion' does not only refer to a collection of beliefs and rituals, it refers to a way of life which includes all values, behaviours, and details of living.

Secularism cannot be a solution for countries with a Muslim majority or even a sizeable minority, for it requires people to replace their God-given beliefs with an entirely different set of man-made beliefs. Separation of religion and state is not an option for Muslims because is requires us to abandon Allah's decree for that of a man.}}

===Spread of Shari'ah===

The spread of Islam and the Shari'ah is obligatory in medieval jurisprudence. For Salafi-Jihadists in modern times, Jihad is often employed with the aim of forcing governments into implementing Shari'ah on Muslims and non-Muslims alike, thus expanding the [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar al-Islam]] ('house/domain of Islam'). This, once again, is based on the Sunnah attributed to Muhammad. Following the [[The Farewell Sermon|Farewell Sermon]], according to tradition he sent messengers to foreign leaders including; Negus, Chosroes of Persia, and the Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius, commanding them to submit to his rulership; submit to Islam.<ref>"''....I [Muhammad] invite you [Emperor Heraclius] to Islam (i.e. surrender to Allah), embrace Islam and you will be safe....''" - {{Bukhari|||2940|darussalam}}</ref> We see the same thing happening today in the modern world (for example) in Somalia<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/02/28/somalia.sharia/index.html |title=Somali president bends to rebel demand for sharia law |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/02/28/somalia.sharia/index.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - CNN, February 28, 2009</ref> where President Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, in February 2009, after two years of fighting gave in to rebel demands to impose Islamic law on the country.

{{Quote|1=Standing Committee for Academic Research and Issuing Fatwas, Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz, Shaykh ‘Abd al-Razzaaq ‘Afeefi, Shaykh ‘Abd-Allaah ibn Ghadyaan, Fataawa al-Lajnah al-Daa’imah (1/373)|2=The Muslims in a country that is not governed according to Islamic sharee’ah should do their utmost and strive as much as they can to bring about rule according to Islamic sharee’ah, and they should unite in helping the party which is known will rule in accordance with Islamic sharee’ah. As for supporting one who calls for non-implementation of Islamic sharee’ah, that is not permissible, rather it may lead a person to kufr...[See {{Quran|5|49-50}}]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/107166 |title=Ruling on democracy and elections and participating in that system |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/107166 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 107166</ref>}}

Surveys show that modern day Muslim populations have a wide range of views in terms of support for Sharia and what that means, especially across different regions of the world (some much less than others).<ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2013/04/30/the-worlds-muslims-religion-politics-society-beliefs-about-sharia/] Chapter 1: Beliefs About Sharia - Pew Research Centre (2013)</ref>

==Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars on Shari'ah==

===Qur'an===

In the Quran, the word Shari'ah or its cognates occurs twice as a noun (in {{Quran|5|48}} and {{Quran|45|18}}) meaning law or path, and twice as a verb (in {{Quran|42|13}} and {{Quran|42|21}}), meaning ordained. A number of other verses speak of the requirement to obey Allah. Hadiths mention the importance of obeying Muhammad and warn against innovation (which may reflect a slightly later period when various sects were emerging).

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|4|59|60}}|O ye who believe! Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger, and those charged with authority among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if ye do believe in Allah and the Last Day: That is best, and most suitable for final determination. Hast thou not turned Thy vision to those who declare that they believe in the revelations that have come to thee and to those before thee? Their (real) wish is to resort together for judgment (in their disputes) to the Evil One, though they were ordered to reject him. But Satan's wish is to lead them astray far away (from the right).}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|65}}|But no, by the Lord, they can have no (real) Faith, until they make thee judge in all disputes between them, and find in their souls no resistance against Thy decisions, but accept them with the fullest conviction.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|105}}|We have sent down to thee the Book in truth, that thou mightest judge between men, as guided by Allah: so be not (used) as an advocate by those who betray their trust;}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|44|45}}|It was We who revealed the law (to Moses): therein was guidance and light. By its standard have been judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed (as in Islam) to Allah's will, by the rabbis and the doctors of law: for to them was entrusted the protection of Allah's book, and they were witnesses thereto: therefore fear not men, but fear me, and sell not my signs for a miserable price. '''If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what Allah hath revealed, they are (no better than) Unbelievers.''' We ordained therein for them: "Life for life, eye for eye, nose or nose, ear for ear, tooth for tooth, and wounds equal for equal." But if any one remits the retaliation by way of charity, it is an act of atonement for himself. And if any fail to judge by (the light of) what Allah hath revealed, they are (No better than) wrong-doers.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|5|49|50}}|And this (He commands): '''Judge thou between them by what Allah hath revealed''', and follow not their vain desires, but beware of them lest they beguile thee from any of that (teaching) which Allah hath sent down to thee. And if they turn away, be assured that for some of their crime it is Allah's purpose to punish them. And truly most men are rebellious. Do they then seek after a judgment of (the days of) ignorance? But who, for a people whose faith is assured, can give better judgment than Allah?}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|114}}|Say: "Shall I seek for judge other than Allah? - when He it is Who hath sent unto you the Book, explained in detail." They know full well, to whom We have given the Book, that it hath been sent down from thy Lord in truth. Never be then of those who doubt.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|24|48|49}}|When they are summoned to Allah and His messenger, in order that He may judge between them, behold some of them decline (to come). But if the right is on their side, they come to him with all submission.}}

===Hadith===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7137|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah's Apostle said, "Whoever obeys me, obeys Allah, and whoever disobeys me, disobeys Allah, and whoever obeys the ruler I appoint, obeys me, and whoever disobeys him, disobeys me.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7144|darussalam}}, see also {{Bukhari|||2955|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah: The Prophet said, "A Muslim has to listen to and obey (the order of his ruler) whether he likes it or not, as long as his orders involve not one in disobedience (to Allah), but if an act of disobedience (to Allah) is imposed one should not listen to it or obey it.}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1718a|reference}}|'A'isha reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: He who innovates things in our affairs for which there is no valid (reason) (commits sin) and these are to be rejected.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2697|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha:

Allah's Apostle said, "If somebody innovates something which is not in harmony with the principles of our religion, that thing is rejected."}}

===Islamic Scholars===

Traditionalist and more so Salafi scholars are wary of innovation, while Islamic modernists are more open to reinterpretation, especially in light of modern academic insights on the meaning of the Quran, skepticism towards hadiths and towards medieval interpretations.

{{Quote|Shaykh Muhammad ibn Ibraaheem, Fataawa (12/259-260)|'''One of the worst of evil deeds is referring for judgement to something other than the sharee’ah of Allaah''', namely man-made laws and human-made systems, the customs of one’s ancestors and forefathers, and the verdicts of soothsayers, magicians and astrologers, which many people do nowadays and approve of instead of the sharee’ah of Allaah with which He sent His Messenger Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). Undoubtedly this is the worst type of hypocrisy and among the greatest signs of kufr, wrongdoing and evil, and it is the rulings of the Jaahiliyyah, which the Qur’aan annulled and which the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) warned against... 

...This is a stern warning from Allaah to all people against turning away from His Book and the Sunnah of His Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), and referring for judgement to anything else. '''It is a clear ruling from the Lord against judging by anything other than His sharee’ah, that such a one is a kaafir, a wrongdoer and a rebellious evildoer, whose attitude is that of the hypocrites and people of Jaahiliyyah.''' So beware, O Muslims, of that which Allaah has warned against, and '''refer to His laws for judgement in all things'''. Beware of that which goes against them, and advise one another concerning that. '''Regard as an enemy the one who turns away from the sharee’ah of Allaah or belittles it or makes fun of it, and who facilitates turning to anything else for judgement, so that you may earn the honour of Allaah and be safe from the punishment of Allaah, and thus you will have done what Allaah has enjoined upon you of taking His close friends as friends, who refer to His sharee’ah for judgement and who are pleased with His Book and the Sunnah of His Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), and taking as enemies His enemies who turn away from His Book and the Sunnah of His Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him).'''<ref name="Fatwa No 98301">{{cite web |url=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/98301 |title=Should he turn to the human rights organizations to get his rights? |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/98301 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 98301</ref>}}

{{Quote|1=Shaykh ‘Abd al-‘Azeez ibn Baaz, Fataawa (1/271)|2=So those who refer for judgement to something other than the laws of Allaah, and think that this is permissible for them, or that it is better than referring for judgement to the laws of Allaah, undoubtedly go beyond the pale of Islam because of that, and they are kaafirs, wrongdoers and rebellious evildoers...<ref name="Fatwa No 98301"></ref>}}

{{Quote|1=Imam Ruhollah Khomeini, Veliyat ul-Faqih|2=The Sacred Legislator of Islam is the sole legislative power. No one has the right to legislate and no law may be executed except the law of the Divine Legislator. <ref>Imam Khomeini (Translated by Prof. Hamid Algar) - {{cite web |url=http://www.al-islam.org/islamicgovernment |title=Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.al-islam.org/islamicgovernment |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Published by: The Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini's Works (International Affairs Department)</ref>}}

{{Quote|1=Sheykh Abdul Rahman Adbul Khaliq, Al-Usool al 'Ilmiyyah li Da'wati s Salafiyyah|2=The right to legislate is for Allah (Subhannah wa Ta'aala) alone. Halaal (permissible) is what Allah made Halaal, Haraam (impermissible) is what Allah made Haraam, the Religion, the Law, the way to follow, the Path and the Faith to embrace, are all for Allah (Ta'aala) alone to decide. There are rulers and kings who consider what Allah made Halaal to be Haraam and what He made Haraam to be Halaal. This is an act of aggression against Allah (Ta'aala) in that they deny Him the right to legislate in His Kingdom and Domain.<ref>Shaykh 'Abdur Rahman 'Abdul Khaliq - {{cite web |url=http://islamicweb.com/beliefs/creed/Alhukm-Is-For-Allah.htm |title=Al Hukm is Only For Allah |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://islamicweb.com/beliefs/creed/Alhukm-Is-For-Allah.htm |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - IslamicWeb</ref>}}

{{Quote|1=Imam Ibn Kathir, Tafsir ul Qur'an|2=Making Legislation for the Creatures is Shirk. Allah says: (Or have they partners with Allah who have instituted for them a religion which Allah has not ordained) means, they do not follow what Allah has ordained for you of upright religion; on the contrary, they follow what their devils (Shayatin), of men and Jinn, have prescribed for them. They instituted taboos, such as the Bahirah, Sa'ibah, Wasilah or Ham. They also permitted eating flesh and blood of animals not slaughtered for consumption, gambling and other kinds of misguidance, ignorance and falsehood. These are things that they invented during Jahiliyyah, when they came up with all kinds of false rulings on what was permitted and what was forbidden, and false rites of worship and other corrupt ideas. It was recorded in the Sahih that the Messenger of Allah said:(I saw `Amr bin Luhayy bin Qama`ah dragging his intestines in Hell) -- because he had been the first one to introduce the idea of the Sa'ibah. This man was one of the kings of the Khuza`ah tribe, and he was the first one to do these things. He was the one who had made the Quraysh worship idols, may the curse of Allah be upon him. Allah said:(And had it not been for a decisive Word, the matter would have been judged between them.) means, the punishment would have been hastened for them, were it not for the fact that it had already been decreed that it would be delayed until the Day of Resurrection. (And verily, for the wrongdoers there is a painful torment.) i.e., an agonizing torment in Hell, what a terrible destination. <ref>Tafsir Ibn Kathir - {{cite web |url=http://abdurrahman.org/qurantafseer/ibnkathir/ibnkathir_web/42.47127.html |title=Making Legislation for the Creatures is Shirk Allah says: |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://abdurrahman.org/qurantafseer/ibnkathir/ibnkathir_web/42.47127.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Surah No.42</ref>}}

{{Quote|1=Shaikh Muhammad Salah, Huda TV|2=Seeking judgement from the Book of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet (saw) is a must! Those who don't see the judgement of Allah and implement it, they are rejecting faith. Those who believe, need to believe in all which was brought by Allah (swt). Islam is unlike all other religions which "pick and choose" what they want to believe, but Islam is a perfect religion. Allah the Almighty said: "This is the day which I have chosen, to make Islam as the religion I have chosen. And I am pleased with Islam as your religion." (Qur'an 5:3)<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lh3_pckO1Bw Abandoning the ruling of Allah!] - YouTube</ref>}}

==Islamic Laws:==

===Forbidding things which are permitted in most secular countries today===

Islamic laws criminalize or do not accept, among other things:

====Adultery====
{{Main|Zina}}

(However, the Islamic definition differs from the secular understanding of the word)

====Apostasy (rejection of Islam)====
{{Main|Islam and Apostasy}}

In Islam, the rejection in part of any of the individual pillars or principles of Islam (i.e. apostasy via blasphemy), or discarding the faith as a whole, amounts to apostasy.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.alsunna.org/Questions-about-Apostasy-Blasphemy.html|2=2011-02-25}} Questions about Apostasy (Blasphemy)] - Al Sunna.org</ref> Under Islamic law, it is a crime punishable by death. This punistment is attributed in hadiths to Muhammad himself who had said "Whoever changed his Islamic religion, then kill him."<ref name="atheist">"''Narrated 'Ikrima: Some Zanadiqa (atheists) were brought to 'Ali and he burnt them. The news of this event, reached Ibn 'Abbas who said, "If I had been in his place, I would not have burnt them, as Allah's Apostle forbade it, saying, 'Do not punish anybody with Allah's punishment (fire).' I would have killed them according to the statement of Allah's Apostle, 'Whoever changed his Islamic religion, then kill him.'"''" - {{Bukhari|||6922|darussalam}}</ref> Apostasy was one of only three reasons given by him where killing a Muslim is permitted (the other two circumstances being the execution of the adulterer and murderer, as well as those who "spread corruption", presumably of the religious sort).<ref>"''Narrated 'Abdullah: Allah's Apostle said, "The blood of a Muslim who confesses that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that I am His Apostle, cannot be shed except in three cases: In Qisas for murder, a married person who commits illegal sexual intercourse and the one who reverts from Islam (apostate) and leaves the Muslims."''" - {{Bukhari|||6878|darussalam}}</ref> His wishes were followed by Caliph Abu Bakr, who had many apostates killed during the lengthy “Riddah (apostasy) wars” for their refusal to pay tithe. These people were not rejecting Islam as a whole but only refusing to abide by one of its five pillars ([[zakat]]). This also attests to the fact apostasy was a serious crime within early Islam and was not a later innovation. Indeed, Abu Bakr referenced one Qur’anic verse in particular (the verse of the sword - Qur'an 9:5) as the reason for his engaging in war. Various hadith record Muhammad's command being followed by his companions, with atheists,<ref name="atheist"></ref> Christians,<ref>"''Ali was informed about a group of Christians who had become Muslims and then became Christians again. Ali arrested them, summoned them before himself and enquired about the truth of the matter. They said: "We were Christians. Then we were offered the choice of remaining Christians or becoming Muslims. We chose Islam. But now it is our opinion that no religion is more excellent than our first religion. Therefore we have become Christians now." Hearing this, Ali ordered these people to be executed and their children enslaved.''" - Quoted from "{{cite web |url=http://www.answering-islam.org/Hahn/Mawdudi/index.htm |title=The Punishment of the Apostate According to Islamic Law |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.answering-islam.org/Hahn/Mawdudi/index.htm |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}", by Abul Ala Maududi</ref> and Jews<ref>"''Mu'adh asked, "Who is this (man)?" Abu Muisa said, "He was a Jew and became a Muslim and then reverted back to Judaism." Then Abu Muisa requested Mu'adh to sit down but Mu'adh said, "I will not sit down till he has been killed. This is the judgment of Allah and His Apostle (for such cases) and repeated it thrice. Then Abu Musa ordered that the man be killed, and he was killed. Abu Musa added, "Then we discussed the night prayers and one of us said, 'I pray and sleep, and I hope that Allah will reward me for my sleep as well as for my prayers.''" - {{Bukhari|||6923|darussalam}}</ref> being put to death for leaving Islam.<ref>For further details, see: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Apostasy]]</ref>

All four schools of Islamic jurisprudence are in agreement with the death sentence for males (who are of sound mind) guilty of apostasy, with only slight variations on whether to allow the three days grace period.<ref>Silas - {{cite web |url=http://www.answering-islam.org/Silas/apostasy.htm |title=The Punishment for Apostasy from Islam/ Jurisprudence - E. Agreement of the Leading Mujtahids (Jurists) |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.answering-islam.org/Silas/apostasy.htm |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Answering Islam</ref> The Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence believe female apostates are not to be killed, but beaten and put under confinement until death or repentance, while the remaining Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools all agree the verdict for the female apostate is the same as for the male.<ref>'Abdurrahmani'l-Djaziri - {{cite web |url=http://www.light-of-life.com/eng/ilaw/l5721et1.htm#p19 |title=The Penalties for Apostasy in Islam According to the Four Schools of Islamic Law |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.light-of-life.com/eng/ilaw/l5721et1.htm%23p19 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - "The Case of the Female Apostate" (Pg. 19)</ref> Islamic modernists tend to interpret the Quran to be more open to freedom of religion and reject hadiths relating to apostasy.

====Free Speech/Blasphemy====
{{Main|Islam and Freedom of Speech|List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad}}

It is a criminal offense in Islam to speak ill of the faith, its Prophet Muhammad, and its holy Scriptures (Qur'an and Hadith). To do so is considered blasphemy, and blasphemy is punishable by death. If a Muslim is doing the criticizing, their actions would constitute apostasy, therefore they too would be liable for the death penalty. For classical scholars, this was deeply rooted within Islamic scripture and the Sunnah of Muhammad, though the reliability of these is questioned by modern academic scholars. According to the sirah literature and hadiths, Muhammad himself had asked his Muslim followers to kill several individuals who were guilty of blaspheming Islam and its Prophet.

Siraj Khan writes regarding traditional Islamic jurisprudence, "Many instances from the hadith corpus are cited in support of the punishment for blasphemy", giving examples such as Abu Rafi' and Ka'b ibn Ashraf. A handful of hadith were used to qualify the specific circumstances when blasphemy was punishable, in particular those narrating Muhammad's approval (as it was usually interpreted) of a blind man who killed his umm walad (concubine who bore him children), declaring that "'''no retaliation is payable for her blood.'''"<ref>"''....So I took a dagger, put it on her belly and pressed it till I killed her. Thereupon the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Oh be witness, no retaliation is payable for her blood.....''" - {{Abu Dawud||4361|darussalam}}. Similarly, {{Al Nasai||5|37|4075}}</ref> and a man who killed a Jewish woman, in both cases for insulting Muhammad.<ref>Siraj Khan. "Blasphemy against the Prophet", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture (editors: Coeli Fitzpatrick and Adam Hani Walker). ISBN 978-1610691772 pp. 62-63</ref><ref>These two killings involve a repeated topos as mentioned in the section below on modern scholarship.</ref> It is common even in modern times for Islamic scholars to discuss the legitimacy of blasphemy laws by citing the killings of poets and others who had insulted Muhammad,<ref>For example Iffat khalid & Shamana Munawar, [https://jiscnet.com/journals/jisc/Vol_3_No_1_June_2015/7.pdf Blasphemy law of Islam-Misconceptions and Fallacy], Journal of Islamic Studies and Culture (2015), Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 48-57 DOI: 10.15640/jisc.v3n1a7</ref> though there are also those who urge a more critical view of the sources as well as raising issues of legal methodology.<ref>For example the al-Mawrid institute of reformist scholars in Pakistan [https://www.al-mawrid.org/Question/60a204a3923f0b12074d877f/punishment-of-blasphemy-based-on-a-hadith-narrative Punishment of blasphemy based on a hadith narrative] - al-mawrid.org, August 2020</ref> What is not in doubt, though, is that these narratives, taken together as the sirah, have traditionally formed the most authoritative biographical source available on the life of the prophet.

Umar bin Al-Khattab's placed the following restrictions on expression and speech:
{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&tid=20986 Paying Jizyah is a Sign of Kufr and Disgrace] - Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=The scholars of Hadith narrated from `Abdur-Rahman bin Ghanm Al-Ash`ari that he said, "I recorded for `Umar bin Al-Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, the terms of the treaty of peace he conducted with the Christians of Ash-Sham:
:''`In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. This is a document to the servant of Allah `Umar, the Leader of the faithful, from the Christians of such and such city. When you (Muslims) came to us we requested safety for ourselves, children, property and followers of our religion. We made a condition on ourselves that we will neither erect in our areas a monastery, church, or a sanctuary for a monk, nor restore any place of worship that needs restoration nor use any of them for the purpose of enmity against Muslims. We will not prevent any Muslim from resting in our churches whether they come by day or night, and we will open the doors [of our houses of worship] for the wayfarer and passerby. Those Muslims who come as guests, will enjoy boarding and food for three days. We will not allow a spy against Muslims into our churches and homes or hide deceit [or betrayal] against Muslims. We will not teach our children the Qur'an, publicize practices of Shirk, invite anyone to Shirk or prevent any of our fellows from embracing Islam, if they choose to do so. We will respect Muslims, move from the places we sit in if they choose to sit in them. We will not imitate their clothing, caps, turbans, sandals, hairstyles, speech, nicknames and title names, or ride on saddles, hang swords on the shoulders, collect weapons of any kind or carry these weapons. We will not encrypt our stamps in Arabic, or sell liquor. We will have the front of our hair cut, wear our customary clothes wherever we are, wear belts around our waist, refrain from erecting crosses on the outside of our churches and demonstrating them and our books in public in Muslim fairways and markets. We will not sound the bells in our churches, except discretely, or raise our voices while reciting our holy books inside our churches in the presence of Muslims, nor raise our voices [with prayer] at our funerals, or light torches in funeral processions in the fairways of Muslims, or their markets. We will not bury our dead next to Muslim dead, or buy servants who were captured by Muslims. We will be guides for Muslims and refrain from breaching their privacy in their homes.' ''
When I gave this document to `Umar, he added to it,
:'' 'We will not beat any Muslim. These are the conditions that we set against ourselves and followers of our religion in return for safety and protection. If we break any of these promises that we set for your benefit against ourselves, then our Dhimmah (promise of protection) is broken and you are allowed to do with us what you are allowed of people of defiance and rebellion.'"''}}

In the modern-world, harsh punishments for blasphemy (including death) are still applied in many Islamic nations including; Afghanistan, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. Accusations of blasphemy are becoming more and more frequent in the East, and almost always lead to mob-violence (sometimes by thousands of Muslims) against non-Muslim minorities. For example, this was seen in the August 2009 riots against Christians in Gojra, over an alleged desecration of a Qur'an. Many Christian men, women and even children were burnt alive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15943&size=A |title=Eight Christians burned alive in Punjab |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15943&size=A |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Asia News, August 2, 2009</ref> In addition to this, Bibles were burnt and more than a hundred churches and Christian-owned homes were looted and destroyed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15941&size=A |title=Muslims burn 75 Christian homes and 2 churches in Punjab |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15941&size=A |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Asia News, August 1, 2009</ref><ref>[http://jubileecampaign.wordpress.com/2009/08/05/50-more-homes-burned-in-gojra/ 50 More Homes Burned in Gojra] - Jubilee Campaign, August 5, 2009 </ref> While there are [[Islam and Freedom of Speech#Practical_Application_in_Islamic_Countries|numerous examples]] of individuals being sentenced by Islamic courts to death or imprisonment for blasphemy, they are rarely publicised by Western media outlets. There are, however, more well known examples like the Jyllands-Posten Danish cartoons and the [[Islam and Freedom of Speech#The_Muhammad_Cartoons_Controversy|resulting uproar]]. These cartoons, once again, sparked violence and murder against the minority Christians in the East.<ref>"[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=24&art_id=vn20060208033427794C349514 Murder of priest 'religious revenge']". Independent Online. 2006-02-08 </ref> By the end of February 2006 more than 40 people had died<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/25734739/JOURNALISM-FOR-INTEGRATION-THE-MUHAMMAD-CARTOONS |title=JOURNALISM FOR INTEGRATION - THE MUHAMMAD CARTOONS |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/25734739/JOURNALISM-FOR-INTEGRATION-THE-MUHAMMAD-CARTOONS |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Encyclopedia Britannica</ref> as a result of the angry reaction from Muslims, and its continued republication has resulted in more than 200 deaths and hundreds of injuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,547572,00.html |title=Yale Removes Cartoons of Prophet Muhammad From Forthcoming Book, Citing Fears of Violence |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,547572,00.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Fox News, September 08, 2009</ref> The November 2007 "[[Islam and Freedom of Speech#The_Muhammad_Teddy_Bear_Blasphemy_Case|Muhammad Teddy bear]]" blasphemy case likewise led to a protest in Khartoum, Sudan. A protest where ten thousand Muslims<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-498689/Teddy-teacher-Lawyer-expects-pardoned-visit-British-Muslim-peers.html |title=Teddy teacher: Lawyer expects her to be pardoned after visit from British Muslim peers |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-498689/Teddy-teacher-Lawyer-expects-pardoned-visit-British-Muslim-peers.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Mail Online, December 01, 2007</ref><ref name="teddy bear protest">{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/nov/30/uk.schoolsworldwide |title=Jailed teddy row teacher appeals for tolerance |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120801/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/nov/30/uk.schoolsworldwide |archivedate=2012-08-01 |accessdate=2012-08-01}} - Allegra Stratton - Guardian, November 30, 2007</ref> carrying swords, knives, and sticks, after Friday prayers, called for the execution<ref name="Calls in Sudan for Execution">{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/01/world/africa/01sudan.html |title=Calls in Sudan for Execution of British Teacher |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/01/world/africa/01sudan.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - The New York Times, November 30, 2007</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newser.com/story/12982/armed-mob-wants-british-teacher-dead.html |title=Armed Mob Wants British Teacher Dead |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.newser.com/story/12982/armed-mob-wants-british-teacher-dead.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Sam Gale Rosen - Newser, November 30, 2007</ref><ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20071130/ap_on_re_af/sudan_british_teacher Calls in Sudan for execution of Briton] - Mohamed Osman - Associated Press, November 30, 2007 </ref><ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20071130/wl_uk_afp/sudanbritainreligiondiplomacydemo Khartoum demo calls for teacher to be shot] - Charles Onians - Agence France Press, 30 November 2007 </ref> of a British teacher for allowing her students to name a teddy bear 'Muhammad.' And also the "[[Islam and Freedom of Speech#The_Satanic_Verses_Controversy|Satanic Verses]]" controversy, which led to thirty-eight deaths<ref>Dr. Koenraad Elst - {{cite web |url=http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/articles/misc/rushdie.html |title=Afterword: The Rushdie Affair's Legacy |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120710/http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/articles/misc/rushdie.html |archivedate=2012-07-10 |accessdate=2012-07-10}}</ref> and nationwide bombings of book-stores in the U.K.<ref>Pipes, (1990) p.169-171</ref> and U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/09/arts/riverdale-press-to-be-honored.html |title=Riverdale Press To Be Honored |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/09/arts/riverdale-press-to-be-honored.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - New York Times - Tuesday, May 9, 1989</ref>

====Sexual relations between unmarried consenting adults====
{{Main|Zina|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Stoning}}

==== Homosexual activity====
{{Main|Islam and Homosexuality}}

Practising homosexuality under Islamic law is a punishable crime. How it is dealt with differs between the four mainline schools of Sunni jurisprudence, but what they all agree upon is that homosexual acts are worthy of a severe penalty. In the Hanafi school of thought, the homosexual is first punished through harsh beating, and if they repeat the act, the death penalty is to be applied. As for the Shafi`i school of thought, the homosexual receives the same punishment as adultery (if they are married) or fornication (if not married). This means, that if the homosexual is married, they are stoned to death, while if single, they are whipped 100 times. Hence, the Shafi`i compares the punishment applied in the case of homosexuality with that of adultery and fornication, while the Hanafi differentiates between the two acts because in homosexuality, anal sex [something that is prohibited, regardless of orientation] may also be involved, while in adultery [and fornication], the penis/vagina (which are reproductive parts) are involved. Some scholars [based on the Qur'an and various ahadith] hold the opinion that the homosexual should be thrown from a high building or stoned to death<ref>”So when Our punishment came upon the people of Lut, We turned the city upside down and showered them with stones of baked clay, one after another.{{Quran|11|82}}</ref> as a punishment for their 'crime', but other scholars maintain that they should be imprisoned until death. <ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545556 IslamOnline.net - Death Fall as Punishment for Homosexuality] </ref> Another view is that between two males, the active partner is to be lashed a hundred times if he is unmarried, and killed if he is married; whereas the passive partner is to be killed regardless of his marital status.<ref>See the chapter on "hudud" in Sharaya and Sharh Lum'a also al-Khu'i, Takmilah, p. 42-44.</ref> Within the context of Islamic thought, hostility towards homosexuality originated from the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Muhammad had stated, ''“If you find anyone doing as Lot's people did, kill the one who does it, and the one to whom it is done.”''<ref>{{Abu Dawud||4462|darussalam}}</ref> He even went so far as to condemn the “appearance” of homosexuality, when he cursed effeminate men and masculine women and ordered his followers to ''"Turn them out of your houses."''<ref>{{Bukhari|||5886|darussalam}}</ref> This ruling on homosexuals was adopted by his successors. The father of Aisha and Muhammad’s first successor, Abu Bakr, had a homosexual burned at the stake. The fourth caliph, Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali, ordered homosexuals to be stoned, and even had one thrown from the minaret of a mosque.<ref>[http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=20145 Islam's Love-Hate Relationship with Homosexuality] - Serge Trifkovic - FrontPageMag, January 24, 2003 </ref>

Exact figures are hard to determine, due to the political turmoil in many of the Islamic states, but homosexual relationships, acts or behaviour are currently forbidden in approximately thirty-six Islamic countries including Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Indonesia, Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritania, Morocco, Sharia areas of Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tanzania, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, the United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan and Yemen, with punishments including anything from a fine up to life imprisonment.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_issues_and_Islam#Homosexuality_laws_in_Muslim_countries WikiPedia - Homosexuality laws in Muslim countries]</ref><ref name="IL">{{cite web |url=http://www.iranian.com/Letters/1999/September/gay.html |title=The Iranian Letters - The New Dark Ages |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.iranian.com/Letters/1999/September/gay.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> Ten of those countries out of the thirty-six impose the death penalty for homosexuals. They are Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi-Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, Yemen and some states in Malaysia.<ref> [http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/malaysia/mynews033.htm Malaysian State Legislature Passes Bill on Strict Islamic Criminal Code] </ref> According to the Iranian gay and lesbian rights group Homan, the Iranian government alone has put to death an estimated 4,000 homosexuals since the Islamic revolution of 1979.<ref name="IL" /> In the 'secular' nation of Turkey, persecution and violence against homosexuals [along with Persecution of Non-Muslims|non-Muslim minorities] is on the rise, with eleven gays being killed within the first half of 2009.<ref>[http://www.ansamed.info/en/news/ME03.@AM49457.html homosexuals in turkey: istanbul week for gay rights] </ref>

====Interfaith Marriage====
{{Main|Women in Islamic Law}}
The Quran forbids believers from marrying those who associate partners with Allah (mushrikun), though after the conquest of Mecca believing men were permitted to marry believing women or women from the People of the Book (Jews and Christians). There is no similar verse explicitly permitting the same for believing women, and they had been explicitly forbidden to marry disbelieving men (kuffar) in a verse about the treaty of Hudaybiyyah. These verses led scholars to conclude that Muslim women may only marry Muslim men. The relevant verses are {{Quran|2|221}}, {{Quran|60|10}}, and {{Quran|5|5}}. Another justification given by scholars was that a non-Muslim husband may compell his believing wife to compromise her faith or their children's faith. The prominent reformist scholar, Dr. Abou El Fadl, a professor of law at the University of California, Los Angeles, notes, “I am not aware of a single dissenting opinion on this, which is rather unusual for Islamic jurisprudence because Muslim jurists often disagreed on many issues, but this is not one of them". Today, there are some dissenting opinions among Islamic modernists, arguing that there is some ambiguity in the relevant verses and using arguments such as that women have greater legal protections in the modern world, though this is very much a minority view. Such marriages are considered void under Islamic law. Moreover, if in a married non-Muslim couple the wife but not the husband converts to Islam, the marriage in annulled. It is also annulled if the husband becomes Muslim but the wife is neither Christian nor Jew. If a Muslim husband abandons his faith, his marriage to his Muslim wife is similarly annulled, and perhaps vice versa.<ref>Alex B. Leeman [https://ilj.law.indiana.edu/articles/84/84_2_Leeman.pdf Interfaith Marriage in Islam: An Examination of the Legal
Theory Behind the Traditional and Reformist Positions] Islamic Law Journal, Vol. 85, pp. 756-759</ref>

As part of a wider move towards secularism, in 2017 Tunisia revoked sharia-based laws forbidding Muslim women from marrying non-Muslim men, though resistance to the change continued at a local level.<ref>[https://www.newarab.com/analysis/tunisian-women-stand-right-marry-non-muslims Tunisian women fight for right to marry non-Muslims] by Alessandra Bajec, The New Arab, 2017</ref>

====Intoxicants and Recreational Games====

Intoxicants such as [[alcohol]], marijuana, etc.<ref>"''....The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) replied: "Every intoxicant is khamr, and every khamr is haram."....“Khamr is what befogs the mind.” These are the words spoken by 'Umar ibn al-Khattab from the pulpit of the Prophet (PBUH),....Drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, opium, and the like are definitely included in the prohibited category of khamr. It is well known that the use of such drugs affects the sensory perceptions, making what is near seem distant and what is distant seem near; that their use produces illusions and hallucinations, so that the real seems to disappear and what is imaginary appears to be real; and that drug usage in general impairs the faculty of reasoning and decision-making....''" - [Alcohol and Intoxicants in Islam] - Muslim Bridges</ref> and recreational games of chance, such as board games<ref>"''....the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Whoever plays games of dice has disobeyed Allah and His Messenger."....''" - {{Muwatta|52|2|6|}}, See also {{Muwatta|52|2|7|}}</ref> (including chess),<ref name="chess">"''....Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: He who played chess is like one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine....''" - {{Muslim||2260|reference}}, See also {{Muwatta|52|2|7|}}</ref> card games and other forms of gambling are forbidden under Islamic law. Surprisingly, this was not always the case. There was not an outright ban on intoxicants (namely, alcohol) during the earliest phase of Muhammad's career. The Qur'an was allegedly revealed over a period of twenty-three years.<ref>Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers,</ref> As it stands, the Qur'an is arranged roughly from the longest surah (chapter) to the shortest. When read in a chronological order, there is a gradual shift in attitude towards intoxicants and such. Verses were 'revealed' as the situation in Muhammad's life demanded. In {{Quran-range|37|45|47}} wine is described as being an aspect of heaven, though non-intoxicating.<ref>"''...No bad effect is there in it, nor from it will they be intoxicated....''" - {{Quran-range|37|45|47}}</ref> A few later surahs give a mixed impression on alcohol. {{Quran|2|219}} tells us that there is some good and some bad in intoxicants and games of chance. On one occasion, followers were attending prayer at the mosque while intoxicated, so {{Quran|4|43}} was revealed warning against drunkeness before prayer. In {{Quran|13|4}}, vineyards are praised.<ref>"''....and gardens of vines and fields sown with corn, and palm trees.... Behold, verily in these things there are signs for those who understand!....''" - {{Quran|13|4}}</ref> The hadith record that Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib, in a drunken state, mutilated two camels, chopping of their humps and taking out their livers.<ref>"''....the humps of my two she-camels cut off and their flanks cut open and some portion of their livers was taken out. When I saw that state of my two she-camels, I could not help weeping. I asked, "Who has done this?" The people replied, "Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib....''" - {{Bukhari|||3091|darussalam}}</ref> When rebuked by Muhammad, he insulted him to his face, saying "Aren't you but the slaves of my father?"<ref>"''....Hamza looked at Allah's Apostle and then he raised his eyes, looking at his knees, then he raised up his eyes looking at his umbilicus, and again he raised up his eyes look in at his face. Hamza then said, "Aren't you but the slaves of my father?" Allah's Apostle realized that he was drunk, so Allah's Apostle retreated....''" - {{Bukhari|||3091|darussalam}}</ref> Muhammad then banned the consumption of intoxicants. Even going so far as to refer to alcohol and games of chance as "Satan's handwork" in {{Quran-range|5|90|91}}, one of the last surahs, chronologically. Commenting on chess, he said "He who played chess is like one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine."<ref name="chess"></ref> After this revelation, Muhammad ordered beatings<ref>"''....Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) gave a beating with palm branches and shoes [for drinking wine],....''" - {{Muslim||1706a|reference}}</ref> and flogging<ref>"''....Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him). He gave him forty stripes with two lashes.....''" - {{Muslim||1706a|reference}}</ref> for anyone who broke these laws. Repeat offenders were ordered by him to be put to death.<ref>"''....The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If he is intoxicated, flog him; again if he is intoxicated, flog him; again if he is intoxicated, flog him if he does it again a fourth time, kill him....''" - {{Abu Dawud||4484|darussalam}}</ref> Later, Umar (the second 'rightly guided' Caliph) would order eighty stripes as the mildest punishment.<ref>"''....Thereupon Abd al-Rahman b. Auf said: My opinion is that you fix it as the mildest punishment. Then 'Umar inflicted eighty stripes.....''" - {{Muslim||1706c|reference}}</ref>

In modern times, these laws still stand. There are out-right bans or severe restrictions put on the sale, purchase, and drinking of alcohol by adults in many Islamic majority countries, including: Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Malaysia,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/20/malaysian-model-seeks-public-flogging-drinking.html |title=Malaysian model seeks public flogging for drinking |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/20/malaysian-model-seeks-public-flogging-drinking.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - The Associated Press, August 20, 2009</ref> The Maldives, Morocco, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, and The United Arab Emirates.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prohibition&oldid=332586583 Prohibition]</ref> Punishments vary according to country, but many are consistent with the Sunnah of Muhammad. They range from weeks to months of imprisonment, public flogging, and (in the case of Iran) the death penalty. This prohibition, in many cases, does not exclude the non-Muslim. For example; in June 2009, Catholic chef Sapon D Costa was jailed in Dhaka, Bangladesh, for possession of alcohol.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15493&size=A |title=Catholic chef has a “really rough time in Dhaka’s central jail” |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15493&size=A |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Asia News, June 11, 2009</ref>

====Lack of hijab/un-Islamic dress====
{{Main|hijab}}
The Quran refers to the ''jilbab'' (overgarment or cloak) and the ''khimar'' (piece of cloth that covers the head), and the term hijab came to be applied to both, though today is often applied only to a head covering. The word hijab occurs in {{Quran|33|53}} as a screen or barrier shielding the gaze of vistors from Muhammad's wives at his home. The Sunni and Shi'a schools of jurisprudence agree that a Muslim woman's head must be covered, and her body except for her hands and face in the presence of non-Mahrams, with some disagreement of detail such as whether believing slave women are similarly to be covered. Men are required to cover from the navel to the knees. This is based on their interpretation of certain Quran verses, with details provided by hadiths. Some modern interpretations argue that hijab was only for Muhammad's wives and not applicable to Muslim women today, though verses which mention the jilbab ({{Quran|33|59}}) and khimar ({{Quran|24|31}}) mention the believing women in general.

Adherence is voluntary in western countries as there are no laws enforcing hijab (though community and family pressure, especially on adolescents living with their parents, often has a similar effect). However, in some Muslim majority countries (such as Iran) hijab in one form or another is legally enforced.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=2d2_1186358824|title=Iranian morals police arrest 230 in raid on 'satanist' rave|publisher=Live Leak|date=August 6, 2007 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=2d2_1186358824 |archivedate=2012-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weeklyblitz.net/568/women-detained-for-not-wearing-veil-in-bangladesh |title=Women detained for not wearing veil in Bangladesh |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.weeklyblitz.net/568/women-detained-for-not-wearing-veil-in-bangladesh |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Special Correspondent - Weekly Blitz, March 3, 2010</ref> In the late 2010s Saudi Arabia loosened some restrictions on the attire of women.

====Mingling of unrelated men and women====
{{Main|Sex Segregation in Islam}}

The traditional view of most Islamic scholars, past and present, prohibits free-mixing between men and women. Some modernists (similarly as with hijab) argue that the Quranic verse relating to segregation {{Quran|33|53}} applied only to Muhammad's wives and that hadiths which expand this to Muslims in general cannot be trusted as authentic. Gender segregation in Saudi Arabia is particularly well-publicised.

In 2010, a Saudi woman who filed harassment claims in Saudi Arabia without being accompanied by a male relative was sentenced to 300 lashes and 18 months in jail. Sawsan Salim lodged a series of complaints in 2007 at government offices and in court in the northern region of Qasim in which she alleged harassment by local officials, the New York-based rights group, Human Rights Watch, said. She was sentenced in January on charges of making “spurious complaints” against government officials and appearing “without a male guardian,” the group said in an e-mailed statement.<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-03-03/saudi-woman-gets-300-lashes-jail-for-complaints-group-says.html Saudi Woman Gets 300 Lashes, Jail for Complaints, Group Says] - Henry Meyer - BusinessWeek, March 3, 2010 </ref>

In the 21st century gradual reforms in Saudi Arabia have loosened segregation restrictions in certain settings such as workplaces and restaurants and somewhat reduced the role of guardians.

Also in 2010, Hamas banned men in Gaza from working in women's hair salons because Islamic tradition forbids women from showing their hair to men who are not their husbands or blood relatives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,588027,00.html |title=Hamas Bans Men From Women's Hair Salons |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,588027,00.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Associated Press - Fox News, March 4, 2010</ref>

====Pornography and Prostitution====
There is a general consensus that participating in and watching pornography is prohibited in Islam, violating Quranic injunctions regarding indecency and principles of human dignity. Prostitution is considered a form of zina (unlawful sexual activity) and {{Quran|24|33}} warns slave owners not to force their slave women into prostitution.

Somalia has lashed numerous men for watching pornography.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/9386 |title=Somali Men Get 40 Lashes For Watching Pornography |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.newstimeafrica.com/archives/9386 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Shafii Mohyaddin Abokar - Newstime Africa, December 1, 2009</ref>

==== Music and Art====
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Pictures and Images}}

[[File:Taller Buddha of Bamiyan before and after destruction.jpg|thumb|Bamiyan Buddhas before and after destruction]]
Though views vary widely today, [[music]], and some other forms of [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Pictures and Images|art]] (including tattooing),<ref>"''....The Prophet forbade the acceptance of the price of a dog or blood, and also forbade the profession of tattooing, getting tattooed....''" - {{Bukhari|||2086|darussalam}} See also {{Bukhari|||2238|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||5945|darussalam}}, and {{Bukhari|||5962|darussalam}}</ref> under Islamic law are forbidden. Western music<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/08/05/1996913.htm?section=entertainment|title=Iran arrests 230 in raid on illegal rock concert|publisher=ABC News (Australia)|date=4 August 2007 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120717/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/08/05/1996913.htm?section=entertainment |archivedate=2012-07-17}}</ref> and movies in particular, have been declared as corruptive influences by Islamic clerics. The vast majority<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themuslimwoman.com/beware/MusicisHaram.htm |title=Music is Haram |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.themuslimwoman.com/beware/MusicisHaram.htm |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - The Muslim Women</ref> of Islamic scholars and all four schools of Islamic jurisprudence<ref name="Music 2"></ref> are in agreement that listening to, or playing musical instruments, and singing is forbidden. They form this opinion from both the Qur'an and Hadith. The only exception to this rule which can be extracted from the hadith is the permissibility of singing acapella accompanied by a duff (a hand-held one-sided drum) on special occasions (i.e. on weddings, Eid, during jihad, etc.)<ref>"''....innocent singing, unaccompanied by musical instruments other than the daff(small hand drum) is permissible are specified in the Sunnah. These are: 1) Jihaad. During jihad and other struggles in the way of Allah, battle songs are of great moral and spiritual benefit to the fighters....''" - {{cite web |url=http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/music/ |title=Music - BEATING THE DUFF |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/music/ |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Islamic Articles</ref> This form of song is referred to as a '''Nasheed''' (نشيد), and the striking of the duff is permitted for women only<ref>"''....What is mustahabb (recommended) is to beat on the daff [simple hand drum] at weddings. This is mustahabb for women only, in order to announce the wedding and to distinguish it from fornication....As for men, it is not permissible for them to play any kind of musical instrument, whether at weddings or on any other occasion....''" - {{cite web |url=http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/music/ |title=Music - BEATING THE DUFF |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/music/ |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Islamic Articles</ref> and must not be done in the presence of men.<ref>"''....According to the Sunnah, females can sing and beat the duff on the two ‘Eids (specific Muslim celebrations) and to announce a Muslim wedding amongst themselves, and their voices shouldn’t be raised loud enough or near enough to be heard by the men.''" - {{cite web |url=http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/music/ |title=Music - BEATING THE DUFF |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://islamicarticles.wordpress.com/music/ |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Islamic Articles</ref> There are several verses within the Qur'an which have been understood by highly respected early scholars and historians of Islam to be condemning music and singing. For example; in verse 31:6, according to the Tafseer of Ibn Kathir, "idle talks" is a reference to "singing and musical instruments."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/5000/music |title=Ruling on music, singing and dancing - Fatwa No. 5000 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/5000/music |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Islam Q&A</ref> While the Qur'anic verses on music and its prohibition may appear vague, the hadith are a lot clearer in regards to this issue. Authentic sources record Muhammad as saying "From among my followers there will be some people who will consider illegal sexual intercourse, the wearing of silk, the drinking of alcoholic drinks and the use of musical instruments, as lawful..."<ref>[{{Bukhari|||5590|darussalam}}</ref> and upon hearing music, Abu Bakr proclaimed "Musical instrument of Satan!"<ref name="Music 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicawakening.com/viewarticle.php?articleID=312 |title=Music |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.islamicawakening.com/viewarticle.php?articleID=312 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Shariffa Carlo - Islam Awakening</ref> The mere fact that Muhammad condemned music in the same breath as other non-Islamic activities, such as illegal sexual intercourse and drinking alcohol, is extremely suggestive and the companions (including the four Caliphs) understood this to mean prohibition.<ref>"''....The companions unanimously agreed upon the prohibition of music and song but allowed particular exceptions specified by the authentic sunnah....Also, the four Khalifas, the fuqahaa among the saahabah such as Ibin Abaas, Ibin Umar, and Jaabir bin Abdullah as well as the general body of saahabah.''" - Al Qurtubi's Tafseer, vol 14, pp51-52, and Al-Aaloosi's Tafseer, Roohul Ma'aani, vol. 21, pp. 66-68)</ref> As Abu Bakr stated, unless performed under the various restrictions outlined in Muhammad's Sunnah, music is considered to be of the devil.

The Islamic prohibition on images is well known, hence the lack of imagery in Islamic religious art. This sentiment is also known as aniconism. Depictions of living things have in fact been documented at specific times and places in Islamic history. In general the strictest attitude to aniconism is found in modern Salafism, while the most relaxed attitude is found in Sufism and Shi'a Islam.

Multiple authentic sources record Muhammad's thoughts on images and representations of living beings, and in several he states passionately "The people who will receive the severest punishment from Allah will be the picture makers."<ref>"''....We were with Masruq at the house of Yasar bin Numair. Masruq saw pictures on his terrace and said, "I heard 'Abdullah saying that he heard the Prophet saying, "'The people who will receive the severest punishment from Allah will be the picture makers."....''" - {{Bukhari|||5950|darussalam}}</ref> In another he says "All the painters who make pictures would be in the fire of Hell. The soul will be breathed in every picture prepared by him and it shall punish him in the Hell."<ref>"''....I am going to narrate to you what I heard from Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him). I heard him say: All the painters who make pictures would be in the fire of Hell. The soul will be breathed in every picture prepared by him and it shall punish him in the Hell....''" - {{Muslim||2109c|reference}}</ref> Muhammad refused to enter any home which was decorated with images,<ref>"''....Fatimah said to Ali: Follow him [Muhammad] and see what turned him back. I (Ali) followed him and asked: What turned you back, Apostle of Allah? He replied: It is not fitting for me or for any Prophet to enter a house which is decorated....''" - {{Abu Dawud||3755|darussalam}}</ref> and claimed angels would do the same with any home which contained pictures or dogs.<ref>"''....I came to 'A'isha and said to her: This is a news that I have received that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) had said: Angels do not enter the house in which there is a picture or a dog,....''" - {{Muslim||2106f|reference}}</ref> He once refused to enter the home of one of his wives (Aisha) when he noticed the decorated cushion she had purchased for him to sit on.<ref>"''....Narrated 'Aisha (the wife of the Prophet): I bought a cushion having pictures on it. When Allah's Apostle saw it, he stopped at the gate and did not enter....''" - {{Bukhari|||5961|darussalam}}</ref> In Aisha's own words "I noticed the signs of hatred (for that) on his face!" She turned to Allah and Muhammad for repentance.<ref>"''....I noticed the signs of hatred (for that) on his face! I said, "O Allah's Apostle! I turn to Allah and His Apostle in repentance! What sin have I committed?" He said, "What about this cushion?"....''" - {{Bukhari|||5961|darussalam}}</ref> On another occasion, Muhammad angrily tore to pieces a carpet, hung by Aisha to screen a door.<ref>"''....I took a carpet and screened the door with it. When he (the Holy Prophet) came back he saw that carpet and I perceived signs of disapproval on his face. He pulled it until it was torn or it was cut (into pieces)....''" - {{Muslim||2106f|reference}}</ref> Muhammad reportedly destroyed the 360 pagan idols which were housed at the Ka'aba when he conquered Mecca.<ref>"''The Prophet (ﷺ) entered Mecca and (at that time) there were three hundred-and-sixty idols around the Ka`ba. He started stabbing the idols with a stick he had in his hand and reciting: "Truth (Islam) has come and Falsehood (disbelief) has vanished."''" - {{Bukhari|||2478|darussalam}}</ref>

During the Taliban rule of Afghanistan between 1996 and late 2001, all forms of music and television (i.e. moving pictures) were banned. TV sets, radios, etc. were confiscated and burnt, and anyone caught with cassettes in their possession was jailed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rawa.org/music.htm |title=The censorship of music in Afghanistan |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120630/http://www.rawa.org/music.htm |archivedate=2012-06-30 |accessdate=2012-06-30}} - RAWA, April 24, 2001</ref> In early 2001, they destroyed the historic 1,400 year old giant (175 and 120 feet tall) Buddha statues which were located in the Bamyan Valleys.<ref>[http://www.hazara.net/hazara/geography/Buddha/buddha.html A Profile On Bamyan Civilization] - Ishaq Mohammadi </ref> These demolitions were the most infamous among a widespread iconoclastic destruction of Afghan cultural heritage under the Taliban. Clerics from Egypt, whose own ancient religious heritage has only suffered minimal Christian and Muslim iconoclasm over the centuries, denounced the Taliban's actions.

===Permitting things which are forbidden in most secular countries today===

Islamic law permits:

====Domestic violence====
{{Main|Wife Beating in Islamic Law}}

While domestic violence against women is a serious problem all around the world, some of the most vulnerable are Muslim women. Authorities in some Muslim majority countries have been reluctant to acknowledge such issues as problems though efforts have also been made to reduce the problem. It is explicitly endorsed by the Qur'an itself. In a 2004 sermon broadcast on Qatar TV, a Muslim cleric had said the following:

{{Quote||"We must know that [wife] beating is a punishment in Islamic religious law,....No one should deny this because this was permitted by the Creator of Man, and because when you purchase an electric appliance or a car you get instructions – a catalogue, explaining how to use it. The Creator of Man has sent down this book [the Quran] in order to show man which ways he must choose....We shouldn't be ashamed before the nations of the world who are still in their days of ignorance, to admit that these [beatings] are part of our religious law,....We must remind the ignorant from among the Islamic Nation who followed the [West] that those [Westerners] acknowledge the wondrous nature of this verse,"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=40276 |title=Muslim cleric: Some wives need to be beaten |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=40276 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - WorldNetDaily, September 03, 2004</ref>}}

The verse being referred to is 4:34. According to this verse, a man may not only beat his wives in certain circumstances but also beat them simply for the ''fear'' of such.<ref>"''....and (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places and beat them....''" - {{Quran|4|34}}</ref> Whilst there are a few restrictions in regards to the practice of wife-beating (beating should be "without severity"<ref>"Fear Allaah regarding women for you have got them under Allah’s security and have the right to intercourse with them by Allaah’s word. It is a duty from you on them not to allow anyone whom you dislike to lie on your beds but if they do beat them, but not severely. You are responsible for providing them with food and clothing in a fitting manner." - {{Abu Dawud||1905|darussalam}}</ref>, should avoid the face,<ref>"''....you should give her food when you eat, clothe her when you clothe yourself, do not strike her '''on the face'''....''" - {{Abu Dawud||2142|darussalam}}</ref> breaking bones,<ref>"''....that you should not break her bones or leave a bruise....''" - al-Tabari, 5:68-69</ref> and husbands should not sleep with them after beating them),<ref>"''.... The Prophet said, "None of you should flog his wife as he flogs a slave and then have sexual intercourse with her in the last part of the day."''" - {{Bukhari|||5204|darussalam}}</ref> they hardly offer comfort to a woman who is abused with the blessings of her god. The mere fact that the husband is allowed to physically abuse his wives (very often with impunity from the law) inevitably leads many to go beyond simply 'beating' them.

Wife beating has been an accepted part of Islam since its inception. In Aisha's own words "I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"<ref>"...''so when Allah's Apostle came, 'Aisha said, "I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"...''" - {{Bukhari|||5825|darussalam}}</ref> The indifference to her words displayed by Muhammad proved its legitimacy within the laws of Islam. Muhammad reportedly declared, "A man should not be asked why he beats his wife"<ref>"It was narrated that Ash'ath bin Qais said: "I was a guest (at the home) of 'Umar one night, and in the middle of the night he went and hit his wife, and I separated them. When he went to bed he said to me: 'O Ash'ath, learn from me something that I heard from the Messenger of Allah" A man should not be asked why he beats his wife, and do not go to sleep until you have prayed the Witr."' And I forgot the third thing."" - {{Ibn Majah||3|9|1986}}</ref> Moreover, he not only allowed Abu Bakr to slap his own child-bride Aisha,<ref>"''....Abu Bakr (Allah be pleased with him) then got up went to 'A'isha (Allah be pleased with her) and slapped her on the neck, and 'Umar stood up before Hafsa and slapped her saying: You ask Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) which he does not possess....''" - {{Bukhari|||334|darussalam}}</ref> but he also struck her in the chest himself,<ref>"''...He said: Was it the darkness (of your shadow) that I saw in front of me? I said: Yes. He struck me on the chest which caused me pain, and then said: Did you think that Allah and His Apostle would deal unjustly with you?...''" - {{Muslim||974b|reference}} Note that the sunnah.com website have since [[Wife_Beating_in_Islamic_Law#Muhammad_struck_Aisha_and_the_tampering_of_English_hadith_translations|tampered with their copy of the hadith translation here in order to soft the language]].</ref> and according to Aisha it was not something 'symbolic' or a 'gentle tap' on the body; it was painful.

The effects can be easily seen in the Islamic world. A 2009 survey carried out by the ''United Nations Development Fund for Women'' found that nearly 90% of Afghan women suffer from domestic abuse.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/09/23/afghanistan.women.abuse/index.html |title=Afghan women hiding for their lives |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/09/23/afghanistan.women.abuse/index.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - CNN</ref> According to the director of ''Women for Afghan Women'' (WAW) "Their mothers are beaten by their fathers. They're beaten by their fathers, by their brothers. It's a way of life." The Pakistan Medical Association found in a 2006 study, that 80% of Pakistani women reported being subjected to some kind of abuse within marriage, and the Progressive Women's Association (PWA) believe up to 4,000 Pakistani women are burnt each year by husbands or in-laws as 'punishment'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stopvaw.org/PAKISTAN_Domestic_violence_endemic_but_awareness_slowly_rising.html |title=PAKISTAN: Domestic violence endemic, but awareness slowly rising |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.stopvaw.org/PAKISTAN_Domestic_violence_endemic_but_awareness_slowly_rising.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - The Advocates for Human Rights</ref> And also in 2006, the Refugee Workers Association Woman’s Group (GIK-DER) found that up to 80% of Turkish women were victims of domestic violence and sexual harassment in 'moderate' Turkey.<ref>http://www.toplumpostasi.net/index.php/cat/9/news/9633/PageName/English </ref>

====Gender disparity====
{{Main|Islam and Women}}

Gender equality in the modern sense is generally incompatible with Islamic scriptures and jurisprudence. Activists for change have often faced opposition. For example; in the Islamic Republic of Iran, some women's rights activists have criticised the laws governing women. They say women face difficulties in "getting a divorce and criticize inheritance laws they say are unjust and the fact their court testimony is worth half that of a man's", and they also "cannot run for president or become judges."<ref name="Islamic laws on women">"{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSDAH44354320070704 |title=Don't "play" with Islamic law, Iranian women told |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSDAH44354320070704 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}", ''Reuters'', Jul 4, 2007</ref> Many female activists have been flogged and given hash jail sentences, numbering several years, for protesting such laws.<ref name="Islamic laws on women"></ref> In mid 2007 Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, responded to these allegations of discrimination, with the following:

{{Quote||"We are witnessing in our country that some women activists and some men are trying to play with Islamic laws....in order to harmonize them with international conventions related to women,....This is wrong....They shouldn't see the solution in changing Islamic jurisprudence laws,"<ref name="Islamic laws on women"></ref>}}

He also indicated that "some Islamic rules regarding women could change if jurisprudence research led to a new understanding."<ref name="Islamic laws on women"></ref> As outlined earlier, Islamic jurisprudence can be revised, but as it is extracted from, and cannot contradict, Shari'a (which consists of Allah's divine laws found within the Qur'an and Hadith), the outcome cannot vary very much, and is effectively set in stone when the Qur'an and Hadith give explicit instruction on something (as is the case with wife-beating). What activists are indirectly trying to reform is not Iranian laws, but Islam itself, as each of these women's rights violations are sanctioned by Islamic scripture.

Many inheritance laws are taken straight from the Qur'an. For example, according to {{Quran|4|11}}, a male inherits twice that of a female. Its the same concerning the worth of a woman's testimony in court; we find this law in {{Quran|2|282}}. Muhammad himself had been recorded by authentic Islamic sources explaining the necessity for such gender disparity within Islamic law, calling women [[Women are Deficient in Intelligence|deficient in intelligence]]:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2658|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: The Prophet said, "Isn't the witness of a woman equal to half of that of a man?" The women said, "Yes." He said, "This is because of the deficiency of a woman's mind."}}

He further explains that women are not only deficient in intelligence, but also in religion,<ref>"''....Isn't it true that a woman can neither pray nor fast during her menses?" The women replied in the affirmative. He said, "This is the deficiency in her religion."....''" - {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}</ref> and that this has resulted in most of the dwellers of hell being women.<ref>"''....Then he passed by the women and said, "O women! Give alms, as I have seen that the majority of the dwellers of Hell-fire were you (women)." They asked, "Why is it so, O Allah's Apostle ?"....''" - {{Bukhari|||304|darussalam}}</ref> In June 2007, Saudi Cleric ''Abd Al-Aziz Al-Fawzan'', in an attempt to counter criticism aimed at these sayings of Muhammad, had said these ahadith highlight the 'fact' that women's "twisted nature" stems from their "very creation".<ref>[Islam: Women are "deficient in intelligence" (video)] - MEMRI</ref> These statements, by both Muhammad and Abd Al-Aziz Al-Fawzan, reflect the Islamic belief that Allah made Eve menstruate, suffer pregnancy and become stupid as a punishment for her transgressions in the garden, therefore all women menstruate (deficient in religion) and are created stupid (deficient in intelligence).<ref>"''His Lord called out to him: Adam, is it from Me that you are fleeing? Adam replied: No, my Lord, but I feel shame before You. When God asked what had caused his trouble, he replied: Eve, My Lord. Whereupon God said: Now it is My obligation to make her bleed once every month, as she made this tree bleed. I also must make her stupid, although I created her intelligent (halimah), and must make her suffer pregnancy. Ibn Zayd continued: Were it not for the affliction that affected Eve, the women of this world wound not menstruate, and they would be intelligent and, when pregnant, give birth easily.''" - Al-Tabari 1:280</ref> Those same authentic sources also record Muhammad condemning women in high social positions (i.e. presidents, judges, etc.), declaring "Never will succeed such a nation that makes a woman their ruler."<ref>"''....When the Prophet heard the news that the people of the Persia had made the daughter of Khosrau their Queen (ruler), he said, "Never will succeed such a nation as makes a woman their ruler."....''" - {{Bukhari|||7099|darussalam}}</ref>

====Polygamy====
{{Main|Polygamy in Islam}}

Under Islam, a husband has a right to take up to four wives (due to {{Quran|4|3}}) and has significant control over his wives. Under the Hanbali school alone, women may stipulate conditions in the marriage contract to grant greater freedom of movement or to have the marriage dissolved if her husband takes an additional wife.<ref>John L. Eposito, "Women in Muslim Family Law", Second edition, 2001, p. 22</ref> Such stipulations are unenforcable according to the Hanafi, Shafi'i, and Maliki schools on the basis that they cannot overide his Quranic rights.<ref>Kecia Ali, ''Marriage and Slavery in early Islam'', Harvard University Pross, 2010, p. 74 and ftn. 31 on p. 220</ref> All schools agree though that he may delegate to his wife his powerful, Quranic ''talaq'' (divorce) rights at any time. This is called ''talaq al-tafwid'', and can be conditional such as in the event that he takes another wife (the Shafi'i and Hanbali schools allow him to later revoke this delegation).<ref>Muhammad Ifzal Mehmood (2019) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338688656_A_Study_of_Talaq_Al-Tafwid_in_Islamic_Law_and_Contemporary_Legislations_Should_Malaysia_Follow_Suit A Study of Talaq Al-Tafwid in Islamic Law and Contemporary Legislations: Should Malaysia Follow Suit?]'', Bahria University</ref> In most cases such a stipulation or delegation will not have been agreed ahead of the marriage, though an increasing number of countries in the Muslim world have made reforms to family law to limit polygamy or provide other legal routes for the first wife to seek divorce. Otherwise the husband's rights are automatic.

====Child marriage====
{{Main|Child Marriage in Islamic Law}}

Today, most modern Muslim countries have introduced or raised the minimum age of marriage (though child marriages continue to occur there and in some non-Muslim countries). According to traditonal jurisprudence child marriage is permitted based on precedent set by Muhammad and his companions. This practice is also traditionally understood to be sanctioned by both the Qur'an and the Hadith (though Islamic modernists generally take a different view and are skeptical towards hadiths). In the Qur'an we find this in verse 65:4. This verse deals with the '''Iddat''' (العدة‎), which is a waiting period a female must observe before she can remarry. The stipulated waiting period for a divorced girl who has not yet menstruated is three months. The meaning of this verse has been clarified by numerous tafsirs (authoritative Qur'anic commentaries) and many sahih hadith. Muhammad himself has been recorded by authentic Islamic sources explaining the meaning of this verse as "those who never had menses, their prescribed period is three months before puberty."<ref>"''and those who never had menses, their prescribed period is three months before puberty, which indicates that giving her into marriage before puberty is permissible.''" - {{cite web |url=http://hadith.al-islam.com/display/Display.asp?Doc=0&Rec=7644 |title=Hadith in Arabic from Al-Islam.com |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://hadith.al-islam.com/display/Display.asp?Doc=0&Rec=7644 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> While some (but definitely not all) Western Muslims have rejected this sanction of child marriage within their holy text, this view generally holds limited sway; it is the Islamic texts themselves which hold the power, and Islamic scholars in the modern era still widely agree that contracting in marriage pre-pubescent girls and consummating such marriages when the girl is deemed physically ready is permitted. For example; the influential Muslim scholar and thinker ''Syed Abul A'ala Maududi'' (1903 - 1979) commented on verse 65:4 and those who attempt to deny scripture:

{{quote |1=[http://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=65 Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi: Tafhim al Quran. Commentary on Quran Chapter 65:4]|2=....making mention of the waiting-period for the girls who have not yet menstruated, clearly proves that it is not only permissible to give away the girl in marriage at this age but it is also permissible for the husband to consummate marriage with her. '''Now, obviously no Muslim has the right to forbid a thing which the Quran has held as permissible'''.}}

As has already been mentioned, Muhammad committed child marriage, and even according to the most stringent clinical definition of child marriage- the DSM-IV-TR, he was a pedophile. His actions fulfilled all three requirements needed for a positive diagnosis; he had sexual urges/relations towards/with a pre-pubescent child (generally age 13 years or younger) over a period of at least six months, he acted on those sexual urges, and he was over 16 years old and at least 5 years older than the child involved. Muhammad was engaged to ''Aisha bint Abu Bakr'' when she was only six years of age and he was fifty-one, and consummated the relationship while she was still pre-pubescent, aged just 9 years old<ref>"''....the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old...." - {{Bukhari|||5133|darussalam}}''</ref> Some have suggested that it was the 'cultural norm' and Aisha was 'offered' in marriage by her father. However, It was Muhammad who approached Abu Bakr, and Abu Bakr originally protested.<ref>"''....The Prophet asked Abu Bakr for 'Aisha's hand in marriage. Abu Bakr said "But I am your brother."....''" - {{Bukhari|||5081|darussalam}}</ref> However, even if she was offered to Muhammad, this does not alter the fact that as the 'uswa hasana' his actions are forever considered lawful and morally acceptable in Islam. Muhammad even justified his attraction to Aisha with a 'divine' vision from Allah.<ref>"''....You were shown to me twice (in my dream) before I married you. I saw an angel carrying you in a silken piece of cloth, and I said to him, 'Uncover (her),' and behold, it was you. I said (to myself), 'If this is from Allah, then it must happen.....''" - {{Bukhari|||7012|darussalam}}</ref>

The many historical endorsements of child marriage within the Islamic traditon has been known to hinder reformist efforts to prevent this common practice in some Islamic countries, particularly when Islamic scholars enter the debate:

{{Quote|1=[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7711554.stm Sheikh Hamoud Hashim al-Tharihi, general secretary of the Vice and Virtue Committee and member of the Islah Party in Yemen]|2=Because this happened to the Prophet, we cannot tell people that it is prohibited to marry at an early age.}}

In the East, girls far below the age of puberty are forcibly married to older persons (sometimes in their 50s and later) for various personal gains by the girls' guardian. Pedophilic Islamic marriages are most prevalent in Pakistan and Afghanistan, followed by other countries in the Middle East and Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americamagazine.org/content/article.cfm?article_id=1631 |title=America Magazine: Child Marriage in Afghanistan and Pakistan, by Andrew Bushell; March 11, 2002 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.americamagazine.org/content/article.cfm?article_id=1631 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americansforunfpa.org/NetCommunity/Page.aspx?pid=630 |title=Americans For UNFPA: Virtual Slavery: The Practice of “Compensation Marriages” by Net Community of AfUNFPA; last retrieved Monday, 08 December 2008 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.americansforunfpa.org/NetCommunity/Page.aspx?pid=630 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> This practice may also be prevalent to a lesser extent amongst other Muslim communities, and occurs on a much smaller scale among some Muslim communities in Western countries, such as the United Kingdom (where, according to 2009 government figures in the UK, forced teen marriages have seen a ten-fold rise in just four years)<ref name="Ten-fold rise in forced marriages in just four years">{{cite web |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1196955/Ten-fold-rise-forced-marriages-just-years.html |title=Ten-fold rise in forced marriages in just four years |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1196955/Ten-fold-rise-forced-marriages-just-years.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - The Daily Mail July 2, 2009</ref> and the United States.<ref>Christine Vendel - [http://www.kansascity.com/105/story/1557578.html?pageNum=2&mi_pluck_action=page_nav#Comments_Container Man charged with statutory rape in ‘marriage’ to 14-year-old girl] - The Kansas City Star, November 8, 2009 </ref>

====Religious discrimination====
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Dhimmitude}}

==== Slavery and concubinage====
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Slavery|Rape in Islamic Law}}

In the Quran, hadiths and under Islamic laws, slavery is explicitly endorsed.<ref>"''....I married a virgin woman in her veil. When I entered upon her, I found her pregnant. (I mentioned this to the Prophet). The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: She will get the dower, for you made her vagina lawful for you. The child will be your slave....''" - {{Abu Dawud||2131|darussalam}}</ref> Islamic scholars today generally hold that slavery is not permitted in the modern context, although not all agree. Saudi Sheikh ''Saleh Al-Fawzan'', a member of the Senior Council of Clerics had said in 2003, those who argue that slavery is abolished are "ignorant, not scholars. They are merely writers. Whoever says such things is an infidel."<ref>Shaikh Salih al-Fawzan's "affirmation of slavery" was found on page 24 of "Taming a Neo-Qutubite Fanatic Part 1" when accessed on February 17, 2007 http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/GRV07000</ref> Muhammad himself was a slaver. Muhammad owned many male<ref>{{cite web |url=http://answering-islam.org./BehindVeil/btv5.html |title=Slavery in Islam: Chapter 5 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://answering-islam.org./BehindVeil/btv5.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Answering Islam</ref><ref>"Zad al-Ma'ad" by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya Part 1, Pages 114-116</ref> and female<ref>"Zad al-Ma'ad" by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya Part 1, Pages 114-116</ref> slaves, and also sold, captured, and had raped<ref>"''....Waqidi has informed us that Abu Bakr has narrated that the messenger of Allah (PBUH) had sexual intercourse with Mariyyah [his Coptic slave] in the house of Hafsah....''" - Tabaqat v. 8 p. 223 Publisher Entesharat-e Farhang va Andisheh Tehran 1382 solar h ( 2003) Translator Dr. Mohammad Mahdavi Damghan</ref> his slaves. His wives owned slaves as well. Muhammad generally had no animosity towards slavery,<ref>"''....Allah's Apostle sent someone to a woman telling her to "Order her slave, carpenter, to prepare a wooden pulpit for him to sit on."....''" - {{Bukhari|||448|darussalam}}</ref> and at times even discouraged the freeing of slaves.<ref>"''...."Do you know, O Allah's Apostle, that I [Maimuna bint Al-Harith] have manumitted my slave-girl?" He said, "Have you really?" She replied in the affirmative. He said, "You would have got more reward if you had given her (i.e. the slave-girl) to one of your maternal uncles.''" - {{Bukhari|||2592|darussalam}}</ref> He once exchanged two black slaves for one Arab.<ref>"''....Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: Sell him to me. And he bought him for two black slaves,....''" - {{Muslim||1602|reference}}</ref> Whatever else may be the case, Muhammad's actions played a clear role in perpetuating slavery in the Middle East and North Africa by institutionalizing it within Islam, ultimately creating one of the largest trans-continental slave trades in history. The Eastern Islamic slave trade is the longest yet least discussed of the two major trades. Many people, unfortunately are unaware that the Arab slave trade ever existed, even though it began around 650 AD (pre-dating the European slave trade by over a thousand years and, according to most estimates, involved millions more living slaves than the shorter-lived Trans-Atlantic trade - and the death count was astronomically higher as described below). It was only officially abolished (largely due to pressure from the West,<ref>Brunschvig. [http://www.brill.nl/m_catalogue_sub6_id7560.htm 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam] </ref> ) in the 1960's. However, the slave trade still exists in the Islamic East. As of July 2009,<ref>Nick Meo - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/ghana/5805113/Half-a-million-African-slaves-are-at-the-heart-of-Mauritanias-presidential-election.html|2=2011-04-05}} Half a million African slaves are at the heart of Mauritania's presidential election] - Telegraph, July 12, 2009</ref> there were over half a million slaves in Mauritania alone. In Pakistan, the labor minister of Punjab had said in early 2009 that there are "millions of forced laborers in 'private prisons' across the country",<ref>E. Benjamin Skinner - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1932723,00.html|2=2011-04-08}} Pakistan's Forgotten Plight: Modern-Day Slavery] - TIME, October 27, 2009</ref> and the town of Hajja, Yemen, in 2010 is home to another 300 slaves.<ref>Jamal al-Jaberi - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hqh_clC3ngbax_X84fY4c7uGQihw|2=2011-04-05}} 'Slaves' in impoverished Yemen still dream of freedom] - AFP, July 20, 2010</ref> Unlike the Europeans who were primarily interested in male slaves for use as agricultural workers, the Islamic slave marker preferred female slaves to use for sexual exploitation as concubines. Similarly unique to the Islamic slave trade were the large number of male slaves who were castrized and sold as eunuchs. Furthermore, putting aside the 1.25 million white European Christians who were captured and sold into the Muslim slave trade between the 16th and 19th century,<ref>Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean; the Barbary Coast and Italy 1500 - 1800, by Robert Davis, Palgrave MacMillan, 2004</ref> the number of innocent Africans who were taken (or died in the process of being taken) as slaves over the last fourteen centuries of Islamic slavery is estimated to be higher than 140 million.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.christianaction.org.za/articles_ca/2004-4-TheScourgeofSlavery.htm|2=2011-03-20}} The Scourge of Slavery] - Christian Action, 2004 Vol 4</ref> This figure dwarfs the numbers that were taken at the hands of Europeans. And unlike in the West, male slaves (blacks in particular) were commonly castrated,<ref>Islam's Black Slaves, by Ronald Segal, Farrar, New York, 2001</ref> hence the lack of surviving descendants of black slaves in the Middle-East.

====Jihad====

:''Main Article: [[Jihad]] See also: [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jihad]]''

===Rituals===

====Islamic Fasting====

:''Main Articles: [[Adverse Effects of Islamic Fasting]] and [[The Ramadan Pole Paradox]]''

Fasting (صوم ''Sawm'') for thirty days every year during the Islamic month of Ramadan is the fourth Pillar of Islam, therefore it is compulsory (الفرض ''Fard''). Fasting lasts from dawn till dusk, and Muslims must abstain from all foods, drinks, sexual intercourse,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haqislam.org/fasting-in-quran/ |title=Fasting and Tafsir of Ma’ariful Qur’an |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120904/http://www.haqislam.org/fasting-in-quran/ |archivedate=2012-09-04 |accessdate=2012-09-04}} - Haq Islam</ref> and even smoking. Islamic fasting (unlike medical fasting) has numerous adverse effects that have been observed using scientific studies. These include; an increase in irritability<ref>Psychosomatic Medicine 2000 Mar-Apr 62:2 280-5 ([http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/reprint/62/2/280.pdf pdf])</ref><ref name="arabnews">{{cite web |url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=101889&d=30&m=9&y=2007 |title=Productivity and Self-Discipline in Ramadan |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=101889&d=30&m=9&y=2007 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> and crimes,<ref>[http://www.thedailynewsegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=3746 Ramadan saw rise in violent domestic crimes] - Daily News, Egypt </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/4-gold-shop-robbers-killed-2-caught-during-police-raids-across-the-city/326794 |title=4 Gold Shop Robbers Killed, 2 Caught During Police Raids Across the City |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/4-gold-shop-robbers-killed-2-caught-during-police-raids-across-the-city/326794 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indonesiamatters.com/762/ramadan-crime/ |title=Ramadan Crime |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.indonesiamatters.com/762/ramadan-crime/ |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> effects on health, such as the increased risk of diabetes,<ref>[http://www.ansamed.info/en/news/ME02.@AM60065.html Ramadan: Productivity of Arab Businesses Drops by 78%] </ref> dehydration,<ref>El-Hazmi, Al-Faleh, & Al-Mofleh, 1987; Kayikcioglu et al., 1999; Ramadan et al., 1999; Schmahl & Metzler, 1991; Sweileh et al., 1992</ref> tachycardia,<ref name="polish" /> severe headaches,<ref name="polish" /> dizziness,<ref name="polish" /> nausea,<ref name="polish" /> vomiting<ref name="polish" /> and circulatory collapse.<ref name="polish">Polish Journal of Occupational Medince 1991 4:3 219-28</ref> It can also cause problems with sleep,<ref>Ahmed BAHAMMAM/Sleep Disorders Center, Respiratory Unit, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia</ref> daytime drowsiness<ref>Therapie 54:567-72</ref> and alertness.<ref>Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2000 44:101-7</ref> All of these factors affect the economy in Muslim majority countries during Ramadan. For example, the productivity of Arab businesses in this period drops by a staggering seventy-eight percent.<ref>"''....Survey carried out by Cairòs Institute of Social Sciences of the Arab World which was printed by 'Leaders', a Tunisian website....''" - (ANSAmed)</ref> Also, as the length of a fast is governed by the rising and the setting of the sun, this can cause a huge problem for those who live close to the North or South poles, since the closer one gets to the poles, the longer our days or nights become. They can eventually extend for up to several months each, making the fourth Pillar of Islam impossible to practice in its purest form without starving to death; this is likely due to Muhammad's ignorance of the global poles. Still, many Islamic scholars have said that even if a fast lasts for up to twenty hours a day, this is something a Muslim must accept.<ref>"''Indeed, the fasts may be twenty hours long, but this is something one will have to adhere to.''" [http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=1&ID=1947&CATE=6Fasting in extreme latitudes] - Sunnipath.com Q&A </ref> Persecution of non-Muslims also rises during the month of Ramadan, with people of other faiths often being attacked in Muslim majority countries for eating or drinking in public. On August 2009, In Pakistan, two Christians were arrested and jailed for "desecrating Ramadan" by eating during daylight hours inside a hotel.<ref>[http://www.persecution.org/suffering/newssummpopup.php?newscode=10769&PHPSESSID=2e29113718bec785f2919ac3592116dc Christians Arrested for Eating During Muslim Holiday] - ICC </ref>

====The Hajj====
{{Main|Hajj}}

The Hajj (حج) is another obligatory duty, being the fifth Pillar of Islam. It is a Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, which, like the Ka'aba, the black stone, and many other aspects of Islam, has [[Pre-Islamic Arab Religion in Islam|pre-Islamic origins]]. The pilgrimage takes place in the 12th month of the Islamic calendar, from the 7th to the 13th day of Dhu al-Hijjah.

Performing the Hajj is a physically exerting exercise, and many of the weaker pilgrims have died from it. Furthermore, Since 1987, officially there has been at least 3,315 deaths and another 1,500 injuries resulting from various accidents during the pilgrimage. These figures are extremely conservative, considering (for example) the 1994 stampede in Mecca. Officially only 250 people had died as a result of the stampede, and according to ''The Saudi Press Agency'' a total of 829 pilgrims had died during the pilgrimage for a variety of reasons, which included "old age, heart attacks" and "deaths that resulted because of the heavy throngs throwing pebbles on Monday." However witnesses, doctors and a senior Asian diplomat had said the death toll for the individual stampedes alone could have been over 1,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/25/world/at-least-250-muslims-die-in-mecca-stampede.html |title=At Least 250 Muslims Die in Mecca Stampede |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/25/world/at-least-250-muslims-die-in-mecca-stampede.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - NY Times, May 25, 1994</ref> Efforts have been made to improve safety.

==Punishments Under Islamic Law==

Punishments under sharia for what it deems as crimes fall under three general categories: ''Hudud'' punishments (''hadd'' singular) are prescribed by the Quran (or in the case of stoning, allegedly was at one time prescribed therein), so they constitute a fundamental part of the Islamic faith though have a high evidence threshold for enforcement. The subsections below detail various types of hadd punishments. Also with a basis in Islamic scriptures are Qisas, or eye-for-an-eye retaliatory punishments, typically for bodily harm and homicide though can be resolved through payment of diya (blood money/compensation). Finally, tazir is a general category of discretionary laws where traditional Islamic legal sources are insufficient.

{{Quote|[https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/understanding-sharia-intersection-islam-and-law Understanding Sharia: The Intersection of Islam and the Law] Kali Robinson, Council on Foreign Relations, 2021|Today, most Muslim-majority countries don’t administer physical punishments, though about a dozen of them have the authority to do so under state laws. Local and international backlash often dissuades authorities from following through with such sentences. However, Indonesia, Iran, the Maldives, and Qatar are among the countries where flogging is still conducted; and Iran, Mauritania [PDF], Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan have in recent decades punished convicted thieves with amputations. Additionally, the Taliban implemented public executions and amputations when they ruled Afghanistan in the 1990s and have said these punishments will return under their new government.}}

===Flogging===
{{Main|Zina}}

{{Quran|24|2}} prescribes the punishment of 100 lashes for men and women guilty of [[zina]] (illicit intercourse), or in {{Quran|4|25}}, half that number for married women who were formerly owned as slaves. In traditional Islamic law, if either party who commits zina is married, that person (male or female) instead receives a much harsher punishment - being stoned to death, though this is based on a controversial hadith as discussed below. As at 2021, Indonesia, Iran, the Maldives, and Qatar were among the countries where flogging was still conducted.<ref>Kali Robinson, 2021, [https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/understanding-sharia-intersection-islam-and-law Understanding Sharia: The Intersection of Islam and the Law] - Council on Foreign Relations website</ref>

In order to carry out the hadd punishment for zina (lashings or stoning to death) there must be either four reliable muslim male witnesses to the alleged offence or a confession. Pregnancy of an unmarried woman is also considered proof of zina unless she says she was raped, in which case she is spared punishment (though for the Maliki school of jurisprudence further evidence to prove coercion is required from her physical state or a witness who heard her cry for help).<ref>Position paper by Karamah (Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights) [https://karamah.org/zina-rape-and-islamic-law-an-islamic-legal-analysis-of-the-rape-laws-in-pakistan/ Zina, Rape, and Islamic Law: An Islamic Legal Analysis of the Rape Laws in Pakistan](2011)</ref><ref>See the 2nd of the two hadiths here regarding Imam Malik's view: {{Muwatta|41||16}}</ref>

===Amputation===
{{Main|Amputation}}

Amputation, is the removal of part or all of a body part enclosed by skin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=12537 |title=Definition of Amputation |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=12537 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Medicine Net</ref> It is a prescribed punishment in the Qur'an, and within the context of Islamic law, it refers to the removal of the hands or feet. Today, amputation is used as punishment for theft in Saudi Arabia<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=0&section=1&article=27038&d=5&m=6&y=2003 |title=Kingdom’s Leading Executioner Says: ‘I Lead a Normal Life’ - Mahmoud Ahmad, Arab News - June 5, 2003 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.arabnews.com/?page=0&section=1&article=27038&d=5&m=6&y=2003 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> and Nigeria, which reintroduced shariah law in 1999<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mg.co.za/article/2005-09-19-nigerian-islamic-court-orders-amputation |title=Nigerian Islamic court orders amputation - Mail & Guardian Online - September 19, 2005 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.mg.co.za/article/2005-09-19-nigerian-islamic-court-orders-amputation |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref>, and in Somalia, a court run by an extremist Islamic group sentenced four Somali men in June of 2009 to each have a hand and a leg cut off for allegedly stealing mobile phones and guns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,528139,00.html |title=Islamic Extremists Sentence 4 Somalis to Amputations - Associated Press, FoxNews.com - June 22, 2009 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,528139,00.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.javno.com/en-world/somali-islamists-amputate-teenagers-hands-legs_267541 |title=Somali Islamists Amputate Teenagers` Hands, Legs - JAVNO, June 25, 2009 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.javno.com/en-world/somali-islamists-amputate-teenagers-hands-legs_267541 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> In 2008, the Islamic Republic of Iran saw five double amputations in a single week--five convicted robbers were each sentenced to have their right hands and left feet amputated.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/11/world/middleeast/11iran.html |title=Spate of Executions and Amputations in Iran - Nazila Fathi, The New York Times - January 11, 2008 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120909/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/11/world/middleeast/11iran.html |archivedate=2012-09-09 |accessdate=2012-09-09}}</ref> When the Taliban, an Islamic militant group, took over Afghanistan in 1996, within a year, public executions, amputations and stonings were a regular Friday event in Kabul.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1600136.stm |title=Flashback: When the Taleban took Kabul - Terence White, former AFP correspondent in Kabul - BBC News - October 15, 2001 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120713/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1600136.stm |archivedate=2012-07-13 |accessdate=2012-07-13}}</ref>

===Stoning===
{{Main|Stoning}}

Stoning to death (رجم ''Rajm'') is a punishment found in hadiths but not the Quran. According to traditional interpretations of Islamic law, it is a punishment for married persons who engage in unlawful sexual relations (which include homosexual relationships). The criminals "hands are tied behind their backs and their bodies are put in a cloth sack." They are then "buried in a hole, with only the victims heads showing above the ground. If its a woman, she is buried upto her shoulders."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.apostatesofislam.com/media/stoning.htm |title=What happens in Stoning? |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.apostatesofislam.com/media/stoning.htm |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - apostatesofislam.com</ref> The stones which are to be thrown at the criminal "should not be so large that the offender dies after a few strikes, nor so small as to fail to cause serious injury."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iheu.org/node/262 |title=Should Sharia laws be reconsidered? |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.iheu.org/node/262 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - Sandhya Jain - International Humanist and Ethical Union, March 9, 2004</ref> Due to the Islamic laws on rape requiring four male eye witnesses before guilt can be ascertained, many rape victims end up being charged with 'adultery.' As was the case for a 13-year-old girl in Somalia<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7708169.stm |title=Stoning victim 'begged for mercy' |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120712/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7708169.stm |archivedate=2012-07-12 |accessdate=2012-07-12}} - BBC News, November 4, 2008</ref> who in October of 2008 was buried up to her neck and stoned to death in front of more than 1,000 people in a football stadium. She was the victim of gang-rape. Incidents of stonings have been reported in Iraq and Pakistan, and forms a part of Afghan, Iranian, Nigerian, Indonesian, Sudanise, Saudi Arabian, and United Arab Emirate law.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stop-stoning.org/faq_stoning |title=Stoning - Frequently Asked Questions about Stoning |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.stop-stoning.org/faq_stoning |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}} - stop-stoning.org</ref> The Qur'an itself does not explicitly mention the act, but there are several Sahih (authentic) Hadith which speak of Muhammad ordering people to be stoned to death. According to hadith, the Qur'anic verses of stoning were written on a piece of paper and were lost when a goat ate the paper.<ref>References: Musnad Ahmad bin Hanbal. vol. 6. page 269; Sunan Ibn Majah, page 626; Ibn Qutbah, Tawil Mukhtalafi 'l-Hadith (Cairo: Maktaba al-Kulliyat al-Azhariyya. 1966) page 310; As-Suyuti, ad-Durru 'l-Manthur, vol. 2. page 13</ref>

===Crucifixion===
{{Main|Crucifixion}}

Crucifixion (صلبه ''Salb'') typically refers to the method of execution and/or torture by tying and/or nailing someone to a cross, stake or tree. It can also refer to the method of public display of a body after execution, such as the incident in Saudi Arabia when a convicted killer was beheaded and his body was "crucified".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/05/30/saudi.arabia.execution/index.html |title=Convicted killer beheaded, put on display in Saudi Arabia - CNN - May 30, 2009 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/05/30/saudi.arabia.execution/index.html |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> Whereas Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire in AD 337, out of veneration for [[Isa|Jesus Christ]], the most famous victim of crucifixion,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/144583/crucifixion |title="crucifixion" - Encyclopædia Britannica Online - 2009 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120729/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/144583/crucifixion |archivedate=2012-07-29 |accessdate=2012-07-29}}</ref> Muhammad perpetuated the practice by declaring it a prescribed punishment in the Qur'an ({{Quran|5|33}}). Crucifixion as a method of torture and execution has reportedly been used in Sudan and Iraq<ref>[http://www.assistnews.net/STORIES/2004/s04110038.htm Sudanese slave 'crucified' by his master not unusual in central African nation - Michael Ireland (Chief Correspondent, ASSIST News Service) - November 9, 2004] [http://www.catholicherald.co.uk/articles/a0000648.shtml 7 Christians mutilated & Crucified During a Series of Raids on Villages - Simon Caldwell (The Catholic Herald) - 25 September 2009] </ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56726 |title=Christians in Iraq, including converts from Islam and people involved in mixed-faith marriages, are being crucified by Muslim terrorists, according to a Dutch member of Parliament studying the war-torn country (WorldNetDaily.com) July 17, 2007 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56726 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> and it is still a part of Iran's criminal code.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1108208 |title="Case Study in Iranian Criminal System" - Ehsan Zar Rokh, University of Tehran - 2008 |archiveurl=http://archive.is/20120915/http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1108208 |archivedate=2012-09-15 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> Hamas, the Islamic governing body of Gaza, reinstated the penalty of crucifixion in 2008.<ref>[http://www.newsmax.com/newsfront/Hamas_bombs_Gaza_Israel/2009/01/09/169756.html Hamas Reinstates Crucifixions of Christians - Nicole Jansezian - January 9, 2009] </ref>

==External Links==

*[http://www.onelawforall.org.uk/ One law for all - Campaign group against theocratic laws and promoting secularism]

==References==
{{Reflist|3|refs=}}

[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Fiqh (legal theory)]]
[[Category:Ritual]]
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Salah (prayer)]]
[[Category:Salaf al-Salih (Pious Predecessors)]]

Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Non-Muslims

2026-03-20T22:21:10Z

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The disbelievers, their sins, and their fate in the afterlife is one of the Qur'an's most strikingly prominent themes. On almost every page, the reader of the Qur'an is confronted with the "doom" (بئس المصير) and "painful torment" (عذاب أليم) that awaits the disbelievers in the afterlife, in their eternal abode, "the fire" (النار). The Qur'an warns the believers not to take certain disbelievers as [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Friendship_with_Non-Muslims‎|close allies]], and prohibits the marriage of believers to disbelievers (though this verse is traditionally considered partially abrogated by another permitting believing men to marry Christian and Jewish women). While the Quran sometimes reflects positive relations with some among the People of the Book and disbelievers who had not oppossed Muhammad, it urges the believers to [[Jihad in Islamic Law|fight]] those who oppress them until they cease. One of the last surahs states that [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:People of the Book|People of the Book]] be fought until they pay the [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jizyah|protection tax]] and "feel themselves subdued" (Qur'an 9:29). [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jihad|Jihad]] against the disbelievers [[Jihad in Islamic Law|was interpreted]] by scholars in a developing imperial context to support offensive warfare. Of the many negative verses about disbelievers, some in context refer to specific groups such as those who broke treaties (who must convert, seek asylum, or die) or those who have oppressed the believers, particularly in the Medinan surahs. Muhammad's message had been mocked and rejected by the majority of the Meccans, where he and his followers were persecuted and driven out. Other verses are blanket statements about those who disbelieve.

The [[hadith]] and the [[sira]] underline this hostility by portraying many instances of the prophet and his companions killing and torturing disbelievers, and constantly warring against the unbelief of the pagan Meccans and their Jewish allies, which to some extent may reflect the slightly later period of early conquests. This is exalted as the good and righteous policy of a believing Muslim state. According to the sunnah, the best the disbelievers can hope for under a Muslim government is the second-class citizenship of [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Dhimmitude|dhimmitude]].

==Quran==

===Apostates===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Apostasy}}

====Allah will punish those who disbelieve after their belief with an awful doom====

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|106}}|Whoso disbelieveth in Allah after his belief - save him who is forced thereto and whose heart is still content with the Faith - but whoso findeth ease in disbelief: On them is wrath from Allah. Theirs will be an awful doom.}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|88|21|end=24|style=ref}}|Therefore do remind, for you are only a reminder. You are not a watcher over them; But whoever turns back and disbelieves, Allah will chastise him with the greatest chastisement.}}

====Allah will afflict the hypocrites with a painful doom in this world and the Hereafter====

{{Quote|{{cite quran|9|73|end=74|style=ref}}|O Prophet! Strive against the disbelievers and the hypocrites! Be harsh with them. Their ultimate abode is hell, a hapless journey's end. They swear by Allah that they said nothing (wrong), yet they did say the word of disbelief, and did disbelieve after their Surrender (to Allah). And they purposed that which they could not attain, and they sought revenge only that Allah by His messenger should enrich them of His bounty. If they repent it will be better for them; and '''if they turn away, Allah will afflict them with a painful doom in the world and the Hereafter''', and they have no protecting friend nor helper in the earth.}}

===People of the Book===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:People of the Book}}

====Some among the People of the Book are righteous and trustworthy====
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|62}}|Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans [before Prophet Muhammad] - those [among them] who believed in Allah and the Last Day and did righteousness - will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|3|113|114}}|They are not [all] the same; among the People of the Scripture is a community standing [in obedience], reciting the verses of Allah during periods of the night and prostrating [in prayer].
They believe in Allah and the Last Day, and they enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and hasten to good deeds. And those are among the righteous.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|75}}|And among the People of the Scripture is he who, if you entrust him with a great amount [of wealth], he will return it to you. And among them is he who, if you entrust him with a [single] silver coin, he will not return it to you unless you are constantly standing over him [demanding it]. That is because they say, "There is no blame upon us concerning the unlearned." And they speak untruth about Allah while they know [it].}}

====Argue gracefully with the people of the book====
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|64}}|Say, "O People of the Scripture, come to a word that is equitable between us and you - that we will not worship except Allah and not associate anything with Him and not take one another as lords instead of Allah." But if they turn away, then say, "Bear witness that we are Muslims [submitting to Him]."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|29|46}}|And do not argue with the People of the Scripture except in a way that is best, except for those who commit injustice among them, and say, "We believe in that which has been revealed to us and revealed to you. And our God and your God is one; and we are Muslims [in submission] to Him."}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|125}}|Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction, and argue with them in a way that is best. Indeed, your Lord is most knowing of who has strayed from His way, and He is most knowing of who is [rightly] guided.}}

====Allah gave the people of the book scriptures by which they will be tested====
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|48}}|And We have revealed to you, [O Muhammad], the Book in truth, confirming that which preceded it of the Scripture and as a criterion over it. So judge between them by what Allah has revealed and do not follow their inclinations away from what has come to you of the truth. To each of you We prescribed a law and a method. Had Allah willed, He would have made you one nation [united in religion], but [He intended] to test you in what He has given you; so race to [all that is] good. To Allah is your return all together, and He will [then] inform you concerning that over which you used to differ.}}

====Christians====
=====Christians will be nearest in love to the believers=====
{{Quote|1={{Quran|5|82}}|2=Strongest among men in enmity to the believers wilt thou find the Jews and Pagans; and nearest among them in love to the believers wilt thou find those who say, "We are Christians": because amongst these are men devoted to learning and men who have renounced the world, and they are not arrogant.}}

=====Christians worship three gods; Allah (Father), Mary (Mother) and Jesus (Son)=====
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|116}}|"And when Allah saith: '''O Jesus, son of Mary! Didst thou say unto mankind: Take me and my mother for two gods beside Allah?''' he saith: Be glorified! It was not mine to utter that to which I had no right. If I used to say it, then Thou knewest it. Thou knowest what is in my mind, and I know not what is in Thy Mind. Lo! Thou, only Thou, art the Knower of Things Hidden?"}}

=====Christians are blasphemers and a grievous penalty will befall them=====

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|73}}|"They do blaspheme who say: Allah is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah. If they desist not from their word (of blasphemy), verily '''a grievous penalty will befall the blasphemers''' among them."}}

====Jews====

=====Jews will have the strongest emnity to Muslims, are sinners who will listen to any lie and hinder people from Allah's way=====

{{Quote|1={{Quran|4|160}}|2=For the iniquity of the Jews We made unlawful for them certain (foods) good and wholesome which had been lawful for them;- in that they hindered many from Allah's Way;-}}

{{Quote|1={{Quran|5|82}}|2='''Strongest among men in enmity to the believers wilt thou find the Jews''' and Pagans; and nearest among them in love to the believers wilt thou find those who say, "We are Christians": because amongst these are men devoted to learning and men who have renounced the world, and they are not arrogant.}}

{{Quote|1={{Quran|5|41}}|2=O Messenger! let not those grieve thee, who race each other into unbelief: (whether it be) among those who say "We believe" with their lips but whose hearts have no faith; or it be among '''the Jews,- men who will listen to any lie,- will listen even to others who have never so much as come to thee'''. They change the words from their (right) times and places: they say, "If ye are given this, take it, but if not, beware!" If any one's trial is intended by Allah, thou hast no authority in the least for him against Allah. For such - it is not Allah's will to purify their hearts. For them there is disgrace in this world, and in the Hereafter a heavy punishment.}}

=====Allah has cursed the Jews with enmity and hatred until the day of Judgment=====

{{Quote|1={{Quran|5|64}}|2=The Jews say: "Allah's hand is tied up." Be their hands tied up and be they accursed for the (blasphemy) they utter. Nay, both His hands are widely outstretched: He giveth and spendeth (of His bounty) as He pleaseth. But the revelation that cometh to thee from Allah increaseth in most of them their obstinate rebellion and blasphemy. '''Amongst them we have placed enmity and hatred till the Day of Judgment. Every time they kindle the fire of war, Allah doth extinguish it'''; but they (ever) strive to do mischief on earth. And Allah loveth not those who do mischief.}}

===Believering women may only take believing husbands, who may also take Christian and Jewish wives===
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|221}}|Wed not idolatresses till they believe; for lo! a believing bondwoman is better than an idolatress though she please you; '''and give not your daughters in marriage to idolaters till they believe''', for lo! a believing slave is better than an idolater though he please you. These invite unto the Fire, and Allah inviteth unto the Garden, and unto forgiveness by His grace, and expoundeth His revelations to mankind that haply they may remember.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|60|10}}|O ye who believe! '''When believing women come unto you as fugitives, examine them. Allah is Best Aware of their faith. Then, if ye know them for true believers, send them not back unto the disbelievers. They are not lawful for them (the disbelievers), nor are they (the disbelievers) lawful for them'''. And give them (the disbelievers) that which they have spent (upon them). And it is no sin for you to marry such women when ye have given them their dues. And hold not to the ties of disbelieving women; and ask for (the return of) that which ye have spent; and let them (the disbelievers) ask for that which they have spent. That is the judgment of Allah. He judgeth between you. Allah is Knower, Wise.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|5}}|This day are (all) good things made lawful for you. The food of those who have received the Scripture is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them. '''And so are the virtuous women of the believers and the virtuous women of those who received the Scripture before you (lawful for you) when ye give them their marriage portions''' and live with them in honour, not in fornication, nor taking them as secret concubines. Whoso denieth the faith, his work is vain and he will be among the losers in the Hereafter.}}

===Friendship===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Friendship with Non-Muslims}}

====Do not take certain disbelievers as close allies because they love what distresses you====

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|144}}|O ye who believe! '''Take not for friends unbelievers rather than believers:''' Do ye wish to offer Allah an open proof against yourselves?}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|118}}|O you who believe! '''do not take for intimate friends from among others than your own people;''' they do not fall short of inflicting loss upon you; '''they love what distresses you'''; vehement hatred has already appeared from out of their mouths, and what their breasts conceal is greater still; indeed, We have made the communications clear to you, if you will understand.}}

====Love, just dealing and kindness to those who did not oppress you====

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|60|7|9}}|It may be that Allah will ordain love [[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000185.pdf mawaddatan]] between you and those of them with whom ye are at enmity. Allah is Mighty, and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. Allah forbiddeth you not those who warred not against you on account of religion and drove you not out from your homes, that ye should show them kindness and deal justly with them. Lo! Allah loveth the just dealers. Allah forbiddeth you only those who warred against you on account of religion and have driven you out from your homes and helped to drive you out, that ye make friends of them [tawallawhum]. Whosoever maketh friends of them - (All) such are wrong-doers.}}

====Do not take your fathers, sons, brothers or kinsfolk as close allies if they love disbelief and oppose Allah and his Messenger====

{{Quote|{{Quran|9|23}}|O ye who believe! '''Choose not your fathers nor your brethren for friends if they take pleasure in disbelief rather than faith'''. Whoso of you taketh them for friends, such are wrong-doers.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|58|22}}|You shall not find a people who believe in Allah and the latter day befriending those who act in opposition to Allah and His Messenger, even though they were their (own) fathers, or their sons, or their brothers, or their kinsfolk;''' these are they into whose hearts He has impressed faith, and whom He has strengthened with an inspiration from Him''': and He will cause them to enter gardens beneath which rivers flow, abiding therein; Allah is well-pleased with them and they are well-pleased with Him these are Allah's party: now surely the party of Allah are the successful ones.}}

==== Those with Muhammad should be harsh against the non-believers and merciful among themselves ====
{{Quote|{{Quran|48|29}}|Muhammad (is the) Messenger of Allah, and those who (are) with him (are) firm against the disbelievers and merciful among themselves. You see them bowing and prostrating, seeking Bounty from Allah and pleasure. Their mark (is) on their faces from (the) trace (of) the prostration. That (is) their similitude in the Taurah. And their similitude in the Injeel, (is) like a seed (which) sends forth its shoot then strengthens it, then it becomes thick and it stands upon its stem delighting the sowers that He (may) enrage by them the disbelievers. Allah has promised those who believe and do righteous deeds among them, forgiveness and a reward great.}}

===Just dealing with those you hate===
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|8}}|O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm for Allah, witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness. And fear Allah; indeed, Allah is Acquainted with what you do.}}

===Be kind and good to disbelieving parents===
{{Quote|{{Quran|29|8}}|And We have enjoined upon man goodness to parents. But if they endeavor to make you associate with Me that of which you have no knowledge, do not obey them. To Me is your return, and I will inform you about what you used to do.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|31|14|15}}|And We have enjoined upon man [care] for his parents. His mother carried him, [increasing her] in weakness upon weakness, and his weaning is in two years. Be grateful to Me and to your parents; to Me is the [final] destination. But if they endeavor to make you associate with Me that of which you have no knowledge, do not obey them but accompany them in [this] world with appropriate kindness and follow the way of those who turn back to Me [in repentance]. Then to Me will be your return, and I will inform you about what you used to do.}}

===Repel evil with what is better===
{{Quote|{{Quran|41|34}}|And not equal are the good deed and the bad. Repel [evil] by that [deed] which is better; and thereupon the one whom between you and him is enmity [will become] as though he was a devoted friend.}}

===Allah created the nations and tribes of the world===
{{Quote|{{Quran|49|13}}|O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|70}}|And We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them on the land and sea and provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of what We have created, with [definite] preference.}}

===Characteristics===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Characteristics of Non-Muslims}}

====Fake believers have diseased hearts, disobediant Jews are evil, disbelievers have devils as their allies====

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|10}}|'''In their hearts is a disease''', and Allah increaseth their disease. A painful doom is theirs because they lie.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|62|5}}|The similitude of those who were charged with the (obligations of the) Mosaic Law, but who subsequently failed in those (obligations), is that of a donkey which carries huge tomes (but understands them not). '''Evil is the similitude of people who falsify the Signs of God''': and God guides not people who do wrong.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|27}}|O children of Adam, let not Satan tempt you as he removed your parents from Paradise, stripping them of their clothing to show them their private parts. Indeed, he sees you, he and his tribe, from where you do not see them. '''Indeed, We have made the devils allies to those who do not believe.'''}}

====Disbelievers are like cattle or a dog that lolls out his tongue no matter if it's attacked or not====

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|7|176|177}}|If it had been Our will, We should have elevated him with Our signs; but he inclined to the earth, and followed his own vain desires. '''His similitude is that of a dog: if you attack him, he lolls out his tongue, or if you leave him alone, he (still) lolls out his tongue. That is the similitude of those who reject''' Our signs; So relate the story; perchance they may reflect.
'''Evil as an example are people who reject Our signs and wrong their own souls.'''}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|25|44}}|Or thinkest thou that most of them listen or understand? '''They are only like cattle; - nay, they are worse''' astray in Path.}}

====Disbelievers are vile beasts, they are the worst of creatures====

{{Quote|{{Quran|8|22}}|For the '''vilest beasts''' in God's sight, are the deaf, the dumb, who understand not.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|98|6}}|Verily those who believe not, among those who have received the scriptures, and among the idolaters, [shall be cast] into the fire of hell, to remain therein [for ever]. These are the '''worst of creatures'''.}}

{{Quran|8|55}} is often quoted as a similar verse, though the next verse qualifies the people referred to as treaty breakers.

===Fighting===
{{Main|Jihad in Islamic Law|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Jihad}}

====Invite People of the Book to convert to Islam, pay Jizyah or fight them====
{{Quote|{{Quran|9|29}}|Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, '''until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.'''}}

====Fight and kill treaty breakers unless they repent, pray and pay zakat or seek asylum====

{{Quote|1={{Quran-range|9|5|8}}|2=But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); '''but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity''', then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.
If one amongst the Pagans ask thee for asylum, grant it to him, so that he may hear the word of Allah; and then escort him to where he can be secure. That is because they are men without knowledge.
How can there be for the polytheists a treaty in the sight of Allah and with His Messenger, except for those with whom you made a treaty at al-Masjid al-Haram? So as long as they are upright toward you, be upright toward them. Indeed, Allah loves the righteous [who fear Him].
How [can there be a treaty] while, if they gain dominance over you, they do not observe concerning you any pact of kinship or covenant of protection? They satisfy you with their mouths, but their hearts refuse [compliance], and most of them are defiantly disobedient.}}

====Fight oppressors, but do not transgress====

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|190|194}}|Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you but do not transgress. Indeed. Allah does not like transgressors.
And kill them wherever you overtake them and expel them from wherever they have expelled you, and fitnah is worse than killing. And do not fight them at al-Masjid al- Haram until they fight you there. But if they fight you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.
And if they cease, then indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.
Fight them until there is no [more] fitnah and [until] worship is [acknowledged to be] for Allah. But if they cease, then there is to be no aggression except against the oppressors.
[Fighting in] the sacred month is for [aggression committed in] the sacred month, and for [all] violations is legal retribution. So whoever has assaulted you, then assault him in the same way that he has assaulted you. And fear Allah and know that Allah is with those who fear Him.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|22|39|40}}|Permission [to fight] has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory.
[They are] those who have been evicted from their homes without right - only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|75}}|And what is [the matter] with you that you fight not in the cause of Allah and [for] the oppressed among men, women, and children who say, "Our Lord, take us out of this city of oppressive people and appoint for us from Yourself a protector and appoint for us from Yourself a helper?"}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|42|39|44}}|And those who, when tyranny strikes them, they defend themselves,
And the retribution for an evil act is an evil one like it, but whoever pardons and makes reconciliation - his reward is [due] from Allah. Indeed, He does not like wrongdoers.
And whoever avenges himself after having been wronged - those have not upon them any cause [for blame].
The cause is only against the ones who wrong the people and tyrannize upon the earth without right. Those will have a painful punishment.
And whoever is patient and forgives - indeed, that is of the matters [requiring] determination.}}

==="Let there be no compulsion in religion"===
{{Main|Let There be no Compulsion in Religion}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|256}}|There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. The right course has become clear from the wrong. So whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah has grasped the most trustworthy handhold with no break in it. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|109|6}}|For you is your religion, and for me is my religion."}}
{{quote|{{Abu Dawud||2682|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas 

When the children of a woman (in pre-Islamic days) did not survive, '''she took a vow on herself that if her child survives, she would convert it a Jew'''. When Banu an-Nadir were expelled (from Arabia), there were some children of the Ansar (Helpers) among them. They said: We shall not leave our children. '''So Allah the Exalted revealed; "Let there be no compulsion in religion'''. Truth stands out clear from error."}}

Some classical scholars considered the verse abrogated, though generally it was understood as refering to the impossibility of coercing belief (see main article).

{{Quote|Tafsir of Ibn Kathir, Al-Firdous Ltd., London, 1999: First Edition, Part 3, pp. 37-38|Allah says: "There is no compulsion in religion", meaning: do not force anyone to embrace Islam, because it is clear and its proofs and evidences are manifest. Whoever Allah guides and opens his heart to Islam has indeed embraced it with clear evidence. Whoever Allah misguides blinds his heart and has set a seal on his hearing and a covering on his eyes cannot embrace Islam by force...hence Allah revealed this verse. '''But, this verse is abrogated by the verse of "fighting...Therefore, all people of the world should be called to Islam. If anyone of them refuses to do so, or refuses to pay the Jizya they should be fought till they are killed. This is the meaning of compulsion.''' In the Sahih, the Prophet said: "Allah wonders at those people who will enter Paradise in chains", meaning prisoners brought in chains to the Islamic state, then they embrace Islam sincerely and become righteous, and are entered among the people of Paradise.}}

===Damned to Hell===

====Disbelievers are the fuel of Allah's fire in hell====

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|10}}|Indeed, those who disbelieve - never will their wealth or their children avail them against Allah at all. And it is they who are fuel for the Fire.}}

====Disbelievers will be tortured for eternity, burned, scalded and beaten with iron maces====

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|22|19|22}}|These two antagonists dispute with each other about their Lord: But those who deny (their Lord),- for them will be cut out a garment of Fire: over their heads will be poured out boiling water. With it will be scalded what is within their bodies, as well as (their) skins. In addition there will be maces of iron (to punish) them. Every time they wish to get away therefrom, from anguish, they will be forced back therein, and (it will be said), "Taste ye the Penalty of Burning!"}}

===Allah===

====Allah has cursed Disbelievers====

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|88}}| They say, "Our hearts are the wrappings (which preserve Allah's Word: we need no more)." Nay, Allah's curse is on them for their blasphemy: Little is it they believe. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|60}}|Shall I tell thee of a worse (case) than theirs for retribution with Allah? (Worse is the case of him) whom Allah hath cursed, him on whom His wrath hath fallen and of whose sort Allah hath turned some to apes and swine, and who serveth idols. Such are in worse plight and further astray from the plain road.}}

{{quote | {{cite quran|47|23|end=24|style=ref}} |Such are the men whom Allah has cursed for He has made them deaf and blinded their sight. 
Do they not then earnestly seek to understand the Qur'an, or are their hearts locked up by them? }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|48|6}}| And that He may punish the Hypocrites, men and women, and the Polytheists men and women, who imagine an evil opinion of Allah. On them is a round of Evil: the Wrath of Allah is on them: He has cursed them and got Hell ready for them: and evil is it for a destination. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|63|4}}|When thou lookest at them, their exteriors please thee; and when they speak, thou listenest to their words. They are as (worthless as hollow) pieces of timber propped up, (unable to stand on their own). They think that every cry is against them. They are the enemies; so beware of them. The curse of Allah be on them! How are they deluded (away from the Truth)!}}

====Allah does not guide or love disbelievers====

{{Quote|{{cite Quran|5|51|end=52|style=ref}}| O ye who believe! take not the Jews and the Christians for your friends and protectors: They are but friends and protectors to each other. And he amongst you that turns to them (for friendship) is of them. Verily Allah guideth not a people unjust. Those in whose hearts is a disease - thou seest how eagerly they run about amongst them, saying: "We do fear lest a change of fortune bring us disaster." Ah! perhaps Allah will give (thee) victory, or a decision according to His will. Then will they repent of the thoughts which they secretly harboured in their hearts. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|32}}| Say: "Obey Allah and His Messenger": But if they turn back, Allah loveth not those who reject Faith. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|22|38}}| Verily Allah will defend (from ill) those who believe: verily, Allah loveth not any that is a traitor to faith, or show ingratitude. }}

====Allah despises, rejects and will disgrace disbelievers====

{{Quote | {{cite Quran|17|17|end=18|style=ref}} | How many generations have We destroyed after Noah? and enough is thy Lord to note and see the sins of His servants. 
If any do wish for the transitory things (of this life), We readily grant them - such things as We will, to such person as We will: in the end have We provided Hell for them; they will burn therein, disgraced and rejected. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|22|18}}| Seest thou not that to Allah bow down in worship all things that are in the heavens and on earth: the sun, the moon, the stars; the hills, the trees, the animals; and a great number among mankind? But a great number are (also) such as are fit for Punishment: and such as Allah shall disgrace,- None can raise to honour: for Allah carries out all that He wills. }}

====Allah sees disbelievers as evil and only wrong-doers disbelieve====

{{Quote|{{Quran|98|6}}|Verily those who believe not, among those who have received the scriptures, and among the idolaters, [shall be cast] into the fire of hell, to remain therein [for ever]. These are the worst of creatures.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|41}}|O Messenger. let not those grieve thee, who race each other into unbelief: (whether it be) among those who say "We believe" with their lips but whose hearts have no faith; or it be among the Jews,- men who will listen to any lie,- will listen even to others who have never so much as come to thee. They change the words from their (right) times and places: they say, "If ye are given his, take it, but if not, beware!" If any one's trial is intended by Allah, thou hast no authority in the least for him against Allah. For such - it is not Allah's will to purify their hearts. For them there is disgrace in this world, and in the Hereafter a heavy punishment. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|99}}|And We have certainly revealed to you verses [which are] clear proofs, and no one would deny them except the defiantly disobedient.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|177}}|How evil [سَآءَ sāa<ref>sin-waw-alif [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000181.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1457]</ref>] an example [is that of] the people who denied Our signs and used to wrong themselves.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|18|57}}|And who is more unjust than one who is reminded of the verses of his Lord but turns away from them and forgets what his hands have put forth? Indeed, We have placed over their hearts coverings, lest they understand it, and in their ears deafness. And if you invite them to guidance - they will never be guided, then - ever.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|29|49}}|Rather, the Qur'an is distinct verses [preserved] within the breasts of those who have been given knowledge. And none reject Our verses except the wrongdoers.}}

====Allah will make the deeds of disbelievers fruitless and will bring destruction on them====

{{Quote | {{cite Quran|47|8|end=10|style=ref}} | But those who reject ((Allah)),- for them is destruction, and ((Allah)) will render their deeds astray (from their mark). That is because they hate the Revelation of Allah. so He has made their deeds fruitless. Do they not travel through the earth, and see what was the End of those before them (who did evil)? Allah brought utter destruction on them, and similar (fates await) those who reject Allah. }}

===Hypocrites===
The Qur'an heavily condemns "hypocrites" and often pair them with disbelievers.

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|145}}|Verily, the hypocrites shall be in the lowest depth of the fire, and thou wilt find none who could succour them.}}

==Hadith==
===Apostates===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Apostasy}}

====Whoever becomes an apostate must be killed====

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||3017|darussalam}} | Narrated Ikrima:

Ali burnt some people and this news reached Ibn 'Abbas, who said, "Had I been in his place I would not have burnt them, as the Prophet said, 'Don't punish (anybody) with Allah's Punishment.' No doubt, I would have killed them, for '''the Prophet said, 'If somebody (a Muslim) discards his religion, kill him.' "'''}}

====Whoever kills an apostate shall have a reward on the Day of Resurrection====

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6930|darussalam}} | Narrated 'Ali:

Whenever I tell you a narration from Allah's Apostle, by Allah, I would rather fall down from the sky than ascribe a false statement to him, but if I tell you something between me and you (not a Hadith) then it was indeed a trick (i.e., I may say things just to cheat my enemy). No doubt I heard Allah's Apostle saying, "During the last days there will appear some young foolish people who will say the best words but their faith will not go beyond their throats (i.e. they will have no faith) and will go out from (leave) their religion as an arrow goes out of the game. So, where-ever you find them, kill them, for '''who-ever kills them shall have reward on the Day of Resurrection'''." }}

===Hypocrites===
{{Quote|Abu Dawud 2502|Abu Hurairah reported the Prophet as saying “He who dies without having fought or having felt fighting (against the infidels) to be his duty will die guilty of a kind of hypocrisy.”}}

{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 78|Ali observed: By Him Who split up the seed and created something living, the Apostle (may peace and blessings be upon him) gave me a promise that no one but a believer would love me, and none but a hypocrite would nurse grudge against me.}}

{{Quote|Jami` at-Tirmidhi 1186: The Book on Divorce and Li'an|The Prophet said: "The women who seek a Khul are hypocrites."
}}

===Atheists===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Atheists}}

====The "who created God?" argument is from Satan====

{{Quote|{{Muslim||134a|reference}}|It is narrated on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: Men will continue to question one another till this is propounded: '''Allah created all things but who created Allah?''' He who found himself confronted with such a situation should say: I affirm my faith in Allah.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3276|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Apostle said, "Satan comes to one of you and says, 'Who created so-and-so? 'till he says, ''''Who has created your Lord?'''' So, when he inspires such a question, one should seek refuge with Allah and give up such thoughts."}}

====Ali commands to have atheists/heretics burned to death====
Zanadiqa more accurately means heretics
{{Quote|1={{Bukhari|||6922|darussalam}}|2=Narrated 'Ikrima: '''Some Zanadiqa (atheists) were brought to 'Ali and he burnt them.''' The news of this event, reached Ibn 'Abbas who said, "If I had been in his place, I would not have burnt them, as Allah's Apostle forbade it, saying, 'Do not punish anybody with Allah's punishment (fire).' I would have killed them according to the statement of Allah's Apostle, 'Whoever changed his Islamic religion, then kill him.'"}}

===Jesus will return to fight the people, will break the cross and kill the swine===

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4324|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuHurayrah:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: There is no prophet between me and him, that is, Jesus (peace be upon him). He will descent (to the earth). When you see him, recognise him: a man of medium height, reddish fair, wearing two light yellow garments, looking as if drops were falling down from his head though it will not be wet. '''He will fight the people for the cause of Islam. He will break the cross, kill swine, and abolish jizyah. Allah will perish all religions except Islam'''. He will destroy the Antichrist and will live on the earth for forty years and then he will die. The Muslims will pray over him.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3448|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah’s Apostle said, “By Him in Whose Hands my soul is, surely (Jesus,) the son of Mary will soon descend amongst you and will judge mankind justly (as a Just Ruler); '''he will break the Cross and kill the pigs and there will be no Jizya (i.e. taxation taken from non Muslims).''' Money will be in abundance so that nobody will accept it, and a single prostration to Allah (in prayer) will be better than the whole world and whatever is in it.” Abu Huraira added “If you wish, you can recite (this verse of the Holy Book): — ‘And there is none Of the people of the Scriptures (Jews and Christians) But must believe in him (i.e Jesus as an Apostle of Allah and a human being) Before his death. And on the Day of Judgment He will be a witness Against them.” (4.159) (See Fateh Al Bari, Page 302 Vol 7)}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3449|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah’s Apostle said “How will you be when the son of Mary (i.e. Jesus) descends amongst you and he will judge people by the Law of the Quran and not by the law of Gospel (Fateh-ul Bari page 304 and 305 Vol 7)}}

===The Final Hour will not come until Muslims slaughter the Jews, and even rocks and trees will betray them===

{{Quote|1={{Muslim||2922|reference}}, See Also: {{Muslim||2921a|reference}}, {{Muslim||2921b|reference}}, {{Muslim||2921c|reference}} & {{Bukhari|||3593|darussalam}}|2=Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: '''The last hour would not come unless the Muslims will fight against the Jews and the Muslims would kill them''' until the Jews would hide themselves behind a stone or a tree and a stone or a tree would say: Muslim, or the servant of Allah, there is a Jew behind me; come and kill him; but the tree Gharqad would not say, for it is the tree of the Jews.}}

===Sinful Muslims will be spared hell-fire by Christians and Jews thrown into hell===

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767a|reference}}|Abu Musa' reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: When it will be the Day of Resurrection Allah would deliver to every Muslim a Jew or a Christian and say: That is your rescue from Hell-Fire.}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767d|reference}}|Abu Burda reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: There would come people amongst the Muslims on the Day of Resurrection with as heavy sins as a mountain, and Allah would forgive them and '''He would place in their stead the Jews and the Christians'''. (As far as I think), Abu Raub said: I do not know as to who is in doubt. Abu Burda said: I narrated it to 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz, whereupon he said: Was it your father who narrated it to you from Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him)? I said: Yes.}}

{{Quote|1={{Bukhari|||25|darussalam}}|2=Narrated Ibn 'Umar: Allah's Apostle said: "'''I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah's Apostle, and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity''', so if they perform that, then they save their lives and property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allah."}}

===Dhimmitude===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Dhimmitude}}

====Blood money for People of the Book was only half of that of Muslims====

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4542|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As: '''The value of the blood-money at the time of the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) was eight hundred dinars or eight thousand dirhams, and the blood-money for the people of the Book was half of that for Muslims'''. He said: This applied till Umar (Allah be pleased with him) became caliph and he made a speech in which he said: Take note! Camels have become dear. So Umar fixed the value for those who possessed gold at one thousand dinars, for those who possessed silver at twelve thousand (dirhams), for those who possessed cattle at two hundred cows, for those who possessed sheep at two thousand sheep, and for those who possessed suits of clothing at two hundred suits. He left the blood-money for dhimmis (protected people) as it was, not raising it in proportion to the increase he made in the blood-wit.}}

====A Muslim cannot be killed in Qisas (equality in punishment) for killing a disbeliever====

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6915|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Juhaifa:

I asked 'Ali "Do you have anything Divine literature besides what is in the Qur'an?" Or, as Uyaina once said, "Apart from what the people have?" 'Ali said, "By Him Who made the grain split (germinate) and created the soul, we have nothing except what is in the Quran and the ability (gift) of understanding Allah's Book which He may endow a man, with and what is written in this sheet of paper." I asked, "What is on this paper?" He replied, "The legal regulations of Diya (Blood-money) and the (ransom for) releasing of the captives, and the judgment that '''no Muslim should be killed in Qisas (equality in punishment) for killing a Kafir (disbeliever)'''."}}

====Jizyah====
{{Quote|1={{Muslim||1731a|reference}}|2=It has been reported from Sulaiman b. Buraid through his father that when the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) appointed anyone as leader of an army or detachment he would especially exhort him to fear Allah and to be good to the Muslims who were with him. He would say: Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah. '''Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah. Make a holy war''', do not embezzle the spoils; do not break your pledge; and do not mutilate (the dead) bodies; do not kill the children. When you meet your enemies who are polytheists, '''invite them to three courses of action. If they respond to any one of these, you also accept it and withold yourself from doing them any harm. Invite them to (accept) Islam; if they respond to you, accept it from them and desist from fighting against them. Then invite them to migrate from their lands to the land of Muhairs and inform them that, if they do so, they shall have all the privileges and obligations of the Muhajirs. If they refuse to migrate, tell them that they will have the status of Bedouin Muilims and will be subjected to the Commands of Allah like other Muslims, but they will not get any share from the spoils of war or Fai' except when they actually fight with the Muslims (against the disbelievers). If they refuse to accept Islam, demand from them the Jizya. If they agree to pay, accept it from them and hold off your hands. If they refuse to pay the tax, seek Allah's help and fight them'''. When you lay siege to a fort and the besieged appeal to you for protection in the name of Allah and His Prophet, do not accord to them the guarantee of Allah and His Prophet, but accord to them your own guarantee and the guarantee of your companions for it is a lesser sin that the security given by you or your companions be disregarded than that the security granted in the name of Allah and His Prophet be violated. When you besiege a fort and the besieged want you to let them out in accordance with Allah's Command, do not let them come out in accordance with His Command, but do so at your (own) command, for you do not know whether or not you will be able to carry out Allah's behest with regard to them.}}

===Fighting===
====Killing disbelieving women and children is permissible as collateral damage====

Muhammad disapproved of the killing of women and children during expeditions (also {{Muslim||1744a|reference}}).

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3014|darussalam}}|During some of the Ghazawat of the Prophet (ﷺ) a woman was found killed. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) disapproved the killing of women and children.}}

Although when asked, he excused the probable exposure of women and children to danger during an attack.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3012|darussalam}}|Narrated As-Sab bin Jaththama: The Prophet passed by me at a place called Al-Abwa or Waddan, and was asked whether it was permissible to attack the pagan warriors at night with the probability of exposing their women and children to danger. '''The Prophet replied, "They (i.e. women and children) are from them (i.e. pagans)."''' I also heard the Prophet saying, "The institution of Hima is invalid except for Allah and His Apostle."}}

A more specific hadith quotes the same narrator stating that this involved women and children who were trampled over with horses during the attack:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||3|19|1570}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:

"I was informed by As-Sa'b bin Jaththamah who said: " I said: "O Messenger of Allah our horses trampled over women and children of the idolaters." He said: "They are from their fathers.'"

[Abu 'Eisa said:] This Hadith is Hasan Sahih. }}

====Jihad must be performed continuously from the creation of Islam to the coming of the Antichrist====

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2532|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas ibn Malik: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Three things are the roots of faith: to refrain from (killing) a person who utters, "There is no god but Allah" and not to declare him unbeliever whatever sin he commits, and not to excommunicate him from Islam for his any action; and '''jihad will be performed continuously since the day Allah sent me as a prophet until the day the last member of my community will fight with the Dajjal (Antichrist)'''. The tyranny of any tyrant and the justice of any just (ruler) will not invalidate it. One must have faith in Divine decree.}}

===Believers will outnumber other peoples through prolific childbirth===
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2050|darussalam}}|Narrated Ma'qil ibn Yasar: A man came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said: I have found a woman of rank and beauty, but she does not give birth to children. Should I marry her? He said: No. He came again to him, but he prohibited him. He came to him third time, and '''he (the Prophet) said: Marry women who are loving and very prolific, for I shall outnumber the peoples by you'''. }}

===Only stay and eat with Muslims, and whoever joins and lives with a mushrik is like him===
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4832|darussalam}}, See Also: {{Abu Dawud||4850|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuSa'id al-Khudri:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: '''Associate only with a believer, and let only a God-fearing man eat your meals'''. }}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2787|darussalam}}|“Whoever joins a mushrik and lives with him is like him"}}

==Scholars==
===Jizyah===
{{Quote|Sufi saint Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624), letter No. 163|The honour of Islam lies in insulting kufr and kafirs.

One who respects the kafirs dishonours the Muslims… '''The real purpose of levying jiziya on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling'''. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honour and might of Islam.}}

===Qisas===
{{Quote|{{cite web quotebox|url= http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=92261 |title= Killing a Muslim in punishment for killing a non-Muslim|publisher= Islamweb |series= Fatwa No.92261|author= |date= August 1, 2006|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamweb.net%2Femainpage%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3Dshowfatwa%26Option%3DFatwaId%26Id%3D92261+&date=2013-10-26|deadurl=no}}|First of all, you should know that '''a Muslim should not be killed for killing a belligerent non-Muslim according to the consensus of the scholars may Allaah have mercy upon them. According to the view of the majority of the scholars may Allaah have mercy upon them a Muslim should not be killed against a free non-Muslim under the Muslim rule.''' The evidence about this is the saying of the Prophet sallallaahu `alayhi wa sallam ( may Allaah exalt his mention ):

"A Muslim should not be killed for killing a non-Muslim." [At-Tirmithi]

Moreover, according to the view of the majority of the scholars may Allaah have mercy upon them the title (and rulings) “disbeliever” is applicable to a free non-Muslim under the Muslim rule. However, Abu Haneefah, and the scholars of his School of jurisprudence may Allaah have mercy upon them are of the view that a Muslim should be killed for killing a free non-Muslim under Muslim rule; their evidence is the two verses which the questioner mentioned.

Nonetheless, '''the correct opinion is that of the majority of the scholars may Allaah have mercy upon them that is based on the above Prophetic narration, which is a direct proof related to the case of dispute'''.
Allaah Knows best.}}

[[Category:QHS]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:People of the Book]]
[[Category:Kafir (infidel)]]
[[ar:القرآن_والحديث_والعلماء:_غير_المسلمين]]

Evolution and Islam

2026-03-20T22:19:54Z

Lightyears: Simpler language

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Traditional and modern academic scholars understand the Quranic accounts of the creation of man, and of his sustenance growing from the earth, as special acts of creation, in line with the Judeo-Christian worldview prevalent in its late antique milieu (such as the very ancient belief that [[Creation_of_Humans_from_Clay|the first man was created from clay]]). In modern times, such interpretations of the Quran are widely regarded to be in conflict with the scientific theory of evolution. A common trend among modern Islamic scholars is to deny evolution as a scientific fact, at least with regard to the origins of mankind, even if evolution may be accepted as an explanation for the diversity of plants and other animals on Earth. A further, modernist approach, is to not only partially or fully embrace the theory of evolution as compatible with the Quran, but even to interpret its verses as alluding to the process. This article describes the verses and arguments that are sometimes employed for such purposes, as well as those cited by critics to challenge these interpretations.

==Evolution of modern humans==
While the study of human evolution is a field regularly enriched by new discoveries and uncertainty regarding the exact ancestral relationships between the various hominid species, there is a scientific consensus on common ancestry - that humans evolved as part of the family tree of life on Earth. It is beyond the scope of this article to provided detailed evidence of human evolution. In brief terms, the fact that modern humans evolved and share a common ancestor with all life on earth is backed by multiple lines of evidence, including overwhelming DNA evidence and the numerous fossils of pre-Homo sapiens species that lived on earth for millions of years prior to the evolution of modern humans.<ref>[http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence What does it mean to be human?] - Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History website</ref>

As a couple of examples, powerful DNA evidence that humans have common ancestry with other primates includes [[w:Endogenous_retrovirus|endogenous retroviruses]]. These viral remnants in our genome are now thought to have played a role in our evolutionary development in many cases, but must have been passed down after infecting the germline cells of a common ancestor we share with various other primates. We know this because they appear in the exact same locations of our genome and that of certain primate families. Additionally, for the most part they correlate with what is expected from other evidence regarding the timing of the various points at which each primate family split off from our own lineage (or are otherwise explained by independent evidence).<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oXfDF5Ew3Gc DNA Evidence That Humans & Chimps Share A Common Ancestor: Endogenous Retroviruses] - Youtube.com</ref><ref>For a detailed and balanced discussion of the evidence relating ERVs to human evolution, see Jorritsma RN. (2022) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8781664/ How Well Does Evolution Explain Endogenous Retroviruses?-A Lakatosian Assessment.] Viruses. 14(1):14. doi: 10.3390/v14010014. PMID: 35062218; PMCID: PMC8781664.</ref> Another powerful genetic line of evidence is the fusion of two primate chromosomes to become chromosome 2 in humans.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dK3O6KYPmEw Professor Ken Miller on DNA fusion events] - Youtube.com</ref>

==Quranic verses about the creation of Adam and mankind's descent from him==
===Quran 32:7 et al. - Creation of the first man from clay===
{{main|Creation of Humans from Clay}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|32|7}}|Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay;}}

Since this verse says Allah "began" the creation of man from clay, it does not seem to leave a role for earlier ancestors in the beginnings of humanity prior to Adam.

One modern interpretation of this verse argues that instead of clay being a building material for the first man, the word "began" refers rather to the earliest pools of water and clay where life began according to one scientific theory (ultimately leading to the evolution of humans). There is no major model of [[w:abiogenesis|abiogenesis]] which considers clay itself essential for life (as opposed to a replication surface or catalyst).

Critics of this interpretation note that in any case the very next verse clarifies that this refers to the first man, since his descendants are created from conventional sexual reproduction:

{{Quote|{{Quran|32|8}}|Then He made his seed from a draught of despised fluid;}}
The word translated “seed” in Pickthall's translation quoted here is nasl نسل, which means progeny (i.e. descendants).<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume8/00000286.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 3032 نسل]</ref>

Even more explicitly, a few verses state that Adam was made from clay:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|26|29}}|'''And We did certainly create man out of clay from an altered black mud.''' And the jinn We created before from scorching fire. And [mention, O Muhammad], when your Lord said to the angels, "I will create a human being out of clay from an altered black mud. '''And when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration.'''"}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|71}}|And [mention] when We said to the angels, "Prostrate to Adam," and they prostrated, except for Iblees. He said, "Should I prostrate to one You created from clay?"}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|59}}|Indeed, the example of Jesus to Allah is like that of Adam. He created Him from dust; then He said to him, "Be," and he was.}}

Other verses are quite specific that Allah created man with his "hands" from clay or mud as a material:

{{Quote|{{Quran|55|14}}|He created man from clay like [that of] pottery.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|38|71|75}}|[So mention] when your Lord said to the angels, "'''Indeed, I am going to create a human being from clay. So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration.'''" So the angels prostrated - all of them entirely. Except Iblees; he was arrogant and became among the disbelievers. [Allah] said, "O Iblees, what prevented you from prostrating to '''that which I created with My hands?''' Were you arrogant [then], or were you [already] among the haughty?" He said, "I am better than him. '''You created me from fire and created him from clay.'''"}}

Academic scholars have noticed another parallel between the Quranic stories of Adam and Jesus. In {{Quran|3|49}} and {{Quran|5|110}} Jesus is said to have miraculously created birds with Allah's permission by forming them out of dust or clay, then breathing into them. See the section on Jesus and the Clay Birds in the article [[Parallels_Between_the_Qur'an_and_Late_Antique_Judeo-Christian_Literature#Jesus_and_the_Clay_Birds|Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

===Quran 7:27 et al. - All people are descended from Adam and Eve===

The Quran is explicit that every person alive is ultimately descended from Adam and his spouse alone.

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|27}}|O children of Adam, let not Satan tempt you as he removed '''your parents''' from Paradise, stripping them of their clothing to show them their private parts. Indeed, he sees you, he and his tribe, from where you do not see them. Indeed, We have made the devils allies to those who do not believe}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|1}}|O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear Allah, through whom you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed Allah is ever, over you, an Observer.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|70}}|And We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them on the land and sea and provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of what We have created, with [definite] preference.}}Humans are interchangeably referred to as 'the sons of Adam' (banī ādam), with the phrase attested seven times in the Qur'an.<ref name=":0">McAuliffe, J. D. (Eds.). (01 Jan. 2001). "Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān". In Encyclopaedia of the Qur'ān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Retrieved Mar 8, 2025, from <nowiki>https://brill.com/view/serial/ENQU</nowiki> Page 22. Read for free on [https://archive.org/details/encyclopaedia-of-the-quran-6-volumes-jane-dammen-mc-auliffe/page/n59/mode/2up?q=adam internet archive, page (60/3956) of the PDF]

''The phrase “the sons of Adam” (banii Adam) in the sense of “humankind” is attested seven times. ‘The quranic commentators derive the name “Adam” from adim al-ard (‘Abd al-Razzaq, Tafsir, i, 433 ti, 20; Ibn Sa‘d, Tabaqat, i, 26; Tabari, Tafsir, 1, 214-5) or from adamat alard (Tabart, Tafsir, i, 208), because he was created from “the surface of the earth.”''</ref> Qur'anic commentators derive the name “Adam” from adim al-ard or from adamat alard, because he was created from 'the surface of the earth.<ref name=":0" />

====Y-chromosomal Adam, Mitochondrial Eve, and the minimum population bottleneck====
Some modern Muslim scholars argue that the notion of two ancestral “parents” is consistent with recent scientific findings that show a common female and male ancestor of all modern humans. This results, however, from a confusion with the nicknames (Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam) by which scientists have referred to human's earliest genetic ancestors. These two individuals, however, are distinct from the Quranic characters as they are simply the last common male and female ancestors of everyone alive today and not of all humans in history. More importantly, whereas the Qur'an describes Adam and his mate (who, notably, was created ''after'' him and from him), Mitochondrial Eve lived some 50,000 to 80,000 years earlier than Y-chromosomal Adam.<ref>[http://biologos.org/blog/does-genetics-point-to-a-single-primal-couple Adam, Eve, and Human Population Genetics: Responses to Popular Arguments] - Biologos website</ref>

Genetic evidence also overwhelmingly indicates that humans diverged from earlier species as a population rather than as a single couple.<ref>[http://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2011/09/18/how-big-was-the-human-population-bottleneck-not-anything-close-to-2/ How big was the human population bottleneck? Another staple of theology refuted.] - Why Evolution is True website by Professor Jerry Coyne</ref> As geneticist David Reich notes in regards to the “Mitochondrial Eve", .''.the name has been more misleading than helpful. It has fostered the mistaken impression that all of our DNA comes from precisely two ancestors and that to learn about our history it would be sufficient to simply track the purely maternal line represented by mitochondrial DNA, and the purely paternal line represented by the Y chromosome''.<ref>Reich, David. ''Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past (p. 10).'' OUP Oxford. 2018. Kindle Edition.</ref>

==Special creation of sustenance==
The Quranic six day creation account describes in {{Quran-range|41|9|10}} a four day period during which the nourishment on Earth and its mountains were created. The next two verses {{Quran-range|41|11|12}} then describe the creation of the heavens in two days ({{Quran|2|29}} seems to confirm this sequence). Some critics note here that scientifically, the evolution of life on earth and [[w:Food chain|food chains]] is an ongoing process which has never ceased.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|41|9|10}}|Say, "Do you indeed disbelieve in He who created the earth in two days and attribute to Him equals? That is the Lord of the worlds." And He placed on the earth firmly set mountains over its surface, and He blessed it and determined therein its [creatures'] sustenance in four days without distinction - for [the information] of those who ask.}}

==Quranic verses purported to mention evolution==
===Quran 29:19-20 (and others) - Repeated creation===
At least one or some combination of the verses set out in this section are typically quoted by proponents of evolution (or human evolution) in the Quran because they mention that Allah "repeats" his creation. In their view, this sounds a bit like evolution. Others see this as a misrepresentation of the verses, which are about a future creation of each person after their death. This is so that they can return to Allah after death and be condemned or rewarded. This purpose is most explicit in the first verse quoted below, Q. 10:4. As with some of the other passages quoted in this article, according to classical commentaries these verses are concerned with the future resurrection of the dead. Indeed, the Quran has many other verses aimed at critics who doubted the possibility of resurrection. None of the verses unambiguously mention repeated creation as having occurred in the past on Earth.

In all of the verses quoted in this section, the verb "repeat" has the Arabic form IV imperfect tense. The form I imperfect tense is used for "begins" creation in each verse (except for Q. 21:104, which uses the perfect tense). The Form IV imperfect is also used for "will produce" in Q. 29:20. This grammatical information can be verified by following the links for each verse and viewing the "Roots" metadata. In Quranic Arabic, tense (or aspect) is a complicated topic still debated by academic scholars, giving rise to different English translations. Nevetheless, the imperfect tense can certainly serve a number of purposes including to indicate future events.<ref>Alasmari, J, Watson, J.C.E & Atwell, E. (2018). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jawharah-Alasmari/publication/323291430_A_CONTRASTIVE_STUDY_OF_THE_ARABIC_AND_ENGLISH_VERB_TENSE_AND_ASPECT_A_CORPUS-BASED_APPROACH/links/5a8c4d1f458515a4068ad4d1/A-CONTRASTIVE-STUDY-OF-THE-ARABIC-AND-ENGLISH-VERB-TENSE-AND-ASPECT-A-CORPUS-BASED-APPROACH.pdf A Contrastive Study of the Arabic and English Verb Tense and Aspect A Corpus-Based Approach.] PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3), 1604-1615</ref>

{{Quote|{{Quran|10|4}}| To Him is your return all together. [It is] the promise of Allah [which is] truth. Indeed, He begins the [process of] creation and then repeats it that He may reward those who have believed and done righteous deeds, in justice. But those who disbelieved will have a drink of scalding water and a painful punishment for what they used to deny. }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|21|104}}|The Day when We will fold the heaven like the folding of a [written] sheet for the records. As We began the first creation, We will repeat it. [That is] a promise binding upon Us. Indeed, We will do it.}}

At least one commonly cited verse points to existing creation as an analogy to the repeated creation which will come on the day of resurrection. Certainly, the listener is asked to observe the original creation, though it is unclear whether they are also able to observe repeated creation already on Earth:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|29|19|20}}| Have they not considered how Allah begins creation and then repeats it? Indeed that, for Allah, is easy. Say, [O Muhammad], "Travel through the land and observe how He began creation. Then Allah will produce the final creation. Indeed Allah, over all things, is competent."}}

Two similar examples are:

{{Quote|{{Quran|27|64}}| Is He [not best] who begins creation and then repeats it and who provides for you from the heaven and earth? Is there a deity with Allah? Say, "Produce your proof, if you should be truthful."}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|10|34}}|Say, "Are there of your 'partners' any who begins creation and then repeats it?" Say, "Allah begins creation and then repeats it, so how are you deluded?"}}

Another verse sheds some light on the possible referent for this analogy (if indeed any of these verses at all mention repeated creation that has already occurred on Earth).

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|30|24|27}}| And of His signs is [that] He shows you the lightning [causing] fear and aspiration, and He sends down rain from the sky by which He brings to life the earth after its lifelessness. Indeed in that are signs for a people who use reason 
[...] 
And it is He who begins creation; then He repeats it, and that is [even] easier for Him. To Him belongs the highest attribute in the heavens and earth. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.}}

Another possibility occurs elsewhere (again, if existing repeated creation is meant at all). The first two verses are similar to others which detail the destruction and replacement of former faithless and disobedient peoples:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|30|9|11}}|Have they not traveled through the earth and observed how was the end of those before them? They were greater than them in power, and they plowed the earth and built it up more than they have built it up, and their messengers came to them with clear evidences. And Allah would not ever have wronged them, but they were wronging themselves.
Then the end of those who did evil was the worst [consequence] because they denied the signs of Allah and used to ridicule them.
Allah begins creation; then He will repeat it; then to Him you will be returned.}}

In Middle Eastern antiquity, the Great Flood (not evolution) was accepted as the reversal of creation, and the survival of Noah was the new creation. Since the Qur'an supports this story, this may also have been considered an existing example of ''repeated'' creation.

===Quran 71:13-14 - Creation in stages===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|13|14}}|What is [the matter] with you that you do not attribute to Allah [due] grandeur While He has created you in stages?}}
The word translated "stages" is aṭwāran (أَطْوَارًا), which means states or conditions<ref>aṭwāran أَطْوَارًا - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000175.pdf Lane's Lexicon page 1890]</ref> There is no evidence given anywhere to indicate that these ''stages'' refer to evolution. Critics argue that in responding to their lack of faith, these verses expect the Quran's 7th century listeners to understand the meaning, which could hardly then be evolution. The tafsir of Ibn Kathir suggests that the topic may have been the stages of [[Embryology in the Qur'an|embryology]] described elsewhere in the Quran.<ref>[http://m.qtafsir.com/Surah-Nooh/What-Nuh-said-when-He-called-H--- Tafsir of Ibn Kathir for Q. 71:13-14]</ref> Since this verse comes immediately after a speech by Noah to his people, alternatively it could be a reference to the pre and post-flood stages of mankind's history.

A few verses which occur almost immediately afterwards (following a brief interlude about the seven heavens) may shed light on the correct interpretation:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|17|18}}|And Allah has caused you to grow from the earth a [progressive] growth. Then He will return you into it and extract you [another] extraction.}}

These verses poetically mirror the original creation of man from mud or clay (according to tafsirs) with the burial of the dead back into the ground, and finally their future resurrection therefrom.

Perhaps the most likely interpretation then is that verses 13-14 refer to the existing and new creations of each person on the day of resurrection. This would be in keeping with the repeated creation theme of many other verses (discussed in the previous section above).

===Quran 6:2 - Allah decreed a term for us===

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|2}}|He is Who has created you from clay, then he spent a term of time (away from you), and (it is) a specific term he determined. Yet, you doubt (his ability)!}}

This is an outright mistranslation employed by some Muslim apologists, who also insert some of their own words in parentheses. Accurate translations can be seen [http://islamawakened.com/quran/6/2/default.htm here]. A more typical and accurate translation is as follows (Sahih international):

{{Quote|{{Quran|6|2}}|It is He who created you from clay and then decreed a term and a specified time [known] to Him; then [still] you are in dispute.}}

Such language in typical of the Quran when it speaks of the time given to each person before his death or the time mankind has on Earth more generally before the last day. These are also the interpretations of this verse found in tafsirs.

===Quran 6:133 - Raised from the posterity of earlier people===
{{Quote|{{Quran|6|133}}|Thy Lord is self-sufficient, full of Mercy: if it were His will, He could destroy you, and in your place appoint whom He will as your successors, even as He raised you up from the posterity of other people. }}
The phrase "raised you up from the posterity of other people" has been interpreted by some modern Muslim scholars as describing the hominid ancestors of man. Critics of this view note that it is in keeping with several descriptions of destroyed cities elsewhere in the Qur'an, all of which are attributed to Allah (for example the people of 'Ad as successors of Thamud, or the destruction of everyone except Noah and his family by the flood). Critics argue that even supposing that the verse relates modern humans to earlier hominid species, other verses discussed above nevertheless trace mankind ultimately to the creation of Adam from clay, which is not compatible with the common ancestry of all life on Earth.

===Quran 56:60-62 - Transformation of humans===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|56|60|62}}|We have decreed death among you, and We are not to be outdone In that We will change your likenesses and produce you in that [form] which you do not know. And you have already known the first creation, so will you not remember?}}

This verse is also sometimes cited as a reference to human evolution. Others argue that the context is clear a few verses earlier in {{Quran|56|47}} that this is in fact the Quran's answer to critics who mocked the idea of a final resurrection of the dead ("And they used to say, "When we die and become dust and bones, are we indeed to be resurrected?"). This is also the interpretation found in classical commentaries such as the Tafsir of Ibn Kathir which says that death and transformation here pertain to the Day of Judgement.<ref>[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1653&Itemid=112 Tafsir Ibn Kathir for Q. 56:47]</ref>

==Quranic verses purported to mention the origin of life==
===Quran 21:30 and 24:45 - All living things made from water===
{{Quote|{{Quran|21|30}}|Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder? We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe? }}

{{Quote|{{Quran|24|45}}|Allah has created every [living] creature from water. And of them are those that move on their bellies, and of them are those that walk on two legs, and of them are those that walk on four. Allah creates what He wills. Indeed, Allah is over all things competent.}}

The key to understanding the meaning is the context apparent in the first verse, 21:30, which is about the creation of the world.

The Jewish apocryphal book 2 Esdras (1st / 2nd century CE) contains the same concept when describing the days of creation. It is not quite as general as the later Quranic version, as verse 53 states that on the 6th day land animals (cattle, beasts and creeping things) were brought forth from the earth.

{{Quote|1=[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Esdras%206&version=RSV 2 Esdras 6:42, 47-48]|2=
42 “On the third day thou didst command the waters to be gathered together in the seventh part of the earth; six parts thou didst dry up and keep so that some of them might be planted and cultivated and be of service before thee. 
... 
47 “On the fifth day thou didst command the seventh part, where the water had been gathered together, to bring forth living creatures, birds, and fishes; and so it was done. 
48 '''The dumb and lifeless water produced living creatures''', as it was commanded, that therefore the nations might declare thy wondrous works.}}

Academic scholar Gabriel Said Reynolds notes in his academic commentary on the Quran another earlier parallel taught by the Syriac church father Ephrem (d. 373 CE). He writes, "[...] Ephrem, who explains that God created everything through water: 'Thus, through light and water the earth brought forth everything.' Ephrem, ''Commentary on Genesis'', 1:1-10)."<ref>Gabriel Said Reynolds, "The Quran and Bible:Text and Commentary", New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2018 p. 553. This is regarding {{Quran|24|45}}, though on p. 508 Reynolds cross references the same parallel regarding the other verse, {{Quran|21|30}}, which is more clearly a statement in the context of the Genesis creation story, like Ephrem's comment.</ref>

Ephrem's comment is in the context of the Genesis creation story, much like the first Quranic verse quoted above, 21:30. Ephrem says that when heaven and earth were created there were no trees or vegetation as it had not yet rained, so a fountain irrigated the earth. Tafsirs say that when the heaven and earth were separated rain fell so that plants could grow. There is also a similarity with Ephrem in the other verse (24:45), which mentions creatures that move on two, four or no legs. Ephrem explains that as well as the "trees, vegetation and plants", the "Scripture wishes to indicate that all animals, reptiles, cattle and birds came into being as a result of the combining of earth and water".<ref>[https://faberinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Ephrem-the-Syrian-Commentary-on-Genesis-2-3-Brock.pdf Ephrem's commentary on Genesis] - Faber Institute.com</ref> For many more parallels between the Quran and Syriac Christian literature see [[Parallelism_Between_the_Qur%27an_and_Judeo-Christian_Scriptures|this article]].

Ancient Greek figures are also commonly cited in this context. The ancient Greek philosopher [[w:Empedocles|Empedocles]] had already proposed that all living things are made from water among other substances, hundreds of years before the Qur'an was revealed,<ref>Frag. B17, (Simplicius, ''Physics'', 157-159)</ref> while another, 'Anaximander' proposed that the first living creatures were made from evaporated water.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Anaximander Anaximander] - Britannica.com</ref> Thales of Miletus taught that the originating principle of everything including life is water.<ref>[https://iep.utm.edu/thales/#H5 Thales of Miletus] - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref>

The tafsir notionally attributed to Ibn Abbas contains yet another interpretation, that Q. 21:30 refers to the dependence of all living things on water.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/TanwirAl-MiqbasMinTafsirIbnAbbasEng Tanwir al-Miqbas min Tafsir Ibn Abbas] p.361-362</ref> Critics tend to reject this interpretation as the correct reading of the verses, which they argue would in any case be a reasonable guess or observation rather than miraculous.

Scientifically, it is widely believed that life originated in water, most prominently in theories involving the heat and chemistry environment at submarine [[w:Abiogenesis#Hot_springs|hydrothermal vents]], or alternatively [[w:Abiogenesis#Hot_springs|hot springs]] on the surface of the early Earth. However, there is no standard model of the origin of life that is accepted among scientists. Some of the models without water (or having important substances other than water) are listed below.

The "deep-hot biosphere" model says that life first developed not on the surface of the Earth, but several kilometers below the surface. The discovery in the late 1990s of nanobes in deep rock might be seen as evidence. It is now well established that microbial life is plentiful up to 5km below the surface of the Earth.<ref name="nanobe">{{cite web | url=http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/index.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/nanobes/nanobes.html | title=Nanobes–Intro | last= | first= | work= | publisher=microscopy-uk.org | accessdate=2008-01-14 }}</ref>

The "Zn-World" model postulates that zinc salts have the unique ability to store radiation energy, e.g. provided by UV light which was 10 to 100 times more intense in the distant past than now and provided the ideal energy conditions for the synthesis of informational and metabolic molecules. The primordial atmosphere was rich in carbon dioxide and the chemistry of water condensates and exhalations near geothermal fields would resemble that of modern cells. Ionic composition conducive to the origin of cells is shown to be more compatible with emissions of zones that have today become inland geothermal systems than with marine settings. The precellular stages of evolution may have taken place in shallow "Darwin-ponds" lined with porous silicates, metal sulfides, zinc, potassium, and phosphorus compounds.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Mulkidjanian | first1=A. Y. | last2=Bychkov | first2=A. Y. | last3=Dibrova | first3=D. V. | last4=Galperin | first4=M. Y. | last5=Koonin | first5=E. V. | year=2012 | title=Origin of first cells at terrestrial, anoxic geothermal fields | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume=109 | pages=E821–30 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1117774109 | issue=14 | pmid=22331915 | pmc=3325685 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E.821M }}</ref><ref>For a deeper integrative version of this hypothesis see {{cite book | last=Egel | first=R. | editor-last=Lankenau | editor-first=D.-H. | editor2-last=Mulkidjanian, | editor2-first=A. Y. | year=2011 | title=Origins of Life: The Primal Self-Organization | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-642-21625-1}}, in particular {{cite book| last=Lankenau | first=D.-H. | chapter=Two RNA Worlds: Toward the Origin of Replication, Genes, Recombination and Repair | title=Origins of Life: The Primal Self-Organization| publisher=Springer | publication-date=2011 | isbn=978-3-642-21625-1 | pages=225–286 }}, interconnecting the "Two RNA worlds" concept and other detailed aspects; and {{cite journal | last1=Davidovich | first1=C. | last2=Belousoff | first2=M. | last3=Bashan | first3=A. | last4=Yonath | first4=A. | year=2009 | title=The evolving ribosome: from non-coded peptide bond formation to sophisticated translation machinery | journal=Res Microbiol | volume=160 | pages=487–492 | doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2009.07.004 | issue=7 }}</ref>

There is also a "Primitive extraterrestrial organisms" model, which finds support in the studies of Martian meteorites found in Antarctica and in studies of some microbes' survival in outer space.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution/dn2844 | title=Tough Earth bug may be from Mars | publisher=New Scientist |date=25 September 2002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1992-049B-03 | title=Exobiology and Radiation Assembly (ERA) | year=1992 | work=[[ESA]] | publisher=NASA }}</ref><ref name="Gerda Horneck">{{cite journal | doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-09 | title=Space Microbiology | year=2010 | last1=Horneck | first1=G. | last2=Klaus | first2=D. M. | last3=Mancinelli | first3=R. L. | journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews | volume=74 | pages=121–56 | pmid=20197502 | issue=1 | pmc=2832349 }}</ref><ref name="Clancy">{{cite book | last1=Paul Clancy | title=Looking for Life, Searching the Solar System | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date=23 June 2005 }}{{page needed|date=November 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Rabbow">{{cite journal | title=EXPOSE, an Astrobiological Exposure Facility on the International Space Station – from Proposal to Flight | journal=Orig Life Evol Biosph | date=9 July 2009 | first=Elke | last=Rabbow | first2=Gerda | last2=Horneck | first3=Petra | last3=Rettberg | first4=Jobst-Ulrich | last4=Schott | first5=Corinna | last5=Panitz | first6=Andrea | last6=L'Afflitto | first7=Ralf | last7=von Heise-Rotenburg, | first8=Reiner| last8= Willnecker | first9=Pietro | last9=Baglioni | first10=Jason | last10=Hatton, | first11=Jan | last11=Dettmann | first12=René | last12=Demets | first13=Günther | last13=Reitz | doi=10.1007/s11084-009-9173-6 | volume=39 | issue=6 | pages=581–98 | pmid=19629743 | bibcode=2009OLEB...39..581R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Survival of Rock-Colonizing Organisms After 1.5 Years in Outer Space | journal=Astrobiology | date=May 2012 | first=Silvano | last=Onofri | first2=Rosa | last2=de la Torre | first3=Jean-Pierre | last3=de Vera | first4=Sieglinde | last4=Ott | first5=Laura | last5=Zucconi | first6=Laura | last6=Selbmann | first7=Giuliano | last7=Scalzi | first8=Kasthuri J. | last8=Venkateswaran | first9=Elke | last9=Rabbow, | first10=Francisco J. | last10=Sánchez Iñigo | first11=Gerda | last11=Horneck | volume=12 | issue=5 | pages=508–516 | doi=10.1089/ast.2011.0736 | pmid=22680696 | bibcode=2012AsBio..12..508O }}</ref><ref name="Beer">{{cite news | last=Amos | first=Jonathan | title=Beer microbes live 553 days outside ISS | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11039206 | publisher=BBC News | work=Science and Technology | date=23 August 2010 }}</ref> Studies which apply the equivalent of Moore's Law to evolution have proposed that life began 9.7 billion years ago, billions of years before the Earth was formed. Life may have started "from systems with single heritable elements."<ref name="arXiv-20130328">{{cite journal |last1=Sharov |first1=Alexei A. |last2=Gordon|first2=Richard |title=Life Before Earth |url=http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1304/1304.3381.pdf | format=PDF |date=28 March 2013 |journal=[[arXiv]] |arxiv=1304.3381v1 }}</ref><ref name="NIH-20060612">{{cite journal |last=Sharov |first=Alexei A. |title=Genome increase as a clock for the origin and evolution of life |journal=[[Biology Direct]] |volume=1 |pages=1–17 |date=12 June 2006 |issue= |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-1-17 |pmc=1526419 }}</ref>

Different forms of life with variable origin processes may have appeared simultaneously in the early history of Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=are-aliens-among-us&sc=SA_20071119 |title=Are Aliens Among Us?|publisher=Scientific American |last=Davies |first=P |date=19 November 2007 }}</ref>

Scientists have discovered petroleum-degrading bacteria that can live without water.<ref>http://www.astrobio.net/topic/origins/extreme-life/life-in-asphalt/</ref>

Lastly, some critics argue that even though water is a necessity for animals and plants to thrive, it would be a stretch of imagination to say that it is a more defining characteristic of life on Earth, than say, DNA.

===Quran 71:17-18 - Growth from the Earth===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|71|17|18}}|And Allah has caused you to grow from the earth a [progressive] growth. Then He will return you into it and extract you [another] extraction.}}

This verse is sometimes interpreted to contain an inkling of evolution from the simplest lifeforms to humans. For critics though it remains hard to see how humans as "a growth from the Earth" could be interpreted in an evolutionary context. In [[w:Kingdom_(biology)#Seven_kingdoms|the tree of life]], the animal kingdom has a common ancestor with the kingdoms of plants and fungi but does not descend from them. These verses are, however, consistent with the story of the creation of Adam from dust or clay, which is the interpretation found in classical commentaries for these verses. Interpreted that way, Q. 71:17-18 in the above quote poetically mirrors the original creation of humans from mud or clay with the burial of the dead back into the ground, and finally their future resurrection. Critics contend that even supposing it is possible to interpret them in isolation as a reference to evolution, the fact remains that some of the other verses discussed in this article explicitly trace all human descent to a single couple, and state that Adam was specially created from clay.

===Quran 4:1 - Creation from a single soul===
{{Quote|{{Quran|4|1}}|O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women. And fear Allah, through whom you ask one another, and the wombs. Indeed Allah is ever, over you, an Observer.}}

Major translators write the Arabic phrase nafsin wāḥidatin as "single being", "one soul" or "one person". Other translators use "self" or even "cell". Sometimes this verse is interpreted as referring to earliest unicellular lifeforms. Critics of this view see it as contradictory both to the rest of the verse ("many men and women") as well as another verse, 7:189, in which this soul and its mate have sex, a pregnancy and invoke Allah about their child:

{{Quote|{{Quran|7|189}}|It is He who created you from one soul and created from it its mate that he might dwell in security with her. And when he covers her, she carries a light burden and continues therein. And when it becomes heavy, they both invoke Allah, their Lord, "If You should give us a good [child], we will surely be among the grateful."}}

Critics note that if this verse is about the first unicellular organism, then the claim of it having a mate would also have to be true. But the earliest organisms were prokaryotes whose reproduction is overwhelmingly asexual; they do not have any mates.

Regarding 7:189, all the classical exegetes state that this “single soul” (نَّفْسٍ وَٰحِدَةٍ ) refers to Adam. Both classical Sunni and Shia Tafsirs confirm this.

{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Kathir/7.189| Tafsir of ibn Kathir on Qur'an 7:189]|
All Mankind are the Offspring of Adam
Allah states that He has created all mankind from Adam, peace be upon him, and from Adam, He created his wife, Hawwa' and from them, people started to spread.}}

{{Quote|Tafsir of Tabari on Quran 7:189|
قال أبو جعفر: يقول تعالى ذكره: ﴿هو الذي خلقكم من نفس واحدة﴾ ، يعني بالنفس الواحدة: آدم

Abu Ja'afar said: "Allah the Most High mentioned it: "He who created you from one soul" meaning by means of one soul: Adam.}}

{{Quote|Tafsir of Razi on Quran 7:189|
المَسْألَةُ الأُولى: المَرْوِيُّ عَنِ ابْنِ عَبّاسٍ ﴿هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَكم مِن نَفْسٍ واحِدَةٍ﴾ وهي نَفْسُ آدَمَ

The first issue: Almarwi from ibn 'Abaas: "He who created you from one soul" and this soul is the soul of Adam. }}

{{Quote|Tafsir of Al-Qurtubi on Quran 7:189| قَوْلِهِ تَعَالَى: (هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَكُمْ مِنْ نَفْسٍ واحِدَةٍ) قَالَ جُمْهُورُ الْمُفَسِّرِينَ: الْمُرَادُ بِالنَّفْسِ الْوَاحِدَةِ آدَمُ.

The saying of Allah the Most High: "he who created you from one soule"--the community of mufassirun has said: the intended meaning is by means of one soul, Adam.
}}

 

{{Quote|[https://quranx.com/Tafsir/Jalal/7.189; Tafsir of Al-Jalayn on Qur'an 7:189]| He, that is, God, it is Who created you from a single soul, namely, Adam, and made, created, from him his spouse, Eve, that he might take rest in her, and become intimate with her.}}

See also: The Tafsirs of Qurtubi, Uthaymeen, Qummi (Shia), Tusi (Shia), Tabrisi (Shia)

==Hadiths==
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3326|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, "'''Allah created Adam, making him 60 cubits tall'''. When He created him, He said to him, "Go and greet that group of angels, and listen to their reply, for it will be your greeting (salutation) and the greeting (salutations of your offspring." So, Adam said (to the angels), As-Salamu Alaikum (i.e. Peace be upon you). The angels said, "As-salamu Alaika wa Rahmatu-l-lahi" (i.e. Peace and Allah's Mercy be upon you). Thus the angels added to Adam's salutation the expression, 'Wa Rahmatu-l-lahi,' Any person who will enter Paradise will resemble Adam (in appearance and figure). '''People have been decreasing in stature since Adam's creation'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3331|darussalam}}| Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah 's Apostle said, "Treat women nicely, for '''a women is created from a rib''', and the most curved portion of the rib is its upper portion, so, if you should try to straighten it, it will break, but if you leave it as it is, it will remain crooked. So treat women nicely." }}

Additionally, there are Mutawatir hadith narrations (mass transmitted reports) attributed to Muhammad which allude to the belief that Adam is theologically the first human in existence. One such narration can be found here:
{{Quote|[https://dorar.net/h/ab95e2e0848993041f5993a94df7583a&#124| Al-Bidayah wan Nihayah by ibn Kathir]|أنا سيدُ ولدِ آدمَ يومَ القيامةِ ولا فخرَ

“I will be the master (Sayyid) of the children of Adam on the Day of Resurrection”|}}

Ibn Kathir classified this Hadith as Mutawatir in his book Al Bidayaah wan Niyaah.

==See Also==
*[[Creation of Humans from Clay]]
*[[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Creation]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]

The Massacre of the Banu Qurayzah

2026-03-20T22:13:47Z

Lightyears: /* Accounts in Hadiths */

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{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}[[File:Banu qurayza massacre.jpg|175px|right|thumb|Detail from miniature painting: ''The Prophet, Ali, and the Companions at the Massacre of the Prisoners of the Jewish Tribe of Beni Qurayza'', illustration of a 19th century text by Muhammad Rafi Bazil.]]According to the traditional Islamic sources, in 627 AD as a result of the Battle of the Trench during which the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza had renounced their earlier pact with Muhammad and plotted with the besieging enemy, the Muslims under his direct military command laid siege to the Banu Qurayzah compound. After a siege of around 2 weeks, depending on the source, the Jews of Banu Qurayzah surrendered and entrusted their fate to a trusted intermediary from the Muslims of the tribe of 'Aws, Sa'd bin Mu'adh. Sa'd bin Mu'adh advised Muhammad to slaughter the men folk of the tribe and take the women and children as captives. Muhammad took this advice and as a consequence between 400 and 900 male prisoners of the tribe including any boys showing signs of puberty were beheaded, many in front of their families, and the rest of the tribe were taken as captives or sold into slavery. The event is thought to be mentioned in the Quran, is well attested to in the Islamic historical tradition, and has served as the basis for multiple rulings throughout history dealing with the treatment of captured non-Muslims by Muslim military forces. There is much uncertainty about the historic facts according to academic and modernist Muslim scholars.

==Earliest accounts==
===Surah al-Ahzab (The Confederates)===
The most well known version of these events is recorded in the [[Sirat_Rasul_Allah|Sira of Ibn ʾIsḥāq]] (d. 769 CE).<ref>Ibn Ishaq (rescension of his work by Ibn Hisham), Alfred Guillaume (translator), ''The life of Muhammad: a translation of Isḥāq's Sīrat rasūl Allāh Oxford University Press'', 2005, pp. 453, 458-9, 461-69, 479-81</ref> However, there is a brief description in the Quran itself according to the great majority of Islamic scholars, which is also the view of those academic historians who believe there is at least some historicity to the story.

{{Quran-range|33|9|25}} recalls an attempted attack by the confederates on Medina (i.e. Yathrib, mentioned in verse 13). The next two verses (26-27) state that Jewish or Christian supporters of the failed offensive were brought down from their fortresses, then one group were killed and another taken captive:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|26|27}}|And He brought down those who supported them among the People of the Scripture from their fortresses and cast terror into their hearts [so that] a party you killed, and you took captive a party.
And He caused you to inherit their land and their homes and their properties and a land which you have not trodden. And ever is Allah, over all things, competent.}}

Later in the same surah, {{Quran|33|50}} gives Muhammad certain rights over his share of female captives. {{Quran-range|33|55|58}} denounces disbelievers who break their treaties and describes how they should be dealt with. Some early commentators such as Mujahid and al-Tabari said this denunciation referred to or included the Banu Qurayza.<ref>M. J. Kister, [https://web.archive.org/web/20250118072808if_/http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/banu_qurayza.pdf The Massacre of the Banū Qurayẓa: A Re-Examination of a Tradition (archive)], Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 8 (1986), pp. 61-96 (see p. 81)</ref>

===Early sῑra-maghāzī material===
The story is widely reported with varying details in the sῑra (biographical) genre and the maghāzī (raids/expeditions) material therein. The earliest surviving complete work of this genre is Kitāb al-Maghāzī by Mūsā ibn ʿUqba (d. 725 to 737 CE), which was for a long time lost but rediscovered in 2021. It can be read in English translation online including the Banu Qurayza report.<ref>An English translation of Kitāb al-Maghāzī by Mūsā ibn ʿUqba is available for free download: [https://imamghazali.co.uk/products/maghazi-ebook?shpxid=615cb3f1-f756-48ea-8207-7aae5f4ee22c The Maghāzī of Sayyidunā Muhammad by Mūsā ibn ʿUqbah], Imam Ghazali Publishing, 2024. See pp. 104-9, and pp. 112-17 on the subsequent massacre and enslavement of the Banu Qurayza.</ref> Mūsā ibn ʿUqba was a student of Ibn Shihāb az-Zuhrī (d. 741 CE), who himself wrote the first maghāzī book. Al-Zuhrī's narrations feature heavily in the sῑra-maghāzī literature and are an important source of information about early Islamic history. Al-Zuhrī as well as several other sources are credited by Ibn ʾIsḥāq for each contributing parts of his account.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The Life of Muhammad p. 450</ref>

There are some differences as described in the next section between Mūsā ibn ʿUqba's version of the Banu Qurayza incident and the slightly later and longer one by Ibn ʾIsḥāq, who served the 'Abbasid Caliphate.

==Accounts in the sῑra==
===Background===
In an oft-cited academic article on the topic, Professor Meir J. Kister includes some background to the agreement which the Banu Qurayza are said to have later broken according to early sources, allowing the Banu Qurayza to stay after the Banu al-Nadir had been expelled from Medina.

{{Quote|M. J. Kister, ''The Massacre of the Banū Qurayẓa: A Re-Examination of a Tradition'', 1986, pp. 82-3<ref name="Kister" />|How this kind of agreement was concluded can be learned from a report recorded by ʿAbd al-Razzaq on the authority of Mūsā b. ʿUqba: The Nadīr and Qurayẓa fought the Prophet; the Prophet expelled the Nadīr but agreed that Qurayẓa should stay. Later Qurayẓa fought the Prophet. They were defeated, the men were executed, the women, children and property were divided among the Muslims. Some of the Jews received the amān (safety) of the Prophet and converted to Islam. This account is corroborated and elucidated by a report traced back to al-Zuhrī: the Prophet, informed about the treacherous intentions of the Nadīr, marched out against them with troups (''bi-l-katā'ib'') and besieged them. He demanded that they conclude a compact with him; if they refused, he in turn would refuse to grant them an assurance of safety (...''innakum lā ta'manuna ʿindī illā bi-ʿahdin tu'āhidūnī ʿalayhi''). They refused and the forces of the Prophet fought them (i.e. the Nadīr) throughout the day. Next day the Prophet left the Nadīr, went out with horsemen and troops against the Qurayẓa and summoned them to conclude an agreement: they consented and concluded a treaty and the Prophet left them. He returned with his troops to the Nadir and fought them until they surrendered on condition that they would be expelled.}}

===Battle preparations===
According to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad's constant aggressive raids and warmongering against the Meccans had driven them, in alliance with the Jewish tribes he had expelled from Yathrib and the north Arabian tribe of Ghatfan, to put an end to him and his movement once and for all. The three original Jewish tribes of Medina, the Banu Nadir, the Banu Qaynuqaa', and the Banu Qurayza, had seen their number dwindle to one as Muhammad had expelled the Banu Nadir and the Banu Qaynuaqaa' from Medina on different pretexts. Meanwhile their property, including their precious palm trees, had been seized by Muhammad and the Muslims. Together with the Meccans and the Ghatfan, the exiled Jewish tribes of Medina had formed an alliance and gathered an army whose numbers are given in the sira as being around 10,000 strong, including over 600 mounted horsemen against very few cavalry for the Muslims, and 7,000 stronger than the army which had defeated Muhammad and the Muslims at Uhud. Muhammad at this time could call on a force of only around 3,000 men. Muhammad received word of their advance and began to make preparations by digging a trench with his men.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, , Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad pp. 450-452</ref> In al Waqidi's version, the Banu Qurayzah lent the Muslims entrenching tools.<ref>Kister, p. 85</ref> The Muslim strategy relied on the Banu Qurayza, whose fort lay in the rear of the Muslim defenses, not breaking their agreement with Muhammad and joining with the confederates.

===Battle of the Trench (al Khandaq) and the Banu Qurayza's role===
Ibn Ishaq records that the two sides pitched their camps either side of the trench. The leader of the Banu al-Nadir, Huyayy bin Akhtab An-Nadri, then went to the Banu Qurayza to ask them to abandon their agreement with Muhammad. According to Ibn Ishaq, initially the leader of the Banu Qurayzah, Ka'b bin Asad al-Qurayzi, refused to abandon his commitment to Muhammad, but after much wheedling from Huyayy agreed to do so.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad, p. 453</ref> An additional detail in Mūsā ibn ʿUqba's account is that this had been a vow not to deceive Muhammad nor aid his enemies against him, and to assist him against anyone who attacked Yathrib (Medina). In this version they also promise to join the fight against him so long as hostages are provided by the confederates to guarantee they will both commit to the fight come what may. This is agreed by the Quraysh and so the Banu Qurayza declare war on Muhammad.<ref>Mūsā ibn ʿUqba, Kitāb al-Maghāzī translated by Imam Ghazali Publishing, pp. 105</ref>

Ibn Ishaq reports that Muhammad sent some men to the Banu Qurayza to find out whether they had really abandoned their agreement, which they confirmed and insults were exchanged. A siege by the confederates against Medina with little action besides the shooting of arrows then ensued for around 20 days.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad, pp. 453-4</ref> In Mūsā ibn ʿUqba's version, it is after this siege period that Muhammad first sent his men to the Banu Qurayza, who explain their refusal to renew their alliance with him due to the way their kin, the Banu al-Nadir, had been treated.<ref>Mūsā ibn ʿUqba, Kitāb al-Maghāzī translated by Imam Ghazali Publishing, pp. 106-7</ref>

Ibn Ishaq offers as evidence of the Banu Qurayza’s perfidy a story with isnad chain from Yaḥyā b. ʿAbbād b. ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zubayr that a Muslim woman, Ṣafīyya bint ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, saw a Jew walking around their fort. She feared that he was scouting for weaknesses as the Banu Qurayza had gone to war and cut the fort's communications with Muhammad. She told the fort's commander Hassan of this and asked him to kill the scout, and when he refused she took a club and went out and beat the man to death.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad, p. 458</ref>

The sequence of events that Ibn Ishaq goes on to describe differs considerably from Musa's narrative. While Muhammad and his men continued to endure the siege, Nuʿaym ibn Masʿūd, a member of the Ghatafan who had secretly become Muslim, came to Muhammad, who sends him to sow distrust among the enemy, "for war is deceit". In Ibn Ishaq's version, it is now that the confederate hostages idea is first raised, as a suggestion by Nuʿaym to the Banu Qurayza, which they embrace as a prerequisite to joining the fight against Muhammad (this contradicts the scout story in which they are already active).<ref>Ibid. pp. 458-9</ref> In Mūsā ibn ʿUqba's account, as mentioned above, this had been the Banu Qurayza's own proposal before the siege got underway.

Ibn Ishaq reports that Nuʿaym then (or as his sole act in the version reported by Musa, having reported to Muhammad what he had learned of Banu Qurayza's offer) tricked the Quraysh leader Abu Sufyan that the Banu Qurayza had switched sides again and would request hostages only in order to betray them. According to Ibn Ishaq this led Abu Sufyan to send a message to the Banu Qurayza, who do indeed make the request as a condition of joining the fight. Thus Nuʿaym's trickery of them both plays out perfectly.

Mūsā ibn ʿUqba had placed Abu Sufyan's message and the reply in an earlier context, following the initial siege period, and with another, more important difference. He reports from al-Zuhri that the Banu Qurayza make this offer on their own initiative after the same message to them from Abu Sufyan, and that the offer is only that they would not hold him back so long as hostages are provided, i.e. they do not offer to actively join the fight.<ref>Mūsā ibn Uqba, Kitāb al-Maghāzī translated by Imam Ghazali Publishing, p. 108</ref>

In either version, Nuʿaym's efforts (whether he had tricked one or both parties) had successfully sown distrust between the confederates and the Banu Qurayza. A bitter wind had also overturned the tents and pots of the confederate camp (see {{Quran|33|9}}). All of this led Abu Sufyan to order the departure of his men, and their Ghatafan allies likewise abandoned the siege the next morning.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad, pp. 459-60</ref> <ref>Mūsā ibn Uqba, Kitāb al-Maghāzī translated by Imam Ghazali Publishing, p. 108-11</ref>

From the above it can be said that while both Ibn Ishaq and Musa's versions have the Banu Qurayza refusing to honour their agreement, the only evidence provided by Ibn Ishaq that they actively aided the confederates or plotted to do so is the scouting report and the story of Nuʿaym enticing them (which contradicts the former, as mentioned above). Musa's version reports a more active role, with the Banu Qurayza proposing before the siege begins to join the fight on receipt of confederate hostages as a guarantee, though he also includes the report from al-Zuhri in which the Banu Qurayza only offer not to hold Abu Sufyan back with the same hostage condition.

===Siege of the Banu Qurayza===
The battle of the trench being won, Muhammad and his men put their weapons down to head home. According to the sirah, though, Allah had other plans. The angel [[Jibreel]] appeared to Muhammad just as he had put down his weapon, and commanded him to march on the Jews of the Banu Qurayzah. The Muslims laid them under siege for differing amounts of time depending on the source (Ibn Ishaq claims 25 days before "Allah cast terror in their hearts"). The Banu Qurayzah were told to surrender and accept Islam, something they swore they would never do. Despairing of their position, they discussed three options according to Ibn Ishaq (though Musa b. Uqba omits this element): accepting Islam, killing their wives and children and engaging in a banzai-style attack against the numerically superior Muslim forces (perhaps, modern commentators have added, in emulation of their religious forbearers at Masada in Palestine), or engaging in a sneak attack on the Jewish Sabbath. The Jews of the Banu Qurayzah found none of these options acceptable.

Unable to come to a decision and under siege for weeks, the Banu Qurayzah asked to speak with Abu Lubaba, a man of the tribe of 'Aws, their allies. Abu Lubaba, when asked what the Banu Qurayzah should do, advised them to surrender to the prophet, but at the same time raised his hand to his neck, indicating they would be slaughtered.<ref>ibid, 462</ref> After he left, he felt that his action in telling the Banu Qurayzah of their fate was a betrayal of the prophet, and he tied himself to a pillar to ask for Allah's forgiveness, an act that Muhammad approved of. Despite this warning, the Banu Qurayzah surrendered to the Muslims the following day.<ref>ibid, 463</ref>

===The decision on their fate===
Ibn Ishaq reports that the tribe of 'Aws, allies of the Banu Qurayzah from the time of jahilliyah, asked for mercy for them from the prophet. The prophet, not wanting to cause dissension in his ranks (oaths and alliances of loyalty were very important in tribal Arab society, as in the absence of courts and established governments the only guaranty of security and justice which could be obtained was the promise of protection from allies in the case of murder, family feuds or war), entrusted the fate of the Banu Qurayzah to a trusted elder shaykh of the 'Aws, Sa‘d bin Mu‘adh, who had been mortally wounded during the battle and would in fact die shortly after the slaughter of the Banu Qurayza. In Musa b. Uqbah's version, it is the Banu Qurayza themselves who choose Sa'd to determine their fate.<ref>Mūsā ibn Uqba, Kitāb al-Maghāzī translated by Imam Ghazali Publishing, p. 114</ref>. Once Sa'd bin Mu'adh had ascertained that both the Banu Qurayzah and the prophet would abide by his judgement, whatever it be, he gave it without hesitation: the men of the Banu Qurayzah were to be executed to the last, their property divided, while the women and children should be taken as captives.

Some authors assert that Sa'd bin Mu‘adh justified this decision as being from the Torah of the Jews itself. Some of them point to Deuteronomy 20:12-14 which reads as follows:{{Quote|Deuteronomy 20:12-14|וְאִם לֹ֤א תַשְׁלִים֙ עִמָּ֔ךְ וְעָשְׂתָ֥ה עִמְּךָ֖ מִלְחָמָ֑ה וְצַרְתָּ֖ עָלֶֽיהָ וּנְתָנָ֛הּ יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֶ֖יךָ בְּיָדֶ֑ךָ וְהִכִּיתָ֥ אֶת כָּל זְכוּרָ֖הּ לְפִי חָֽרֶב רַ֣ק הַ֠נָּשִׁים וְהַטַּ֨ף וְהַבְּהֵמָ֜ה וְכֹל֩ אֲשֶׁ֨ר יִהְיֶ֥ה בָעִ֛יר כָּל־ שְׁלָלָ֖הּ תָּבֹ֣ז לָ֑ךְ וְאָֽכַלְתָּ֙ אֶת שְׁלַ֣ל אֹיְבֶ֔יךָ אֲשֶׁ֥ר נָתַ֛ן יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֶ֖יךָ לָֽךְ

But if the city makes no peace with you, but makes war against you, then you shall besiege it; and when the Lord your God gives it into your hand you shall put all its males to the sword, but the women and the little ones, the cattle, and everything else in the city, all its spoil, you shall take as booty for yourselves; and you shall enjoy the spoil of your enemies, which the Lord your God has given you.}}

Although modern Muslims cite this verse in justification of Mu'adh's verdict, no primary source says explicitly that Sa'd based his verdict on the Torah. In addition, it should be noted that neither Jewish nor Christian tradition understands this verse as a blanket rule for warfare, but rather as a specific command to the Jews under the command of Joshua who were fighting the pagan peoples of the Holy Land. It has not, generally, been used by either religion to justify the sort of massacre that took place in Medina in other historical contexts.

===The massacre and division of captives and property===
Musa b. Uqba is very brief on what happened next: "So, the Messenger of Allah had their fighters executed, and there were, they say, six hundred of them. They were killed at the house of Abū Jahm in Balāṭ – which was not [known as Balāṭ] at that time – and they say that their blood reached Aḥjār al-Zayt in the market. He took their women and children as prisoners of war and had their wealth divided amongst the Muslims who were present." He goes on to describe the beheading of Huyayy who had convinced the Banu Qurayza to abandon their agreement with Muhammad before the battle.<ref>Ibid. p. 114-5</ref>

Ibn Ishaq's account of this incident has a little more detail, including the execution method.<ref>Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad, p. 464</ref> He additionally includes three poems attributed to Hassan b. Thabit which mention the slaying of the Banu Qurayza for treachery.<ref>Ibid. pp. 479-81</ref>. In this account, the prisoners, thus condemned, were kept in the house or compound of a Muslim woman d. Al-Hārith of the Banu al-Najjār tribe. In the morning the men were marched in batches to Muhammad and were executed by decapitation over trenches which had been dug in the city's market. He says there were 600 to 700 in all, though some said as high as 800 to 900. Ibn Ishaq includes a report from Aisha that one woman was amongst them. He includes various other narrations about individuals, including a survivor, Atiyyah al-Qurazi, who was spared because he was not yet an adult and only adults were killed.<ref>Ibid. pp. 465-6</ref> The other women, the children and property were divided among the Muslims, with a horseman receiving 3 times the spoils of a foot soldier. The haul of weapons and plunder was substantial, but Muhammad still sent some of the women and children to be sold in the Najd for more horses and weapons.<ref>Ibid, p. 466</ref> Muhammad as was custom received his fifth share of the loot including his pick of the females, a beautiful Jewish woman named Rayhana whose husband was decapitated, and the rest went to all the rest of the Muslims.<ref>Ibid, p. 466</ref>

==Accounts in Hadiths==
Hadiths collected by al-Bukhari include many of the elements which feature in the sira literature. This includes a narration that the angels commanded Muhammad to take the war to the Banu Qurayza:{{Quote| {{Bukhari|||2813|darussalam}}| Narrated 'Aisha: When Allah's Apostle returned on the day (of the battle) of Al-Khandaq (i.e. Trench), he put down his arms and took a bath. Then Gabriel whose head was covered with dust, came to him saying, "You have put down your arms! By Allah, I have not put down my arms yet." Allah's Apostle said, "Where (to go now)?" Gabriel said, "This way," pointing towards the tribe of Banu Qurayza. So Allah's Apostle went out towards them.}}

Similiarly, the following narration has the account of Sa'd condemning them to their fate:{{Quote| {{Bukhari|||3804|darussalam}}| Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: Some people (i.e. the Jews of Bani bin Quraiza) agreed to accept the verdict of Sad bin Muadh so the Prophet sent for him (i.e. Sad bin Muadh). He came riding a donkey, and when he approached the Mosque, the Prophet ﷺ said, "Get up for the best amongst you." or said, "Get up for your chief." Then the Prophet ﷺ said, "O Sad! These people have agreed to accept your verdict." Sad said, "I judge that their warriors should be killed and their children and women should be taken as captives." The Prophet ﷺ said, "You have given a judgment similar to Allah's Judgment (or the King's judgment)."}}

Incidentally, another hadith narrates, like in the sira accounts, that after Sa'd was called upon to provide a fair judgement to the Banu Qurayza as a former ally, he succumbed to mortal wounds suffered during the battle of the trench, wishing for death to the infidels:{{Quote| {{Bukhari|||4122|darussalam}}| Sa`d was wounded on the day of Khandaq (i.e. Trench) when a man from Quraish, called Hibban bin Al-`Araqa hit him (with an arrow). The man was Hibban bin Qais from (the tribe of) Bani Mais bin 'Amir bin Lu'ai who shot an arrow at Sa`d's medial arm vein (or main artery of the arm). The Prophet (ﷺ) pitched a tent (for Sa`d) in the Mosque so that he might be near to the Prophet (ﷺ) to visit. When the Prophet returned from the (battle) of Al-Khandaq (i.e. Trench) and laid down his arms and took a bath Gabriel came to him while he (i.e. Gabriel) was shaking the dust off his head, and said, "You have laid down the arms?" By Allah, I have not laid them down. Go out to them (to attack them)." The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Where?" Gabriel pointed towards Bani Quraiza. So Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) went to them (i.e. Banu Quraiza) (i.e. besieged them). They then surrendered to the Prophet's judgment but he directed them to Sa`d to give his verdict concerning them. Sa`d said, "I give my judgment that their warriors should be killed, their women and children should be taken as captives, and their properties distributed." Narrated Hisham: My father informed me that `Aisha said, "Sa`d said, "O Allah! You know that there is nothing more beloved to me than to fight in Your Cause against those who disbelieved Your Apostle and turned him out (of Mecca). O Allah! I think you have put to an end the fight between us and them (i.e. Quraish infidels). And if there still remains any fight with the Quraish (infidels), then keep me alive till I fight against them for Your Sake. But if you have brought the war to an end, then let this wound burst and cause my death thereby.' So blood gushed from the wound. There was a tent in the Mosque belonging to Banu Ghifar who were surprised by the blood flowing towards them. They said, 'O people of the tent! What is this thing which is coming to us from your side?' Behold! Blood was flowing profusely out of Sa`d's wound. Sa`d then died because of that."}}

Bukhari also has this narration on the fate of the Banu Qurayza, carried out in accordance with Sa'd's judgement:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4028|darussalam}}, See Also: {{Muslim||1766a|reference}}|Narrated Abd-Allah ibn Umar: Banu Nadir and Banu Qurayza fought (against the Prophet violating their peace treaty), so the Prophet exiled Bani An-Nadir and allowed Bani Quraiza to remain at their places (in Medina) taking nothing from them till they fought against the Prophet again). He then killed their men and distributed their women, children and property among the Muslims, but some of them came to the Prophet and he granted them safety, and they embraced Islam. He exiled all the Jews from Medina. They were the Jews of Banu Qaynuqa, the tribe of Abdullah bin Salam and the Jews of Bani Haritha and all the other Jews of Medina. }}

A hadith graded sahih in Sunan Ibn Majah reports that signs of puberty determined whether or not a male youth would be spared. This narration from the same survivor is also reported in Ibn Ishaq as mentioned at the end of the Sira section above, though the translation there has the word "adult" instead of "whose pubic hair had grown":{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||3|20|2541}} (also {{Abu Dawud||4404|darussalam}})|It was narrated that 'Abdul-Malik bin `Umair said:
“I heard 'Atiyyah Al-Quradhi say: 'We were presented to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) on the Day of Quraidhah. Those whose pubic hair had grown were killed, and those whose pubic hair had not yet grown were let go. I was one of those whose pubic hair had not yet grown, so I was let go.”}}

==Tafsir commentary==
The famed [[tafsir|mufassir]] Ibn Kathir in his commentary on sura 33 Al-Ahzab الأحزاب "The Confederates" draws on pertinent details from the narrative, particularly the anti-Jewish elements. Like other commentators, he reads into the Quran's denouncement of the people of the book the perfidious Jews of the tribe of Banu Qurayzah and their betrayal of the prophet:
{{Quote|Tafsir of Ibn Kathir Qur'an Surah 33

|وَلِهَذَا قَالَ تَعَالَى: ﴿وَأَنزلَ الَّذِينَ ظَاهَرُوهُمْ﴾ أَيْ: عَاوَنُوا الْأَحْزَابَ وَسَاعَدُوهُمْ عَلَى حَرْبِ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ ﷺ ﴿مِنْ أَهْلِ الْكِتَابِ﴾ يَعْنِي: بَنِي قُرَيْظَةَ مِنَ الْيَهُودِ، مِنْ بَعْضِ أَسْبَاطِ بَنِي إِسْرَائِيلَ، كَانَ قَدْ نَزَلَ آبَاؤُهُمُ الْحِجَازَ قَدِيمًا، طَمَعًا فِي اتِّبَاعِ النَّبِيَّ الْأُمِّيَّ الذِي يَجِدُونَهُ مَكْتُوبًا عِنْدَهُمْ فِي التَّوْرَاةِ وَالْإِنْجِيلِ، ﴿فَلَمَّا جَاءَهُمْ مَا عَرَفُوا كَفَرُوا بِه﴾ [الْبَقَرَةِ: ٨٩] ، فَعَلَيْهِمْ لَعْنَةُ اللَّهِ.

For thus the most-High said "Those how had backed them (the confederates) came down" meaning: they assisted the confederates and helped them to make war on the Apostle of God (sala allah 'aleyhi wasallam). "From the people of the book" that is to say the Banu Qurayza of the Jews, descendants of the sons of Israel, who had come down to the Hijaz in olden times, doing so (aiding the Meccans) greedily against the followers of the illiterate prophet (Muhammad) whom they found written about in the Torah and the Gospel "when he came to them they did not know him and disbelieved in him" (surah al-baqarah 89) }}He refers here to [[Surah]] 33:{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|26|27}}| And He brought those of the People of the Scripture who supported them down from their strongholds, and cast panic into their hearts. Some ye slew and ye made captive some.

And He caused you to inherit their land and their houses and their wealth, and land ye have not trodden. Allah is Able to do all things }}

Ibn Kathir includes the narration that it was the angels themselves who implored Muhammad not to stop fighting. Thus Ibn Kathir emphasises that the fate of the Banu Qurayzah was the work of their own hand, a fate approved of and commanded by heaven itself. This is further underlined when he includes Muhammad's response to Sa'd's judgement upon them from the sira narratives:{{Quote| Tafsir Ibn Kathir on Surah 33|2=فَقَالَ: إِنِّي أَحْكُمُ أَنْ تُقْتَلَ مُقَاتلتهم، وتُسبْى ذُرِّيَّتُهُمْ وَأَمْوَالُهُمْ. فَقَالَ لَهُ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ ﷺ: "لَقَدْ حَكَمْتَ بِحُكْمِ اللَّهِ مِنْ فَوْقِ سَبْعَةِ أَرْقِعَةٍ"(٨) . وَفِي رِوَايَةٍ: "لَقَدْ حكمتَ بِحُكْمِ المَلك". ثُمَّ أَمْرَ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ ﷺ بِالْأَخَادِيدِ فَخُدّت فِي الْأَرْضِ، وَجِيءَ بِهِمْ مُكْتَفِينَ، فَضَرَبَ أَعْنَاقَهُمْ، وَكَانُوا مَا بَيْنَ السَّبْعِمِائَةِ إِلَى الثَّمَانِمِائَةِ، وَسَبَى مَنْ لَمْ يُنبت مِنْهُمْ مَعَ النِّسَاءِ وَأَمْوَالِهِمْ(٩)

Then he (Sa'ad) said: My judgement is that their fighting-age men be killed, and their families and wealth be taken as booty. The prophet (sala allah 'aleyhi wasallam) said "You have judged with the judgement of Allah above the seven heavens." In another narration: "You have judged with the judgement of the King (Allah)." Then the Messenger of Allah commanded that ditches should be dug, so they were dug in the earth, and they were brought tied by their shoulders, and were beheaded. There were between seven hundred and eight hundred of them. The children who had not yet reached adolescence and the women were taken prisoner, and their wealth was seized.}}

==Modern apologetic views and perspectives==
<center><youtube>UZE1N56fswY</youtube></center>In the clip above Muslim scholar Yasir Qadhi, well respected for his degrees from the Islamic University of Medina as well as from Yale, makes the argument that Muhammad was dealing with treachery and he had taken the maximum punitive actions against it. Qadhi argues that the prophet was justified in every step and showed as much restraint as necessary, being motivated purely by concerns on statecraft and practicality, not by malice. As he says, it is possible to accuse the prophet of being "harsh" but not of acting with malice towards the Banu Qurayza or the Jews in general, as this would not be "academically valid." Yasir Qadhi states that the punishment was "harsh" and yet it is sometimes necessary to be harsh. Yaqeen institute scholar Abu Amina Elias (Justin Parrott) makes the cases that killing the "fighting men" prisoners of the Banu Qurayzah was an "act of self-defense" on the part of the Muslim community and cites Deuteronomy 20:12-14 to justify the actions of the Muslims. He also claims that the prophet only sent his men with their arms to "defend themselves" and that the women and children of the Banu Qurayzah were taken "into captivity" for their protection since all of their men folk had been slaughtered.<ref>"Did the Prophet commit genocide against Jews?" Faith in Allah There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger https://abuaminaelias.com/prophet-genocide-banu-qurayza/ April 8, 2013</ref> Karen Armstrong, in her book A Short History of Islam, likewise claims "The struggle did not indicate any hostility towards Jews in general, but only towards the three rebel tribes. The Quran continued to revere Jewish prophets and to urge Muslims to respect the People of the Book."<ref>Islam:A Short History Karen Armstrong Modern Library 2002</ref>

These arguments echo the motivations of much of the source material above. Ibn Ishaq implies that the Jews of Banu Qurayzah posed a threat to the Muslims via their betrayal and does portray Muhammad as hesitating to decide their fate (even though Abu Lubaba seems to already know of it before Sa'd was appointed to judge them). Ibn Ishaq recounts how "harsh" the punishment was:{{Quote|{{citation|page=462 (paragraph: 686)|trans_title=The Life of Muhammad|title=Sirat Rasul Allah|author1=Ibn Ishaq|author2=Ibn Hisham|author3=al-Tabari|editor=A. Guillaume|year=1955|publisher=Oxford UP|ISBN=0196360331|location=Karachi|url=https://archive.org/details/GuillaumeATheLifeOfMuhammad/page/n381/mode/2up}}|Apostle sent him (Abu Lubaba) to them (Banu Quraiza), and when they saw him they got up to meet him. The women and children went up to him weeping in his face, and he felt sorry for them. They said, ‘Oh Abu Lubaba, do you think that we should submit to Muhammad's judgement? He said ‘yes' and pointed with his hand to his throat signifying slaughter.}}Yet critics of these pro-Islam viewpoints have pointed out that Sa'd did not explicitly say he based his verdict on the Torah and the verse cited by modern Muslims from Deuteronomy to justify the extermination of the Banu Qurayzah was not viewed in this way by traditional Christian or especially Jewish scholarship. According to Jewish doctrine, these verses were revealed to Moses before the Israelites entered the Holy Land, specifically instructing them on how to deal with the people living there.<ref>"Muhammad’s atrocity against the Qurayza Jews" James M. Arlandson Answering Islam https://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Arlandson/qurayza_jews.htm</ref> Morever, the claim that there was no apparent animus towards the Jews of Banu Qurayza on the part of Muhammad is contradicted by Ibn Ishaq's account:{{Quote|Ibn Ishaq's ''Sira'' (english translation by Guillaume) p. 461; see also Musa b. Uqbah, ''Kitab al-Maghazi'' (english translation by Imam Ghazali publishing) p. 113| "When the apostle approached their forts he [Muhammad] said: "You brothers of monkeys, has God disgraced you and brought his vengeance upon you?"

Banu Qurayza replied: "O Abu'l-Qasim [Muhammad], you are not a barbarous person" }}

In mocking them as apes, Muhammad is here echoing the Qur'an, which claims that (some) Jews were turned into apes for violating the sabbath ({{Quran|50|60}}).
Ibn Ishaq also records that Muhammad took one of the Jewish women of the Banu Qurayza, Rayhanah, for himself.<ref>"The Apostle had chosen one of the women for himself, Rayḥāna d. ʿAmr b. Khunāfa, one of the women of B. ʿAmr b. Qurayẓa, and she remained with him until she died, in his power." Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator), The life of Muhammad: a translation of Isḥāq's Sīrat rasūl Allāh Oxford Universite Press 2005, p.466</ref> Indeed, according to this account the destruction of this tribe allowed Muhammad to reward his fighters handsomely (and Muhammad himself took a fifth of the booty). Abu Amina Elias's view that the Muslims took such women and children as Rayhana captive simply for their protection is also inconsistent with the reports, as Ibn Ishaq also recounts that some of them were taken to the far-off region of the Najd to be sold for weapons and horses. Yasir Qadhi himself points out that the Banu Qurayzah were offered freedom to live on were they to accept Islam, and according to the sirah only their hard, petulant hearts which rejected Muhammad despite knowing he was a prophet prevented them from allowing themselves to be saved by conversion to Islam. In this way the sirah portrays their Jewish religion as leading to the pitilessness way with which Muhammad dealt with them, which in addition to the apes insult, critics may argue goes against Qadhi's point that the prophet acted without malice or religious animus according to the sources we have. Bukhari also collected a hadith that the prophet commanded his men to abuse the Banu Qurayzah with poetry, which was in ancient Arab times one of the premier ways of promoting enmity with an enemy (Muhammad ordered poets who did this to him to be killed):{{Quote| {{Bukhari|||4123|darussalam}}|Narrated Al-Bara: "On the day of Qurayza’s (besiege), Allah's Apostle said to Hassan bin Thabit, 'Abuse them (with your poems), and Gabriel is with you"}}

==Academic views on historicity==
The narrative of the Banu Qurayzah is an accepted part of Islamic law, and early Islamic jurists closely studied and analyzed every detail when ruling on the conduct of war, such as how to conduct arbitration and executions.<ref>M. J. Kister, [https://web.archive.org/web/20250118072808if_/http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/banu_qurayza.pdf The Massacre of the Banū Qurayẓa: A Re-Examination of a Tradition (archive)], Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 8 (1986), see pp. 66-74</ref> As such there is no question amongst orthodox Muslims that it happened (Islamic modernist scholars commonly doubt it). Yet the historiography of the subject is not without its own problems.

As mentioned above, at the outline level, most academic scholars accept the tradition that {{Quran-range|33|26|27}} refers to the Banu Qurayza (with context about a confederate siege on Yathrib in verses 9-25 of the same surah). The details of the sira narratives are generally treated with greater doubt, particularly the number of men executed.

A tribe of that name seems to have existed given that many al-Qurayzi names later appear as Muslim narrators or transmitters of hadiths on other topics (including Muhammad ibn Ka'b al-Qurazi, Uthman ibn Ka'b al-Qurazi, Tha'laba bin Abi Malik al-Qurazi; there is also a hadith about Rifa'ah Al-Qurazi's wife, and there is the report mentioned above from Atiyya al-Qurazi about the massacre).

===Constitution of Medina===
Nevertheless, modern academia has cast serious doubts on the scholarship of Islamic scholars working in the 8th century (2nd Islamic century) such as Ibn Ishaq. An enduring puzzle in this context is the ''Constitution of Medina'' صحيفة مدينة also known as the Ummah Document or صحيفة الأمة. As Fred Donner points, this is one of the earliest documents we have from the nascent proto-Islamic movement. This remarkable document, preserved by the Islamic historian [[Al-Tabari]], lays out a compact for the "believers" of Medina, an "ummah" or national community that includes the Jews as "believers" on the same level as the Arab believers. Fred Donner believes this document actually points to an early, occulted history of Islam in which Arab monotheists joined with Jews into one "ummah" under the command of Muhammad. Troublingly for the historical narrative, this document makes mention of many different Jewish tribes, but the main 3 tribes of the sira, the Banu Qurayza, the Banu Qaynuqaa', and the Banu Nadir are conspicuously absent. It is in fact the absence of these tribes which convinces scholars that the document must be very old despite being preserved only in the 9th-century works of Tabari, since a younger document would presumably would have been changed to agree with the established historical narrative. Donner mentions that many early 7th century mosques do not include the qibla facing towards Mecca, and concludes that this story of the massacre of the Banu Qurayzah may have been invented or embellished in order to explain a much later break between the Jewish and Muslim communities.<ref>Muhammad and the Believers: At the Orgins of Islam, Fred Donner, Harvard University Press 2010, p. 72-73</ref>

Patricia Crone and Michael Cook in their groundbreaking work ''Hagarism'' likewise report on an Armenian historian writing in the 7th century known as pseudo-Sebeos. This historian imputes the Arab invasions to a confederation of Jews and Arabs led by Muhammad himself, contradicting the Islamic narrative that Muhammad died before the invasion of Palestine and the Middle East. Pseudo-Sebeos likewise imputes to the Arabs and Jews a shared monotheism and brotherhood through their ancestry to Abraham and his wife Hagar.<ref>Hagarism: Making of the Islamic World, Patricia Crone and Michael Cook, Cambridge University Press 1977, p. 6-8</ref> If this account is to be believed, there could not have been any great massacre of the Jews by Muhammad as we has working with them when he invaded Palestine. Stephen Shoemaker in his work ''The Death of a Prophet'' adds further evidence to thesis of Crone and Cook, marshaling evidence from a wide variety of sources, almost all of which predate the first Islamic sources, that Muhammad himself was actually the leader of the believers when they entered Palestine and he died only after its conquest. In particular he calls attention to a Jewish apocalypse from the 7th century, the Secrets of Rabbi ben Shim'on, which seems to paint Muhammad as the redeemer of the Jews from the oppression of the Romans in the Holy Land. If this is to be believed, and this source predates every Islamic source we have, the massacre of the Banu Qurayzah could not have taken place, since Muhammad, the leader of the invasion of Palestine, was seen as a savior of the Jewish people.<ref>The Death of a Prophet, Stephen Shoemaker, University of Pennsylvania Press 2012, p. 27-33</ref> This would seem to indicate that the break between the Muslims and the Jews took place after his death, and would indicate that stories such as the massacre of the Banu Qurayzah were fabricated in order to "back date" the break with the Jews to the prophet's own lifetime.

Academic scholars who have been less skeptical of the tradition such as Michael Lecker tend to posit that the Constitution of Medina was written after the three tribes had lost their places in Medina, or that the separate agreement made by the Banu Qurayza (which they later broke according to the traditional account) is the reason why they are not named in the document. Donner similarly mentions the possiblity that there were separate agreements with the three tribes, or that their names were later removed.

===Detailed analyses===
W. N. Arafat is known for giving the first academic arguments rejecting the tradition in its entirety beyond the brief statements in surah al-Azhab of the Quran, and his paper remains popular among modernist Muslims today.<ref>W. N. Arafat (1976) ''New Light on the Story of the Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina'', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2 (1976):101</ref> It is, however, considered deeply flawed academically, due to the response from Meir J. Kister which pointed out numerous inaccuracies and false assumptions.<ref name="Kister">M. J. Kister, [https://web.archive.org/web/20250118072808if_/http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/banu_qurayza.pdf The Massacre of the Banū Qurayẓa: A Re-Examination of a Tradition (archive)] ''- M. J. Kister, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 8 (1986): 61-96</ref>

One of Arafat's better points, and which Kister only attempts to refute with post-Quranic evidence, is that the massacre would go against Quranic principles found in other verses, particularly {{Quran|47|4}} (ransom or release prisoners) and {{Quran|35|18}} (no soul will bear another's burdens).<ref>"New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina", W.N Arafat 2001 p. 100-107</ref> Similar Quranic or hadith arguments of principle remain popular today among modernist Muslims who reject the tradition. This assumes that principles of war were consistently applied throughout Muhammad's career and ignores the collective condemnation the Quran throws at the Jews for their past sins.

Another of Arafat's arguments is that within the Islamic tradition, Ibn Ishaq was frequently criticized for giving too much weight to Jewish stories and being biased in general in his retellings of certain events. Malik ibn Anas accusses Ibn Ishaq of being a "liar" for listening to "Jewish stories". Kister in turn observes that this reflects a later attitude of suspicion towards such sources. He also points out that the tradition about Banu Qurayza is widely reported in other early sira compilations besides Ibn Ishaq, in early tafsirs, and later in fiqh and hadith collections. He also shows that Arafat failed to present the background of the (mutual) emnity between Malik and Ibn Ishaq.<ref>Kister, pp. 76-80</ref> Professor Sean Anthony in some comments recommending Kister's response to Arafat, further points out that Malik extolled the maghazi book of Musa b. Uqba, who includes the Banu Qurayza tradition as detailed above. He also shows that Arafat falsely claimed that Ibn Hajjar rejected the tradition.<ref>[https://x.com/shahanSean/status/1739028895930736876 X.com post by Sean Anthony] - 24 December 2023. An X.com account (following him if his profile remains protected) is needed to view his chain of comments.</ref>

Countering some of Arafat's other claims, Kister provides many examples of jurists drawing rulings from detailed analyses of the Banu Qurayza precedent. He also points out that the treatment of the Banu Qurayza was not entirely exceptional in the tradition. Sons of Abu al Huqayq (who had become leader of the Banu Nadir in Khaybar) were tortured and killed and their women and property taken when they broke an agreement (in this case, a surrender agreement which included a requirement to disclose any hidden treasure).<ref>Kister, pp. 66-74 </ref>

Perhaps less convincingly, Kister also counters Arafat's point (which is commonly made) about the "house" where the captives were taken being too small for hundreds of prisoners. The word here in Arabic is "dar" which Kister points out often means not just a house but a compound building, which could be of considerable size including stores, workshops and even markets.<ref>Kister, p. 74, ftn 39</ref> In any case, as mentioned above, the number of men (or 'muqatil', fighting-men in some versions) killed in the execution vary widely in the sources<ref>See the list provided by Kister on p. 89, ftn 100</ref> and are not generally considered reliable.

In his 2025 academic book, ''Muhammad's military expeditions'', Ayman Ibrahim argues that the story elements serve to vilify the Jews and legitimise various practices of interest to medieval Muslims, noting that it is instigated as the will of Allah through Jibreel's command to march on the Banu Qurayza. He also notes the many contradictory details in the varying accounts of the incident. These variations in the accounts include whether or not the Banu Qurayza assisted the Muslims in their battle preparations, the length of the siege against them, and reports in which the Jews acknowledge the truth of Muhammad's insult that their sinful ancestors were turned into apes, or one of their number telling the rest that is now clear Muhammad is a prophet mentioned in their scriptures. In some reports it is Muhammad rather than the Jews who chose Sa'd to judge them, and in some reports Muhammad commands 'Ali and al-Zubayr to do the beheading. In Ibrahim's view, the entire tradition suffers from disunity and competing claims and it is impossible to reconstruct what actually occurred. Rather, he says these reports are authored for sectarian, religious and political goals.<ref>Ayman Ibrahim (2025), "Muhammad's military expeditions", pp. 225-238</ref>

==See Also==

*[[List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad]]

==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Muhammad/Jews/BQurayza/index.html What really happened to the Banu Qurayza] ''- Collection of articles from Answering Islam''

*[https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/rebuttal_to_answering_islam_s_article__the_bani_quraytha_jews__traitors_or_betrayed_ Rebuttal to Answering Islam's Article "The Bani Quraytha Jews: Traitors or Betrayed?] - ''Muslim Rebuttal to Answering Islam's Article "The Bani Quraytha Jews: Traitors or Betrayed?"''

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20250118072808if_/http://www.kister.huji.ac.il/sites/default/files/banu_qurayza.pdf The Massacre of the Banū Qurayẓa: A Re-Examination of a Tradition (archive)] ''- M. J. Kister, Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 8 (1986): 61-96''

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:People of the Book]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Sirah]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[ar:مجزرة_بنو_قريظة]]

Talk:Rape in Islamic Law

2026-03-20T22:06:56Z

Lightyears: /* Deadlink */

{{article tasks}}
But how do you know that 'whom the right hands possess' is definitely referring to 'Sex Slaves'?

:Hi there, thanks for your question! There are many evidence that those 'in your right hand' are sex slaves. For starters I will present the sahih ahadith supporting our claims abut 4:24. Forbidden to you (for sex) are thse who are already married, except what your 'right hands possess.' I put (for sex) in brackets there because reading the verse in context, it's clearly talking about halal sexual relations - with an 'iddat required for marrying women (who are not in your right hand). Incidentally this is the verse that the Shi'a use to justify temporary marriage.

:Anyway, onward and upward, check out these ahadith from Sahih Muslim which give the context for 4:24:

{{quote|{{Muslim|8|3432}}|
Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah her pleased with him) reported that at the Battle of Hanain Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) sent an army to Autas and encountered the enemy and fought with them. '''Having overcome them and taken them captives, the Companions of Allah's Messenger (may peace te upon him) seemed to refrain from having intercourse with captive women because of their husbands being polytheists. Then Allah, Most High, sent down regarding that:" And women already married, except those whom your right hands possess (iv. 24)" (i. e. they were lawful for them when their 'Idda period came to an end).''' | See also {{Muslim|8|3433}} & {{Muslim|8|3434}} }}

:The ahadith above give the revelational circumstances {{Quran|4|24}} and as you can see, the women were taken captive for the purpose of being sex slaves. So 4:24 is telling us that you are forbidden to have sexual relations with any married woman that is not in your right hand - since they are not your property (right hand possession = property). BUT you ''can'' have sex with one of your captives even if they are married (and the husband is of course, still alive).

: The narrations I have provided are of course, sahih and mutawatir. If you would like more information just ask here and I will be glad to provide it. Peace!! [[User:Sanitarium|Sanitarium]] 18:05, 18 July 2010 (PDT)
::Thats great, maybe that could be added to the page about what right hand means, I didnt look carefully though. --[[User:Whale|Whale]] 21:19, 18 July 2010 (PDT)

== What 'forbidden' means ==
In 4:24 the article says 'forbidden' refers to intercourse, but 4:23, the verse immediately preceding it, says "Prohibited to you (For marriage) are:" Surely 4:24 is just a continuation of the prohibitions on marriage? Then it would be saying you can marry captives even if they are already married. --[[Special:Contributions/80.229.224.90|80.229.224.90]] 08:58, 15 August 2015 (PDT)
:You cant only look at the verse. The hadiths/Tafsirs are already on the page and there's no mention of marriage there. Please read the rest of the page and you can easily see that its sex with captives that is the issue and marriage is not a requirement.
:So in other terms, this is what is recorded in the hadiths and Tafsirs: Women taken as captives and their captives then had sex with them and thats the main point of the article. Marriage is not mentioned anywhere and was not done.
:The article is titled Rape in Islam and most people will agree that taking women captive and having sex with them is rape. --[[User:Axius|Axius]] ([[User_talk:Axius|talk]] <nowiki>|</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/Axius|contribs]]) 09:48, 15 August 2015 (PDT)

== Misleading reference designation ==

Regarding this quote at the beginning of the article

{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/10382 Islam Q & A - November 24, 2005 - Fatwa number 10382]|2=Islam allows a man to have intercourse with his slave woman, whether he has a wife or wives or he is not married...Whoever regards that as haraam is a sinner who is going against the consensus of the scholars. }}

Islam Q&A site ''has no'' authority to issue any fatwa, and the designation of the page as 'Fatwa number 10382' is simply an exaggeration of the article's URL. This is both misleading and nonsensical. It should be cleared that the page is merely a summary of legal opinions, instead of an officially issued fatwa (while it ''may'' contain quotes of valid legal opinion, the page itself is not a legal document in any sense).

--[[Special:Contributions/114.79.18.171|114.79.18.171]] 09:29, 17 January 2012 (PST) (konoame)

:Okay, Since the only purpose here is to waste an editors time, I wasn't going to answer this nonsensical complaint. But I will answer this nonsense for the benefit of readers.

{{Quote||Islam Q&A site ''has no'' authority to issue any fatwa}}

:Pure rubbish. Anyone who is a qualified scholar can issue a fatwa. That site is owned and run by Shaykh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid, and he is not just any old scholar. He is an extremely well-respected Saudi Islamic scholar, lecturer, and author.

{{Quote||and the designation of the page as 'Fatwa number 10382' is simply an exaggeration of the article's URL}}

:No it is not. Are you blind? Look at the top left-hand side.

:http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/10382

:http://s16.postimage.org/pfl4lbi2d/ISLAM_Q_A.jpg

{{Quote||This is both misleading and nonsensical.}}

I agree; your complaint is both misleading and nonsensical.

{{Quote||It should be cleared that the page is merely a summary of legal opinions, instead of an officially issued fatwa }}

No it's not clear. Shaykh Al-Munajjid gives us his ruling and provides us with the evidence he used to come to that conclusion. It's as "officially issued" as they come.

{{Quote||while it ''may'' contain quotes of valid legal opinion, the page itself is not a legal document in any sense}}

What a load of gibberish. It's as "legal" as any other fatwa. And what's up with the emphasis on "may"? The figures that fatwa quotes are as authoritative as they get. For example, al-Shafi‘i, the founder of the Shafi'i school of fiqh. --[[User:Admin3|Admin3]] 11:22, 17 January 2012 (PST)

::Anon IP, you wrote: ''"Islam Q&A site has no authority to issue any fatwa"'' - What Islamic authority do YOU have to make such a statement? Why dont you go say that to the Islamic scholars at Islam QA? You have no status and Islamic authority to challenge the Islamic scholars on that site. Go talk to them and explain how you're more qualified than them in the matters of Islam. As to ''"while it may contain quotes of valid legal opinion"'' - and your own opinion is completely invalid. You have to be a known Islamic scholar before rendering any such opinion on another Islamic scholar. Good luck in defending in Islam. --[[User:Whale|Whale]] 15:59, 17 January 2012 (PST)

==(To do) Responses to Apologetics: Hirabah==
Task for this article: Add a "Responses to Apologetics' section and talk about [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirabah Hirabah] and how this term is not found in the Quran and how it contradicts the Quran (right-hand possesses) and the issue of Muhammad forcefully marrying Safiyah and Juwairiyah. Also point out Hirabah ('unlawful warfare') doesnt have anything to do with 'rape'. A few Islamic scholars cannot contradict Quran and hadiths. Scriptural basis "who wage war against Allah" is vague and can apply to anything and again, if some people think it refers to Rape, it directly contradicts Quran's own 'right hand' issue which qualifies more for a scrptural basis for Rape.

Also, attempt to edit Wikipedia for Hirabah and remove all [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research Original research] from the article.

If that is not possible, then add the 'right hand' verse to the page in the same way the other verse has been added.
==Paraphrasing or copying==
I was wondering if Paraphrasing or copying from [https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rape_in_Saudi_Arabia here] along with the sources is allowed. Can someone guide me?-[[User:Raman|Raman]] ([[User talk:Raman|talk]]) 16:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)
:Hey Raman, generally speaking, while using Wikipedia as a guide on how to approach a topic is an acceptable way to help you in editing an article, copying text over is not allowed (unless, in some rare case, you actually wish to quote and reference a wikipedia article - though this is generally not advised). General plagiarism rules apply. As for this particular topic and article, you could add a section to the article on the "Modern Implementation" of the law, and provide the details on how it is implemented in Saudi Arabia and maybe give an example case. Since this article is not about specific rape cases and since the wiki doesn't concern itself with "news" related topic in general, do not outright compile specific instances of rape as has been done on the wikipedia article (review the [[WikiIslam:Scope and Article Relevance]] page for further clarification of what does and doesn't fit on the wiki). I hope that helps, let me know if you need any further help. --[[User:IbnPinker|IbnPinker]] ([[User talk:IbnPinker|talk]]) 21:21, 26 November 2020 (UTC)

== Deadlink ==

There's a deadlink in the article. Under the subtitle "Waiting period before sex with slave girls too young to menstruate" you will see a link to ''The Kuwait Encyclopedia of Fiqh, Volume 3, p. 174''. It leads to [https://archive.org/details/FPmfkmfk/mfk03/page/n172/mode/1up?view=theater nowhere] in archive.org. [[User:Qorqud|Qorqud]] ([[User talk:Qorqud|talk]]) 08:16, 18 March 2026 (UTC)
:I have replaced it with another source, thanks [[User:Lightyears|Lightyears]] ([[User talk:Lightyears|talk]]) 22:06, 20 March 2026 (UTC)

Rape in Islamic Law

2026-03-20T22:05:30Z

Lightyears: Replaced with another source the dead link to archive of the Kuwaiti encyclopedia of fiqh which has been removed

{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=4}}Rape, known in [[Islamic law]] as ''zina bil-ikrah'' or ''zina bil-jabr'' (literally "[[Zina|fornication]] by force"), is a punishable crime generally defined by Muslim jurists as forced intercourse by a man with a [[Islam and Women|woman]] who is not his wife or [[Slavery|slave]] and without her consent. There was no concept of consent in Islamic law with regard either to a man's wives or slaves, though they could bring a legal complaint if intercourse with him caused them physical harm. A small number of hadiths describe punishments for the rape of free women and of female slaves who are not owned by the perpetrator. However, the Qur'an, on numerous occasions, permits Muslim men to have sexual relations with their own female slaves (famously referred to as "what your right hands possess"), often in conjunction with the commandment for men to keep otherwise chaste. In addition, various hadiths mention the sexual intercourse which slave owners (including Muhammad) had with their slaves.

Islamic law allowed the distribution of female captives as spoils of war and for them to be bought and sold, becoming sexually lawful after a short waiting period to confirm they were not pregnant. Slavery including sexual slavery persisted on a massive scale until modern times (see [[Slavery in Islamic Law]]). It is important to note, however, that slavery was legally abolished in majority Muslim countries around the world in the 19th and 20th centuries (though vast numbers of people remain illegally enslaved in a few places such as Mauritania<ref name="Mauritania" />) and all countries signed the 1949 Geneva convention which in article 27 forbids rape and abuse of female captives. It is also now considered forbidden by most scholars in the modern context, though a minority, such as Saudi Sheikh Saleh Al-Fawzan, argue that slavery remains Islamically legitimate. Similarly, today many Muslim-majority countries have made marital rape illegal or offer other legal protections, though others (mainly in the Arab world) do not do so, often explicitly, as also some non-Muslim countries.<ref>As of the early 2020s, marital rape is not recognised as a crime in many Muslim-majority countries, nor in India, China, Myanmar, much of the Caribbean, and much of sub-Saharan Africa, though is illegal in Indonesia, Turkey, the Balkans, most of central Asia, and much of west Africa. See the detailed information in the Wikipedia article [[w:Marital rape laws by country|Marital rape laws by country]], though note that in some cases the colour-coded map is inaccurate. A lack of legal protection in some countries and / or attitudes which refuse to accept the concept of marital rape exacerbates the predicament of millions of women suffering [[Forced Marriage]] in certain regions of the world.</ref> While there is no punishment for rape victims, human rights groups are also concerned about the risks faced by women reporting rape in some countries where [[Zina]] (illicit sexual intercourse) is a punishable offence, as detailed below.

Typically, apologetic approaches to the issue of slaves and concubines propose that the women mentioned in the Quran and hadiths consented to intercourse with their captors and to their enslavement lest they be left destitute since their men had been killed. Critics generally argue that this is highly improbable, and note that the Quran and legal consensus also made a married woman captured without her husband lawful to her owner. They further point out a hadith in which raped captives were due to be ransomed back to their tribe, and in any case would be incompatible with the modern understanding of consent which could not validly be given in captive circumstances. Some Islamic modernist scholars question the authenticity of the relevant hadiths altogether, in line with their general skepticism towards the hadith corpus and rejection of traditional jurisprudence, and attempt alternative interpretations of the Quranic verses.

==The right to have intercourse with wives and slaves in Islamic law==
The consent of a slave for sex, for withdrawal before ejaculation ([[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Al-'Azl|azl]]) or to marry her off to someone else was not considered necessary, historically.<ref name="Ali">{{Cite web|first=Kecia |last=Ali | publication-date=January 20, 2017 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/concubinage-and-consent/F8E807073C33F403A91C1ACA0CFA47FD | title=Concubinage and Consent|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Kecia Ali, Associate professor of religion, Boston University (a Muslim convert) says regarding sex with slaves: "For premodern Muslim jurists, as well as for those marginal figures who believe that the permission [for slavery] still holds, the category “rape” doesn’t apply: ownership makes sex lawful; consent is irrelevant."<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kecia-ali/islam-sex-slavery_b_8004824.html|title=The Truth About Islam and Sex Slavery History Is More Complicated Than You Think|author=Kecia Ali|publication-date=August 19th, 2016|newspaper=Huffington Post}} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20230224094334/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/islam-sex-slavery_b_8004824 archive])</ref> Dr. Jonathan Brown, Associate Professor and Chair of Islamic Civilization at Georgetown University (also a Muslim convert) has made similar comments:<ref>"'slave rape' is a tough term to decipher from a Shariah perspective. A male owner of a female slave has the right to sexual access to her. Though he could not physically harm her without potentially being held legally accountable if she complained, her 'consent' would be meaningless since she is his slave." [https://np.reddit.com/r/islam/comments/3h1abm/this_is_dr_jonathan_brown_professor_at_georgetown/cu3dkhd/ Comment by Dr. Jonathan AC Brown on his Reddit AMA session], 2016 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20210225213159/https://np.reddit.com/r/islam/comments/3h1abm/this_is_dr_jonathan_brown_professor_at_georgetown/cu3dkhd/ archive])</ref>
{{Quote|Jonathan A. C. Brown (2019) ''Slavery & Islam'', pp. 281-282<ref>Jonathan A.C. Brown (2019) ''Slavery & Islam'', London: Oneworld Publications, Chapter 7, pp. 281-282, ISBN 978-1-78607-635-9</ref>|As noted earlier, marriage and a male's ownership of a female slave were the two relationships in which sex could licitly occur according to the Shariah. In marriage, the consent of the wife to sex was assumed by virtue of the marriage contract itself. In the case of the slave-concubine, consent was irrelevant because of the master's ownership of the woman in question. As Kecia Ali has noted, there is no evidence for any requirement for consent from slave women in books of Islamic law in the formative centuries of Islam. Books of Islamic law and natural ethics are full of exhortations for husbands to enter in foreplay and stress the wife's right to orgasm. But such books also foreground Hadiths and laws obliging wives to meet their husbands' sexual needs without contest. 
[...] 
In the Shariah, consent was crucial if you belonged to a class of individuals whose consent mattered: free women and men who were adults (even male slaves could not be married off against their will according to the Hanbali and Shafiʿi schools, and this extended to slaves with ''mukataba'' arrangements in the Hanafi school). Consent did not matter for minors. And it did not matter for female slaves, who could be married off by their master or whose master could have a sexual relationship with them if he wanted (provided the woman was not married or under a contract to buy her own freedom).}}

As with enslaved females, according to classical Islamic law, married women were required to oblige their husbands' sexual advances.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Muh Endriyo |last=Susila | year= 2013 |url=https://journal.umy.ac.id/index.php/jmh/article/download/271/234| title=Islamic Perspective on Marital Rape |issue=2|volume=20|publisher=Jurnal Media Hukum, p.328}}</ref> He could punish his wife's continued refusal by beating her (with limitations) as a last resort.<ref name="Brown2014">Professor Jonathan Brown writes regarding medieval jurist interpretions of Q. 4:34: "If a wife exhibited egregious disobedience (nushūz) such as uncharacteristically insulting behaviour, leaving the house against the husband's will and without valid excuse or denying her husband sex (without medical grounds), the husband should first admonish her to be conscious of God and proper etiquette. If she did not desists from her behaviour, he should cease sleeping with her in their bed. If she still continued with her nushūz, he should then strike her to teach her the error of her ways." 
Jonathan A. C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, London: Oneworld Publications, 2014, p. 276 
For more details, see the Islamic Law section of the article [[Wife Beating in Islamic Law]].</ref> In the view of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, a husband had legal entitlement to force his wife into intercourse if she did not so oblige and lacked certain legally allowed exemptions such as menstruation or fasting, even though the jurists might consider it unethical in some circumstances, while non-Hanafis neither explicitly authorized nor penalized this.<ref>Kecia Ali (2016) "Sexual Ethics and Islam", Oneworld publications, ISBN: 978-1-78074-381-3 p. 12 
"The Hanafi view that husbands were entitled to have sex forcibly with their wives when the latter did not have a legitimate reason to refuse sex was not widely shared outside that school. Even the majority of Hanafi thinkers who accepted this doctrine recognized a distinction between forced intercourse and more usual sexual relations between spouses; although both were equally licit, sex by force might be unethical"
 And p. 120 "Non-Hanafis do not penalize a husband for forcing sex on his wife, but neither do they explicitly authorize it in the way that al-Khassaf does. For all, marital rape is an oxymoron; rape (ightisab) is a property crime that by definition cannot be committed by a husband."
</ref><ref name="Ali" />For jurists, the concept of "rape" was equally non-existent in the contexts of both marriage and slavery.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Asifa |last=Quraishi-Landesi |publication-date=15 April 2016 |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QfkFDAAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y | title=Feminism, Law, and Religion|page=178|publisher=Routledge|ISBN=978-1-317-13579-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Hina |last=Azam |publication-date=26 June 2015 |url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fhy_CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false | title=Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure|page=69|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN=978-1-107-09424-6}}</ref><ref name="Ali" />

Jonathan Brown notes that a wife or slave-concubine could though complain to a judge if she suffered physical harm (ḍarar).

{{Quote|Jonathan A. C. Brown (2019) ''Slavery & Islam'', p. 96<ref>Jonathan A.C. Brown (2019) ''Slavery & Islam'', London: Oneworld Publications, Chapter 7, p. 96, ISBN 978-1-78607-635-9 On the same page Brown also remarks, "According to the Quran, both marriage and ownership (in the case of the female slave and her male master) were relationships in which sex was licit (Quran 23:5-6). Within these relationships, consent for sexual relations was assumed or irrelevant. In marriage the relationship itself entailed ongoing consent for sex, and with a female slave it was not needed (assuming the slave girl was soley owned by one man and not married; in both cases she was off limits). Kecia Ali has observed that there is no evidence for any requirement for consent for sex from slave women in books of Islamic law from the eighth to the tenth centuries"</ref>|The Shariah offered protection to both wives and slave-concubines, but it came not under the rubric of consent but that of harm. By definition, the crime of rape (i.e., forced ''zina'') could not occur within a licit relationship. But transgressive harm could still be done by the man. Wives and concubines could complain to local judges if they were being abused or if his demands for sex were excessive (we will discuss the issue of concubinage and consent in the concluding chapter of this book). The Hanbali scholar Buhūtī (d. 1641) even says that if a master forced a slave woman unable to bear intercourse to have sex and injured her, she would be freed as a result.}}

In the final chapter he gives examples of medieval judicial reports of wives doing so due to issues with their husband's physical anatomy (judges could require him to use a lubricant, though judicial separation of the couple was sometimes considered necessary).<ref name="Brown2019page283">Jonathan A.C. Brown, ''Slavery & Islam'', Chapter 7, p. 283, London: Oneworld Publications, 2019 ISBN 978-1-78607-635-9</ref> However, on the same topic Brown earlier points out that "Both wives and slaves had the same recourse to courts or members of the community. Unlike wives, however, slaves were almost by definition cut off from support networks other than their owners".<ref>Ibid. p. 132</ref>

==Punishments for rape in Islamic Law and its application in modern contexts==
By the end of the formative period of Islamic law, there was a consensus that rape was to be categorised as a variant of [[Zina]] (fornication, or unlawful intercourse) in which the coerced woman is spared punishment and the male rapist is punished with the [[w:hadd|hadd]] penalty.<ref name="HinaAzam">Hina Azam [http://www.jstor.org/stable/23645194 RAPE AS A VARIANT OF FORNICATION (ZINĀ) IN ISLAMIC LAW: AN EXAMINATION OF THE EARLY LEGAL REPORTS], Journal of Law and Religion, vol. 28, no. 2, 2012, pp. 441–66</ref> This penalty is [[stoning|stoning to death]] (if he is [[Marriage|married]]) or lashings (if he is unmarried) - just as he would receive for ordinary zina. Four reliable muslim male witnesses (bayyinah) or a confession by the perpetrator are required in order to punish the rapist.<ref name="Al Hakam 2022">{{cite web | title=Rape in Islamic law: Establishing the crime and upholding the rights of the innocent | website=Al Hakam | date=23 January 2022 | url=https://www.alhakam.org/rape-in-islam/ | access-date=2 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=R. |last= Peters | year= 2012 | title=Encyclopaedia of Islam | edition= 2nd|publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|chapter=Zinā or Zināʾ}}</ref> Jurists agreed that there is no punishment for the rape victim. Her word that she was raped is accepted if there is no named perpetrator. If she does name the alleged rapist but is unable to prove the allegation, the Maliki school held the woman liable to receive the hadd penalty of 80 lashes for slander (qadhf), though the judge may spare her this punishment if there is some circumstancial evidence in support of her allegation. Maliki jurists even held that a woman must be punished with the hadd penalty for fornication (zina) if she falls pregnant while unmarried even if she says she was raped, though she is spared punishment if there is evidence of coercion from her physical state or a witness heard her cry for help. In contrast, for the Hanafi school it was enough to avoid punishment if she simply says that she was raped. Hanafis stated that pregnancy of an unmarried woman is not proof of zina, pointing to the principle that hadd punishments are not applied if there is any doubt.<ref>Position paper by Karamah (Muslim Women Lawyers for Human Rights) [https://karamah.org/zina-rape-and-islamic-law-an-islamic-legal-analysis-of-the-rape-laws-in-pakistan/ Zina, Rape, and Islamic Law: An Islamic Legal Analysis of the Rape Laws in Pakistan](2011)</ref><ref>See the 2nd of the two hadiths here regarding Imam Malik's view: {{Muwatta|41||16}}</ref>

Jurists disagree on whether the rapist must also pay a dowry as compensation to the victim. A controversial position of some modern jurists is that the hadd penalty for outlaws should apply to rapists (hadd ''Hirabah''), described in {{Quran|5|33}}. Others say that rape can be treated by the judge as an offence that receives Tazir (discretionary) punishment (as in Pakistan, for example). These approaches avoid the impractical evidence requirement of four witnesses for applying a zina hadd penalty to the rapist in the absence of his confession. Incidentally, the four witnesses requirement for zina seems to have been introduced by Muhammad when Aisha was accused of adultery.<ref>See {{Quran-range|24|4|17}} and the discussion in [[Zina#Punishments for Zina|Punishments for Zina]]</ref> In some other modern courts where the hadd punishment for zina is applied to rapists, a woman risks being accused of slanderous accusation (qadhf) if she cannot prove her allegation of rape to that evidence standard<ref>Dr Azman Mohd Noor, [http://irep.iium.edu.my/16877/1/PUNISHMENT_FOR_RAPE_IN_ISLAMIC_LAW.pdf Punishment for rape in Islamic Law], Malayan Law Journal Articles [2009] 5 MLJ cxiv</ref> and the rapists go unpunished.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1016271/a-license-to-rape|title=A license to rape|author=Murtaza Haider|publication-date=June 5, 2003|newspaper=Dawn}}</ref> Pregnancy is used as evidence of sex having occurred and women who report rape or sexual violence can be deemed to have confessed to unlawful sex (zina) and prosecuted for that instead.<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/29/saudi-arabia-forthcoming-penal-code-should-protect-rights Saudi Arabia: Forthcoming Penal Code Should Protect Rights] - Human Rights Watch 29 April 2022</ref> Due to a number of high profile instances, the risk of being prosecuted for zina creates a strong disincentive for women to report rape in some Muslim countries today.<ref>{{cite web | title=Judged for more than her crime | website=deathpenaltyworldwide.org | date=September 2018 | publisher=Cornell Law School| page=13| url=https://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Judged-More-Than-Her-Crime.pdf | access-date=28 December 2022}}</ref>

==Punishments for rape narrated in hadiths==
===Rape of a free woman===

Muhammad ordered the stoning of a confessed rapist who attacked a free woman to whom he was not married.

{{Quote|{{al Tirmidhi|15|3|15|1454}}; see also {{Muwatta|36||14}}|Narrated 'Alqamah bin Wa'il Al-Kindi: From his father: "A women went out during the time of the Prophet (ﷺ) to go to Salat, but she was caught by a man and he had relations with her, so she screamed and he left. Then a man came across her and '''she said: 'That man has done this and that to me'''', then she came across a group of Emigrants (Muhajirin) and she said: 'That man did this and that to me.' They went to get the man she thought had relations with her, and they brought him to her. She said: 'Yes, that's him.' So they brought him to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), and when he ordered that he be stoned, the man who had relations with her, said: ''''O Messenger of Allah, I am the one who had relations with her.'''' So he said to her: 'Go, for Allah has forgiven you.' Then he said some nice words to the man (who was brought). And '''he said to the man who had relations with her: 'Stone him (to death).'''' Then he said: 'He has repented a repentance that, if the inhabitants of Al-Madinah had repented with, it would have been accepted from them.'"}}

===Rape of another's slave===
If the individual raped is a slave owned by other than the rapist, reparations are due to the owner of the slave in the form of a replacement slave or the amount by which the raped slave's value has been depreciated as a result of the rape and the perpetrator receives the hadd punishment. Hina Azam writes that "sexual ursupation of a slave woman was a form of property damage that required financial compensation to her owner for a depreciation of the property's value....usually equal to the amount by which she was depreciated by the act (this being of particular relevance if she was previously a virgin)".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t349/e0075 |title=Rape |last=Azam |first=Hina |date= |website=Oxford Islamic Studies |publisher=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref>

Malik in his ''Muwatta'' confirms this punishment. Malik was founder of one of the four Sunni legal schools.

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|36||14}}|Malik related to me from Ibn Shihab that Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan gave a judgment that the rapist had to pay the raped woman her bride- price. Yahya said that he heard Malik say, "What is done in our community about the man who rapes a woman, virgin or non-virgin, if she is free, is that he must pay the bride-price of the like of her. If she is a slave, he must pay what he has diminished of her worth. The hadd-punishment in such cases is applied to the rapist, and there is no punishment applied to the raped woman. If the rapist is a slave, that is against his master unless he wishes to surrender him.}}

The authenticity of hadiths concerning the following incident in which Muhammad commands punishment by stoning for a man who has intercourse with his wife's slave are graded da'if (weak) by al-Albani, while Dar-us-Salam grade them hasan (good).

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai|26|4|26|3365}}; see also {{Abu Dawud||4460|darussalam}}|It was narrated that Salamah bin Al-Muhabbaq said: "The Prophet passed judgment concerning a man who had intercourse with his wife's slave woman: 'If he forced her, then she is free, and he has to give her mistress a similar slave as a replacement; if she obeyed him in that, then she belongs to him, and he has to give her mistress a similar slave as a replacement.'"}}

In another, similar incident, the rapist of his wife's slave is to be punished by stoning.

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai|26|4|26|3362}}; see also {{Abu Dawud||4459|darussalam}}|It was narrated from An-Nu'man bin Bashir that the Prophet said, concerning a man who had intercourse with his wife's slave woman: "If she let him do that, I will flog him with one hundred stripes , and if she did not let him, I will stone him (to death)."}}

Another hadith reports Caliph Umar sentencing a man to stoning for taking a captive girl for himself. In this case, the illegitimacy is due to strict rules on the distribution of war booty. That hadith is discussed in another section below ([[Rape in Islamic Law#Violations of the spoils-distribution system as rape|Violations of the spoils-distribution system as rape]]).

==Sex with female slaves and war captives in the Qur'an==

There is no equivalent term for ‘rape’ in the [[Qur'an]], although {{Quran|4|19}} forbids believing men to inherit wives by compulsion. Nevertheless, while chastity is encouraged as a virtue, it is frequently commanded alongside the recurring exception "except from their wives or those their right hands possess", as set out below. There is no verse in the Qur'an which explicitly discourages forced or coercive sex, despite this being an obvious and virtually certain occurance when it permits sexual access to female slaves or captives.

===Qur'an 23:1-6 & 70:29-30 - Believers should have sex only with their wives and slaves===

A number of verses in the Qur'an mention sexual relations with slaves as a category distinct from wives, making it clear that sexual relations with female slaves are permitted without marrying the slave first. For example, Surah 23 makes mention of successful Muslims and their characteristics:

{{Quote|{{Quran|23|1-6}}|Certainly will the believers have succeeded: They who are during their prayer humbly submissive And they who turn away from ill speech And they who are observant of zakah '''And they who guard their private parts Except from their wives or those their right hands possess''', for indeed, they will not be blamed}}

The instruction to "guard [one's] private parts" is the Qur'an's standard manner of commanding chastity. What one's "right hand possesses" is likewise the Qur'an's standard manner of referring to one's slaves or war captives. Successful believers are those who engage in sexual activities only with their wives and slaves.

The same idea recurs in surah 70:

{{Quote|{{Quran|70|29-30}}|'''And those who guard their private parts, Except from their wives or those their right hands possess''', for indeed, they are not to be blamed}}

===Qur'an 33:50 - Muhammad's rights over his female captives from the war booty===

Another verse sets out Muhammad's licit sexual access to his wives and captives from the war booty (probably alluding to those mentioned earlier in the surah), as well as any of his female first cousins and any believing woman who offers herself to him if he wishes to marry her.

{{Quote|{{Quran|33|50}}|'''O Prophet, indeed We have made lawful to you your wives to whom you have given their due compensation and those your right hand possesses from what Allah has returned to you [of captives]''' and the daughters of your paternal uncles and the daughters of your paternal aunts and the daughters of your maternal uncles and the daughters of your maternal aunts who emigrated with you and a believing woman if she gives herself to the Prophet [and] if the Prophet wishes to marry her, [this is] only for you, excluding the [other] believers. '''We certainly know what We have made obligatory upon them concerning their wives and those their right hands possess''', [but this is for you] in order that there will be upon you no discomfort. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.}}

Classical scholars understood the verse to permit Muhammad's use of concubines, though Islamic modernists read the verse as permitting Muhammad to marry his captives. Tafsir al-Jalalayn gives the examples of Juwayriyyah and Safiyya, captives who Muhammad did Marry, while Ibn Kathir also mentions Rayhanna and Maria who Muhammad kept as his unmarried concubines according to most traditions. {{Quran|33|52}} (discussed also in this section) may shed light on this question, though it too is ambiguous. Either way, a captive can freely consent neither to marriage nor concubinage.

The permission in this verse is stated as being for Muhammad alone, commonly interpretated as excusing Muhammad from the obligation to pay a dowry in some circumstances, or his exemption from the maximum limit of four wives and other conditions.

The words translated "what Allah has returned to you" (wamā [...] afāa l-lahu ʿalayka) mean Muhammad's share of the spoils of war, since the same language is mirrored in {{Quran-range|59|6|7}} with that meaning. Those verses twice mention "what Allah has returned to his messenger" (wamā afāa l-lahu ʿalā rasūlihi).

Earlier verses in the same surah suggest that these women included captives seized from the People of the Book who had been made to leave their fortresses after siding with the confederates in their failed attack against the believers in Yathrib (Medina; see {{Quran-range|33|26|27}}, and {{Quran|33|13}}). According to the vast majority of Muslim commentators and most academic scholars those verses refer to the [[The Massacre of the Banu Qurayza|Banu Qurayza]].

See also the two verses which follow verse 50, ({{Quran-range|33|51|52}}), which give Muhammad permission to set aside and return to his wives in accordance with his wishes, and forbids Muhammad from exchanging or taking any further wives even if their beauty pleases him, except from among his concubines, or perhaps simply maintains his limitless permission to take additional concubines.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|51|52}}|You, [O Muhammad], may put aside whom you will of them or take to yourself whom you will. And any that you desire of those [wives] from whom you had [temporarily] separated - there is no blame upon you [in returning her]. That is more suitable that they should be content and not grieve and that they should be satisfied with what you have given them - all of them. And Allah knows what is in your hearts. And ever is Allah Knowing and Forbearing.
Not lawful to you, [O Muhammad], are [any additional] women after [this], nor [is it] for you to exchange them for [other] wives, '''even if their beauty were to please you, except what your right hand possesses.''' And ever is Allah, over all things, an Observer.}}

===Qur'an 4:24 - Permission to marry slave women, even if they are already married===

{{Quran-range|4|22|25}} is a passage listing the women who believing men are forbidden to marry, such as their sisters or nieces. Verse 24 states that also forbidden are "married women except those your right hands possess" (i.e. slaves or captives).

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|4|23|24}}|Prohibited to you (For marriage) are:- Your mothers, daughters, sisters; father's sisters, Mother's sisters; brother's daughters, sister's daughters; foster-mothers (Who gave you suck), foster-sisters; your wives' mothers; your step-daughters under your guardianship, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in,- no prohibition if ye have not gone in;- (Those who have been) wives of your sons proceeding from your loins; and two sisters in wedlock at one and the same time, except for what is past; for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful;-'''Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess''': Thus hath Allah ordained (Prohibitions) against you: Except for these, all others are lawful, provided ye seek (them in marriage) with gifts from your property,- desiring chastity, not lust, seeing that ye derive benefit from them, give them their dowers (at least) as prescribed; but if, after a dower is prescribed, agree Mutually (to vary it), there is no blame on you, and Allah is All-knowing, All-wise.}}

This verse permits the believers to marry those whom their right hands possess (female [[Slavery|slaves]]) who already have husbands, so long as the dower is paid. Other verses set out in the previous section show that slave owners did not even have to marry their slaves in order to have intercourse with them (See also the section below on the common apologetic claim of [[Rape_in_Islamic_Law#Freedom_and_marriage_as_a_universal_requirement|Freedom and marriage as a universal requirement]]).

The next verse tells any believer who cannot afford to marry a free believing woman to instead marry "from those whom your right hands possess of believing slave girls". This was understood to mean marrying a believing slave girl owned by someone else (which makes sense as it switches to the plural "right hands possess", and a slave owner by definition would not be too poor to marry a free woman). In Islamic law, she would remain a slave after the marriage, but her owner would no longer have the right of sexual access to her, which transfers to her husband alone. The owner had the right to marry off his female slave without her consent, and would own any children produced by the marriage. If the owner himself wished to marry his own slave, he had to free her first. For details see [[Slavery in Islamic Law]].

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|25}}|And whoever among you cannot [find] the means to marry free, believing women, '''then [he may marry] from those whom your right hands possess of believing slave girls'''. And Allah is most knowing about your faith. You [believers] are of one another. So marry them with the permission of their people and give them their due compensation according to what is acceptable. [They should be] chaste, neither [of] those who commit unlawful intercourse randomly nor those who take [secret] lovers. But once they are sheltered in marriage, if they should commit adultery, then for them is half the punishment for free [unmarried] women. This [allowance] is for him among you who fears sin, but to be patient is better for you. And Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.}}

The verse states that permission is to be sought from her people, though acceptance would inevitably be a choice not free from coercion, given that the alternative was for her owner to retain the right of sexual intercourse with her, granted elsewhere in the Quran. Perhaps in recognition of the potentially coercive nature of such an arrangement, the same verse halves the punishment she would face for certain conduct during the marriage (traditionally interpreted as adultery).

Sahih hadiths in the collections of Muslim and Abu Dawud give the traditional background story for the permission granted by the previous verse ({{Quran|4|24}}): some of Muhammad's fighters were reluctant to have sexual contact with female captives who were already married to the defeated men of the mushrikeen (those who associated partners with Allah).

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2155|darussalam}}|Abu Sa’id Al Khudri said “The Apostle of Allah(ﷺ) sent a military expedition to Awtas on the occasion of the battle of Hunain. They met their enemy and fought with them. They defeated them and took them captives. '''Some of the Companions of Apostle of Allah (ﷺ) were reluctant to have relations with the female captives because of their pagan husbands.''' So, Allah the exalted sent down the Qur’anic verse “And all married women (are forbidden) unto you save those (captives) whom your right hand posses.” This is to say that they are lawful for them when they complete their waiting period.}}

The hadith in Sahih Muslim is found in a chapter dedicated to the topic; the chapter is entitled "Chapter: It is permissible to have intercourse with a female captive after it is established that she is not pregnant, and '''if she has a husband, then her marriage is annulled when she is captured'''".<ref>{{Citation|chapter=(9) Chapter: It is permissible to have intercourse with a female captive after it is established that she is not pregnant, and if she has a husband, then her marriage is annulled when she is captured|title=Sahih Muslim (Book of Suckling)|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/17}}

See the three hadiths it contains: {{Muslim||1456a|reference}}, {{Muslim||1456b|reference}}, and {{Muslim||1456d|reference}}</ref>{{Quote|{{Muslim||1456a|reference}}|Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah her pleased with him) reported that at the Battle of Hanain Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) sent an army to Autas and encountered the enemy and fought with them. Having overcome them and taken them captives, the Companions of Allah's Messenger (may peace te upon him) seemed to refrain from having intercourse with captive women because of their husbands being polytheists. Then Allah, Most High, sent down regarding that:

'''"And women already married, except those whom your right hands possess (iv. 24)"''' (i. e. they were lawful for them when their 'Idda [waiting] period came to an end).}}

Ibn Kathir, the most prominent of all Qur'an interpreters, had this to say in regards to verse 4:24:

{{Quote|1=[https://tafsir.app/ibn-katheer/4/24 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 4:24]|2=The Ayah means 'also [forbidden are] women already married, except those whom your right hands possess'. You are prohibited from marrying women who are already married, except those whom your right hands possess, except those whom you acquire through war, for you are allowed such women after making sure they are not pregnant [that is, upon the completion of the "iddah" waiting period]. Imam Ahmad recorded that Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri said, "We captured some women from the area of Awtas who were already married, and we disliked having sexual relations with them because they already had husbands. So, we asked the Prophet about this matter, and this Ayah (verse) was revealed, 'Also (forbidden are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess'. Accordingly, we had sexual relations with these women. [literally: 'as a result of these verses, their (Infidels') wives have become lawful for us']" This is the wording collected by At-Tirmidhi An-Nasa'i, Ibn Jarir and Muslim in his Sahih.}}

Similarly in Tafsir al-Jalalayn (Qur'an interpretation by two Jalals namely: Jalaluddin Mahalli and Jalaluddin Suyuti, both authorities):

{{Quote|1=[https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/4/24 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 4:24]|2=And, forbidden to you are, wedded women, those with spouses, that you should marry them before they have left their spouses, be they Muslim free women or not; save what your right hands own, of captured [slave] girls, whom you may have sexual intercourse with, even if they should have spouses among the enemy camp, but only after they have been absolved of the possibility of pregnancy [after the completion of one menstrual cycle]; this is what God has prescribed for you.}}

Ibn al Mundhir (d. 930 CE), in his famous encyclopedia of Sunni jurisprudence, summarized the legal consensus that a woman captured without her husband had her marriage automatically annulled (he goes on to note the differing opinions when the wife and husband are captured together).
{{Quote|Ibn al Mundhir, ''Al-Awsat min al-Sunan wa al-Ijma' wa al-Ikhtilaf'', 11/292<ref>[https://shamela.ws/book/1568/5623# Al-Awsat min al-Sunan wa al-Ijma' wa al-Ikhtilaf, 11/292]</ref>|All those from the people of knowledge whom we remember, have unanimously agreed that if a woman from the captives falls into the possession of a man, and she has a husband residing in the land of war, then the marriage to her husband is dissolved, and it becomes permissible for her owner to have intercourse with her after the waiting period.}}

In Islamic law, if a slave woman became married after her capture, her owner had no right of sexual access to her. Some early Muslim scholars held that slave marriages, which could occur between slaves or between a slave and a free person, were automatically dissolved when ownership was transferred because her new owner was buying sexual access to her but two men could not have licit access to the same woman. Later, a consensus emerged that the marriage and licit sexual access remained between the slave woman and her husband alone upon transfer of ownership, whether he was a free man or slave.<ref>Kecia Ali, "Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam", Massachussets: Harvard University Press, 2010, pp. 154-159</ref>

==Sex with female slaves and war captives in the hadiths==
Scenes of Muhammad's companions, and indeed Muhammad himself, engaging in sexual activity with slaves and captives are common throughout hadith literature. While the female perspective is largely absent, leaving the reader to speculate as to whether the female slave or captive would have been receptive to the advances of Muhammad and his companions, it is fair to assume that in at least some (if not most or indeed all) of these cases, the sexual activity occurred without the female's consent and thus qualified as rape. This is particularly clear in the examples that follow where Muhammad's companions initiate sexual contact with the captive women shortly after having slayed their sons, husbands, fathers, and brothers. At the very least, it can be said that in no such case does Muhammad intervene in and that in all such cases he actively permits what, by all appearances, is an instance of his companion's raping a captive or slave. These are originally free [[Kafir (Infidel)|non-Muslims]] who are captured in battle.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/508/1/uk_bl_ethos_443314.pdf|title=The legal and social status of women in the Hadith literature (PDF)|author=Salma Saad|page=242|year=1990}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MC0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17|title=Islamic Jurisprudence on the Regulation of Armed Conflict: Text and Context|author=Nesrine Badawi (1 October 2019). p.17. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-41062-6}}</ref> The entire population of a conquered territory can be enslaved, thus providing women who are otherwise rare on the battlefield. This paves the path for concubinage.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p. 27. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> The Muslim military commander is allowed to choose between unconditionally releasing, ransoming or enslaving war captives.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0SyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5|title=The Art of Jihad: Realism in Islamic Political Thought|author=Malik Mufti (1 October 2019)|publisher=SUNY Press. p.5. ISBN 978-1-4384-7638-4}}</ref> If a person converted to Islam after being enslaved, their emancipation would be considered a pious act but not obligatory.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p. 22. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> Islamic law does not allow enslavement of free-born Muslims.<ref>{{Citation|url=|title=Violence in Islamic Thought from the Qur'an to the Mongols|author=Robert Gleave (14 April 2015)|publisher=p.142. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-9424-2}}</ref>

Islamic jurists permitted slave raiding and kidnapping of non-Muslims from [[Dar al-Harb and Dar al-Islam (the Abodes of War and Peace)|Dar al Harb]].<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p=27–28. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> South Asian scholars ruled that jihad was not needed to seize non-Muslims nor was it necessary to invite them to Islam before seizing them. Raiders were free to take and enslave any non-Muslim.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p=28. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref> However, Islamic jurists held that non-Muslims who lived in areas which had formal pacts with Muslims were to be protected from enslavement.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar|title=Islam and the Abolition of Slavery|publisher=p=27-28. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0|author=William Gervase Clarence-Smith|year=2006}}</ref>

Non-Muslim residents of an Islamic state who fail to pay [[Jizyah|jizya]] or break their contract with the state can also be enslaved.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dyZ-DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|title=Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise 1800-1909|author=Y. Erdem (20 November 1996)|publisher=p=26. Palgrave Macmillan UK. ISBN 978-0-230-37297-9}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3VoBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|title=Muslim and Christian Contact in the Middle Ages: A Reader|author=Jarbel Rodriguez (2015)|publisher=p=2. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0066-9}}</ref>

===Muhammad has intercourse with his slave girl Maria bint Sham'un===
Muhammad had a child with a slave girl of his known as [[w:Maria_al-Qibtiyya|Maria the Copt]], who was a gift to him from the Governor of Alexandria. In a hadith from Sahih Muslim, a phrase translated as "slave girl" is, in the orignal Arabic, umm walad (أُمِّ وَلَدِ) (literally: "mother of the child") and is the title given to a slave concubine who bore her master a child.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2771|reference}}|Anas reported that '''a person was charged with fornication with the slavegirl of Allah's Messenger''' (ﷺ). Thereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said to 'Ali:

Go and strike his neck. 'Ali came to him and he found him in a well making his body cool. 'Ali said to him: Come out, and as he took hold of his hand and brought him out, he found that his sexual organ had been cut. Hadrat 'Ali refrained from striking his neck. He came to Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) and said: Allah's Messenger, he has not even the sexual organ with him.}}

The following hadith is graded Sahih by Dar-us-Salam:

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|36|3411}}|It was narrated from Anas, that '''the Messenger of Allah had a female slave with whom he had intercourse''', but 'Aishah and Hafsah would not leave him alone until he said that she was forbidden for him. Then Allah, the Mighty and Sublime, revealed:

"O Prophet! Why do you forbid (for yourself) that which Allah has allowed to you.' until the end of the Verse.}}

Tafsir al-Jalalayn says of the verse ({{Quran|66|1}}) referred to in this hadith:

{{Quote|1=[https://tafsir.app/jalalayn/66/1 Tafsir al-Jalalayn 66:1]|2=O Prophet! Why do you prohibit what '''God has made lawful for you''' in terms of '''your Coptic handmaiden Māriya''' — when he lay with her in the house of Hafsa who had been away but who upon returning and finding out became upset by the fact that this had taken place in her own house and on her own bed — by saying ‘She is unlawful for me!’ seeking by making her unlawful for you to please your wives? And God is Forgiving Merciful having forgiven you this prohibition.}}

An alternate, or additional circumstance for this verse has also been narrated in multiple sahih hadiths (in yet another version {{Muslim||1474b|reference}}, Muhammad ate honey at Hafsa's house instead of Zainab's).

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|36|3410}}|'Aishah said that '''the Messenger of Allah used to stay with Zainab bint Jahsh and drink honey at her house'''. Hafsah and I agreed that if the Prophet entered upon either of us, she would say: "'''I perceive the smell of Maghafir (a nasty-smelling gum) on you'''; have you eaten Maghafir?" He came in to one of them, and she said that to him. He said: "'''No, rather I drank honey at the house of Zainab bint Jahsh''', but I will never do it again." Then the following was revealed: 'O Prophet! Why do you forbid (for yourself) that which Allah has allowed to you.' 'If you two turn in repentance to Allah, (it will be better for you)' about 'Aishah and Hafsah, 'And (remember) when the Prophet disclosed a matter in confidence to one of his wives' refers to him saying: "No, rather I drank honey."}}

"Honey" was also a sexual euphemism and an explicit example of its usage in this sense is found in a hadith in Abu Dawud:{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2309|darussalam}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) was asked about a man who divorced his wife three times, and she married another who entered upon her, but divorced her before having intercourse with her, whether she was lawful for the former husband. She said: The Prophet (ﷺ) replied: She is not lawful for the first (husband) until '''she tastes the honey of the other husband and he tastes her honey'''. }}

Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson have noted that "Modern scholars have been inclined to regard the more scandalous story involving the slave girl as the earlier one given that it appears in the earliest sources, and despite the fact that the honey story has a superior pedigree in the eyes of the ḥadīth scholars. These modern scholars reason that, if the story of Ḥafṣah’s jealousy after seeing the Prophet with his slave-girl predates the honey story, then exegetes likely contrived the honey narrative at a later date in order to provide an alternative to the unflattering portrayal of the Prophet and his wives in the former story. Furthermore, while the honey story may provide a somewhat plausible explanation for Q 66:1–2, its explanatory
force greatly diminishes when applied to the remainder of the pericope. The gravity of Q 66:5–6, which threatens divorce as a penalty for plotting against the Prophet, makes a poor match for the trifles of the honey story."<ref>Sean Anthony and Catherine Bronson (2016) "Did Ḥafṣah edit the Qurʾān? A response with notes on the codices of the Prophet's wives" Journal of the Interational Quranic Studies Association 1(2016) pp.93-125 (p.102)</ref>

===Ali rapes a captive girl alloted to the khumus (state share of war booty)===

Another relevant hadith is one which concerns an incident which led to the famous event of Ghadir Khumm, which is much disputed between Sunnis and Shias. Both Sunni and Shia sources agree that Muhammad received complaints about 'Ali taking a slave-girl from the ''Khums'' (the fifth of all booty allotted for the state<ref>{{Quran|8|41}}</ref>) to which those complaining felt that no private party was entitled.

The Arabic of the Sunni hadith below mentions 'Ali taking a Ghusl bath (which is mandatory after sexual contact or ejaculation), implying sexual activity. Later, at a place called Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad tried to pacify those who were upset with 'Ali by declaring Ali to be his ''Mawla''. ''Mawla'' is an honorific meaning something between "follower", "ally", and "leader", which the Shia interpret to mean "successor of Muhammad". Thus, in some sense, Ali's having raped a captive becomes the immediate cause of what the Shi'a insist was the the announcement of Ali's succession. The emergent Sunni polemic here casts some doubt on the historical reliability of the hadith, yet, as a hadith included in Sahih Bukhari, it more than meets the Sunni requirements for authenticity.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4350|darussalam}}|Narrated Buraida:

The Prophet (ﷺ) sent `Ali to Khalid to bring the Khumus (of the booty) and I hated `Ali, and '''`Ali had taken a bath (after a sexual act with a slave-girl from the Khumus)'''. I said to Khalid, "Don't you see this (i.e. `Ali)?" When we reached the Prophet (ﷺ) I mentioned that to him. He said, "O Buraida! Do you hate `Ali?" I said, "Yes." He said, "Do you hate him, for he deserves more than that from the Khumus."}}

Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 1449), one of the most famous Hadith scholars of all time, points out in his seminal ''Fath al-Bari'' (the still-standard commentary on Sahih Bukhari) what several scholars before him noted: that in accounts of this event, Ali does not observe the required ''istibra''' (waiting period) to determine whether or not the captive girl was pregnant. Al-Asqalani quotes al-Khattabi who summarizes the possibilities: "she was either a virgin [strongly implying a young age in a culture where women married young], had not yet reached maturity, or Ali's ''[[ijtihad]]'' [independent reasoning] led him to not adhere to the waiting period in her case."<ref>"لِاحْتِمَالِ أَنْ تَكُونَ عَذْرَاءَ أَوْ دُونَ الْبُلُوغِ أَوْ أَدَّاهُ اجْتِهَادُهُ أَنْ لَا اسْتِبْرَاءَ فِيهَا" 

{{Citation|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%AC_9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A/YzZJCwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=%D9%84%D9%90%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%85%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%90%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%92%20%D8%AA%D9%8E%D9%83%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8E%20%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%B0%D9%92%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%8E%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%88%D9%92%20%D8%AF%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8E%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%92%D8%A8%D9%8F%D9%84%D9%8F%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%90%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%88%D9%92%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D8%AF%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8F%20%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%87%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8F%D9%87%D9%8F%20%D8%A3%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%92%20%D9%84%D9%8E%D8%A7%20%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D8%A8%D9%92%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%8E%20%D9%81%D9%90%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%8E|title=Fath al-Bari|publisher=Dar Taybah|page=487|volume=9|author=Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani}} (see alternatively [https://archive.org/details/FP2021/08_2029/page/n66/mode/1up?view=theater Fath al-Bari 8/67 (archive.org)])</ref>

The istibra' was the waiting period which had to be observed before commencing intercourse with a newly acquired slave-woman or girl in order to avoid doubts about paternity if she became pregnant. For an adult slave woman this waiting period was one menstral period. Scholars disagreed on the waiting period before sexual intercourse with slave girls too young to menstruate (either a waiting period of one month or three), as discussed in another section below. However, it is worth noting that Ibn Hajar states that "the practice of many Companions" was to not observe istibra' for virgin pre-pubescent girls. See [https://theislamissue.wordpress.com/2019/06/01/child-sex-slavery/ here] for a translation of Ibn Hajar's commentary on this hadith and some reports of this same view attributed to the generation after the companions ('Ikrima and Iyas b. Mu'awiyah).

===Muhammad's companions rape captives intended for ransom===

On one occasion, presented with newly captured women, Muhammad's companions were only concerned about whether coitus interruptus ('azl) was permissible.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4138|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn Muhairiz: I entered the Mosque and saw Abu Said Al-Khudri and sat beside him and asked him about Al-Azl (i.e. coitus interruptus). Abu Said said, "We went out with Allah's Apostle for the Ghazwa of Banu Al-Mustaliq and we received captives from among the Arab captives and we desired women and celibacy became hard on us and we loved to do coitus interruptus. So when we intended to do coitus interruptus, we said, 'How can we do coitus interruptus before asking Allah's Apostle who is present among us?" We asked (him) about it and he said, 'It is better for you not to do so, for if any soul (till the Day of Resurrection) is predestined to exist, it will exist."}}

In another version of the same hadith in Sahih Muslim (also found in Malik's Muwatta and Abu Dawud), it is said that the Muslims' goal was to ransom the women back to members of the defeated party for monetary gain. It is explained that as a result of not wanting to get the women pregnant prior to ransoming them, Muhammad's companions inquired as to whether coitus interruptus was permissible.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1438a|reference}}; see also {{Muwatta|29||95}} and {{Abu Dawud||2172|darussalam}}|Abu Sirma said to Abu Sa'id al Khadri (Allah he pleased with him):

O Abu Sa'id, did you hear Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) mentioning al-'azl? He said: Yes, and added: We went out with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) on the expedition to the Bi'l-Mustaliq and took captive some excellent Arab women; and we desired them, for we were suffering from the absence of our wives, (but at the same time) '''we also desired ransom for them.''' So we decided to have sexual intercourse with them but by observing 'azl (Withdrawing the male sexual organ before emission of semen to avoid-conception). But we said: We are doing an act whereas Allah's Messenger is amongst us; why not ask him? So we asked Allah's Messenger (ﷺ), and he said: It does not matter if you do not do it, for every soul that is to be born up to the Day of Resurrection will be born.}}

Yet another version of the same story in [[Sahih Bukhari]] is even clearer about Muhammad's companions' sole concern being the potential detriment to the price of the captives if they were impregnated.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2229|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

that while he was sitting with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) he said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! We get female captives as our share of booty, '''and we are interested in their prices''', what is your opinion about coitus interruptus?" The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Do you really do that? It is better for you not to do it. No soul that which Allah has destined to exist, but will surely come into existence.}}

In these narrations captive women were due to be ransomed back to their tribes. This undermines a common modern apologetic claim that enslavement and intercourse with captive women was permitted in order to save them from destitution after their men had been defeated in battle.

===Muhammad's men hesitate to rape married captives until a verse is sent down===

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1456a|reference}}|Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah her pleased with him) reported that at the Battle of Hanain Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) sent an army to Autas and encountered the enemy and fought with them. Having overcome them and taken them captives, the Companions of Allah's Messenger (may peace te upon him) seemed to refrain from having intercourse with captive women because of their husbands being polytheists. Then Allah, Most High, sent down regarding that:

'''"And women already married, except those whom your right hands possess (iv. 24)"''' (i. e. they were lawful for them when their 'Idda [waiting] period came to an end).}}

For other narrations of this hadith see the section above on Quran 4:24.

===Umar tells a man to beat his wife for preventing intercourse with his slave girl===

Abdullah ibn Umar (the son of the 2nd Caliph, [[Umar_ibn_al-Khattab|Umar ibn al-Khattab]]) said that his father ordered a man to have intercourse with a slave girl after his wife had tried to make this haram for him by means of [[Adult_Suckling|adult suckling]].

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|30||13}}|Yahya related to me from Malik that Abdullah ibn Dinar said, "A man came to Abdullah ibn Umar when I waswith him at the place where judgments were given and asked him about the suckling of an older person. Abdullah ibn Umar replied, 'A man came to Umar ibn al-Khattab and said, 'I have a slave-girl and I used to have intercourse with her. My wife went to her and suckled her. When I went to the girl, my wife told me to watch out, because she had suckled her!' Umar told him to beat his wife and to go to his slave-girl because kinship by suckling was only by the suckling of the young.' "}}

===Ghusl (full body wash) not required between intercourse with slave girls===

Imam Malik was asked about intercourse with multiple slave girls.

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|2||90}}|Yahya related to me from Malik from Nafi that the slave girls of Abdullah ibn Umar used to wash his feet and bring him a mat of palm leaves while they were menstruating. Malik was asked whether a man who had women and slavegirlscould have intercourse with all of them before he did ghusl. He said, "There is no harm in a man having intercourse with two of his slave girls before he does ghusl. It is disapproved of, however, to go to a freewoman on another's day. There is no harm in making love first to one slave girl and then to another when one is junub." Malik was asked about a man who was junub and water was put down for him to do ghusl with.Then he forgot and put his finger into it to find out whether it was hot or cold. Malik said, "If no filth has soiled his fingers, I do not consider that that makes the water impure."}}

=== Muhammad tells a man not to use coitus interrupt us/azl (the pull-out contraception method) when having sex with a captured slave girl ===
The reason being God has already decided who they are going to create.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7409|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri: That during the battle with Bani Al-Mustaliq they (Muslims) captured some females and intended to have sexual relation with them without impregnating them. So they asked the Prophet (ﷺ) about coitus interrupt us. The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "It is better that you should not do it, for Allah has written whom He is going to create till the Day of Resurrection." Qaza'a said, "I heard Abu Sa`id saying that the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'No soul is ordained to be created but Allah will create it."}}
And:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2229|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri: that while he was sitting with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) he said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! We get female captives as our share of booty, and we are interested in their prices, what is your opinion about coitus interrupt us?" The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Do you really do that? It is better for you not to do it. No soul that which Allah has destined to exist, but will surely come into existence.}}
And similarly (this hadith is rated authentic/sahih by Al-Albani):
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2171|darussalam}}|A man said: Messenger of Allah, I have a slave-girl and I withdraw the penis from her (while having intercourse), and I dislike that she becomes pregnant. I intend (by intercourse) what the men intend by it.
The Jews say that withdrawing the penis (azl) is burying the living girls on a small scale. He (the Prophet) said: The Jews told a lie. If Allah intends to create it, you cannot turn it away.}}

===Explicit distinction between zina and legal intercourse===

Since zina (fornication or adultery) only applies to intercourse with other than one's wives or female slaves, it is only in these contexts that rape is considered possible. The following narration graded hasan (good) by al-Albani in Abu Dawud explicitly makes this distinction by recognizing offspring with one's wives or slaves as legitimate, and included in inheritance, and by labeling the offspring with other women as illegitimate, and removed from inheritance.

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2265|darussalam}}| 'Amr b. Shu'aib on his father's authority said that his grandfather reported:
The Prophet (ﷺ) decided regarding one who was treated as a member of a family after the death of his father, to whom he was attributed when the heirs said he was one of them, '''that if he was the child of a slave-woman whom the father owned when he had intercourse with her''', he was included among those who sought his inclusion, but received none of the inheritance which was previously divided; he, however, received his portion of the inheritance which had not already been divided; but if the father to whom he was attributed had disowned him, he was not joined to the heirs.

'''If he was a child of a slave-woman whom the father did not possess or of a free woman with whom he had illicit intercourse''', he was not joined to the heirs and did not inherit even if the one to whom he was attributed is the one who claimed paternity, '''since he was a child of fornication whether his mother was free or a slave.''' }}

==Muhammad's other female captives==
On at least two occasions, according to accounts in sahih hadiths, Muhammad captured and cohabited with war captives [[Safiyah]] and [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammads Wives and Concubines#Juwairiya|Juwairiyah]], presumably against their will (having just led the slaughter of their families and tribes).

Surah 33 twice gives Muhammad explicit and direct permission to have sexual contact with his existing [[Muhammad's Marriages|wives]] (having married more than a dozen times, he is prohibited here from marrying further) and with any slaves he may possess now or may acquire in the future.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|33|50|52}}|O Prophet! Lo! We have made lawful unto thee thy wives unto whom thou hast paid their dowries, '''and those whom thy right hand possesseth of those whom Allah hath given thee''' as spoils of war, and the daughters of thine uncle on the father's side and the daughters of thine aunts on the father's side, and the daughters of thine uncle on the mother's side and the daughters of thine aunts on the mother's side who emigrated with thee, and a believing woman if she give herself unto the Prophet and the Prophet desire to ask her in marriage - a privilege for thee only, not for the (rest of) believers - We are Aware of that which We enjoined upon them concerning their wives and those whom their right hands possess - that thou mayst be free from blame, for Allah is ever Forgiving, Merciful. Thou canst defer whom thou wilt of them and receive unto thee whom thou wilt, and whomsoever thou desirest of those whom thou hast set aside (temporarily), it is no sin for thee (to receive her again); that is better; that they may be comforted and not grieve, and may all be pleased with what thou givest them. Allah knoweth what is in your hearts (O men), and Allah is ever Forgiving, Clement. It is not allowed thee to take (other) women henceforth, nor that thou shouldst change them for other wives even though their beauty pleased thee, '''save those whom thy right hand possesseth'''. And Allah is ever Watcher over all things.}}

Earlier verses in the same surah suggest that these women were among the captives, land, houses and wealth seized during a decisive battle with opponents who had left their fortresses ({{Quran-range|33|20|27}}). According to commentators, this was Khaybar, though other views were narrated too.

===Safiyah bint Huayy===
{{Main|Safiyah}}
Safiyah the daughter of Huayy was the wife of a Jewish Rabbi named [[Kinana]]. when Muhammad conquered the Jewish village of Khaibar, he had the Rabbi tortured and then killed. According to an account in Sahih Bukhari, Muhammad then took captive the Rabbi's wife.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||371|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdul 'Aziz: Anas said, 'When Allah's Apostle invaded Khaibar, we offered the Fajr prayer there early in the morning) when it was still dark. The Prophet rode and Abu Talha rode too and I was riding behind Abu Talha. The Prophet passed through the lane of Khaibar quickly and my knee was touching the thigh of the Prophet . He uncovered his thigh and I saw the whiteness of the thigh of the Prophet. When he entered the town, he said, 'Allahu Akbar! Khaibar is ruined. Whenever we approach near a (hostile) nation (to fight) then evil will be the morning of those who have been warned.' He repeated this thrice. The people came out for their jobs and some of them said, 'Muhammad (has come).' (Some of our companions added, "With his army.") We conquered Khaibar, took the captives, and the booty was collected. Dihya came and said, 'O Allah's Prophet! Give me a slave girl from the captives.' The Prophet said, 'Go and take any slave girl.' He took Safiya bint Huyai. A man came to the Prophet and said, 'O Allah's Apostles! You gave Safiya bint Huyai to Dihya and she is the chief mistress of the tribes of Quraiza and An-Nadir and she befits none but you.' So the Prophet said, 'Bring him along with her.' So Dihya came with her and when the Prophet saw her, he said to Dihya, 'Take any slave girl other than her from the captives.' Anas added: The Prophet then manumitted her and married her." Thabit asked Anas, "O Abu Hamza! What did the Prophet pay her (as Mahr)?" He said, "Her self was her Mahr for he manumitted her and then married her." Anas added, "While on the way, Um Sulaim dressed her for marriage (ceremony) and at night she sent her as a bride to the Prophet . So the Prophet was a bridegroom and he said, 'Whoever has anything (food) should bring it.' He spread out a leather sheet (for the food) and some brought dates and others cooking butter. (I think he (Anas) mentioned As-SawTq). So they prepared a dish of Hais (a kind of meal). And that was Walima (the marriage banquet) of Allah's Apostle ."}}

===Juwairiyah bint al-Harith===

A hadith from Sunan Abu Dawud explains how, following a surprise attack on the Banu Mustaliq, Muhammad took captive the "very beautiful" Juwairiyah, making Aisha jealous.

{{Quote|1={{Abu Dawud||3931|darussalam}}|2=Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: Juwayriyyah, daughter of al-Harith ibn al-Mustaliq, fell to the lot of Thabit ibn Qays ibn Shammas, or to her cousin. She entered into an agreement to purchase her freedom. She was a very beautiful woman, most attractive to the eye. Aisha said: She then came to the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) asking him for the purchase of her freedom. When she was standing at the door, I looked at her with disapproval. I realised that the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) would look at her in the same way that I had looked. She said: Apostle of Allah, I am Juwayriyyah, daughter of al-Harith, and something has happened to me, which is not hidden from you. I have fallen to the lot of Thabit ibn Qays ibn Shammas, and I have entered into an agreement to purchase of my freedom. I have come to you to seek assistance for the purchase of my freedom. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) said: Are you inclined to that which is better? She asked: What is that, Apostle of Allah? He replied: I shall pay the price of your freedom on your behalf, and I shall marry you. She said: I shall do this. She (Aisha) said: The people then heard that the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) had married Juwayriyyah. They released the captives in their possession and set them free, and said: They are the relatives of the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) by marriage. We did not see any woman greater than Juwayriyyah who brought blessings to her people. One hundred families of Banu al-Mustaliq were set free on account of her.}}

A hadith in Sahih Bukhari confirms the same narrative.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2541|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn Aun: I wrote a letter to Nafi and Nafi wrote in reply to my letter that the Prophet had suddenly attacked Bani Mustaliq without warning while they were heedless and their cattle were being watered at the places of water. Their fighting men were killed and their women and children were taken as captives; the Prophet got Juwairiya on that day. Nafi said that Ibn 'Umar had told him the above narration and that Ibn 'Umar was in that army.}}

==Waiting period before sex with slave girls too young to menstruate==
While it is relatively well known that [[Forced Marriage|forced marriage]] of [[Child Marriage in Islamic Law|children was permitted]] by all schools of Islamic Jurisprudence and that some did not require puberty prior to marital consummation<ref>[[Child Marriage in Islamic Law|child marriage]] was not only permitted by all schools of Islamic law, but a father [[Forced Marriage|could even compell]] his pre-pubescent children or his female slaves to marry someone (he could even [[Slavery_in_Islamic_Law#In_Islamic_law|so compell his male slaves]] according to Malikis and some Hanafi scholars). Marriage could even be forced upon post-pubescent virgin daughters according to the Maliki and Shafi'i schools of jurisprudence. Follow the links for details of all these points. Child marriage and forced marriage are obvious contexts in which rape would occur.</ref> (all of which is illegal today in most modern Muslim-majority countries), less well known is that intercourse was also permitted with pre-pubescent slave girls.

It is important to reiterate at this point that the majority of Islamic scholars today consider slavery to no longer be permissible in a modern context. Slavery was outlawed in Muslim majority countries around the world during the 19th and 20th centuries (though still persists illegally in a few places such as Mauritania where as of the early 2020s, human rights groups estimate that 20% of the population are still enslaved including children<ref name="Mauritania">https://www.newarab.com/features/modern-day-child-slaves-mauritania Mauritania abolished slavery in 1981, but only criminalised slave ownership in 2007 and introduced punishment in 2015</ref>). Modern muslims would generally be as appalled as anyone else to learn of these past practices.

The istibra' was the period of time during which a man may not have sexual intercourse with a female slave that he has just acquired. This was intended to prevent doubts over a child's paternity in case a slave-girl falls pregnant shortly after being bought by a new master.

The ''Distinguished Jurist's Primer'' by Ibn Rushd summarises the opinions of the Sunni legal schools regarding the length of istibra' for non-menstruating slaves whether because they are either too young or too old. It states that Malik and most jurists of Medina set the waiting period for slave girls who were minors as three months, while Shafi'i and Abu Hanifah set it at one and a half months.<ref>Ibn Rushd (transl. Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee) [https://archive.org/details/BidayatAl-mujtahidTheDistinguishedJuristsPrimerVol2/page/n115/mode/2up ''Distinguished Jurist's Primer''] Volume II, pp. 112-113</ref>

The Risala was a famous treatise of Maliki fiqh (jurisprudence). It gives the istibra' for child slave-girls (who do not yet menstruate) as three months. For slaves who do menstruate, the istibra' is instead measured as one menstral period.

{{Quote|[https://www.iium.edu.my/deed/lawbase/risalah_maliki/book33.html The Risala] 33:5|Istibra' is observed in the case of a slavegirl who changes ownership. It is one menstruation. Ownership changes by selling, giving away, capture, or any other way. If the woman menstruates after being in the possession of the new master before he has bought her, then she does not have to observe an istibra' if she has not gone out. '''The istibra' for a child when she is sold is three months''' as it is for a woman who no longer menstruates. There is no istibra' for a woman who has never had intercourse.}}

Ahmad ibn Hanbal was founder of another major school of jurisprudence. Here Abu Dawud reports Ibn Hanbal's response when the latter was asked about the istibra' for child slave-girls:

{{Quote|''Chapters on Marriage and Divorce: Responses of Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh'' Chapter 2 (Abu Dawud) §59-61, translated by Susan Spectorsky, University of Texas Press, 1993<ref name="Spectorsky">''Chapters on Marriage and Divorce'' is a compilation of "responses" that Ahmad ibn Hanbal and his friend Ishaq bin Rahwayh gave to various fiqh questions that people asked them. The book is really three different compilations in one: the first from Abu Dawud, the famous Hadith scholar, the second from Abdullah, Ahmad's son, and the last from al-Kausaj, one of Ahmad's students. The three different compilations were collected and translated by Susan A. Spectorsky, a retired professor at Queens College, City University of New York.</ref>|I heard Aḥmad asked about an istībrāʾ for a girl of ten, and he thought there should be one. I heard Aḥmad say, “A girl of ten years of age may become pregnant.” Someone said to Aḥmad while I was listening, “Even if she is too young to menstruate (ṣaghīra)?” He said, “If she is [very] young, that is, if she is still suckling, then waiting an istibrāʾ has no legal consequences.”}}

Ibn Hanbal's son Abdullah too reported his father's views on this question, as well as on the question of sexual touching of pre-menstral slave-girls. Ibn Hanbal permitted either of these after three months:

{{Quote|''Chapters on Marriage and Divorce: Responses of Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh'' Chapter 3 (Abdullah) §138-9, translated by Susan Spectorsky, University of Texas Press, 1993<ref name="Spectorsky" />|I said, “What about a man who buys a female slave not old enough to menstruate?” He said, “He abstains from having sexual intercourse with her for three months.” ... I said to my father, “May he have intimate contact other than that of sexual intercourse with his prepubescent female slave?” He said, “Not until he has abstained from having sexual intercourse with her for three months.” [...]

I asked my father about a man who buys a female slave who is too young to menstruate. “How long should he refrain from having sexual intercourse with her?” He said, “For three months.” I said to my father, “What about intimate contact other than that of intercourse? Can he, for example, touch or kiss her?” He said, “I prefer him not to do that. He should wait an istibrāʾ, for I cannot be certain that if he does touch or kiss her and she is pregnant, he will not do so in an unlawful manner.”}}

Sufyan was the teacher of Ibn Hanbal and Ishaq. Here the views of all three are reported by Ahmad's student al-Kausaj:

{{Quote|''Chapters on Marriage and Divorce: Responses of Ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Rāhwayh'' Chapter 4 (al-Kausaj) §224, translated by Susan Spectorsky, University of Texas Press, 1993<ref name="Spectorsky" />|I said, “Sufyān said, and he was one of those among the scholars (ahl al-ʿilm) whose opinion was sought, that when a man bought a young female slave, one considered too young for sexual intercourse, that it was not necessary for her to wait an ʿidda. He said, ‘What I prefer when a man buys a female slave too young for intercourse is that her new owner should neither kiss her nor have sexual contact with her, until he has waited a period of istibrāʾ on her behalf, in accordance with the sunna [concerning female slaves].’”

Aḥmad said, “What Sufyān said is excellent.”

Isḥāq said, “There is no harm in his kissing her and having sexual contact with her, because she is among those whom one need not fear having to return to her previous owner because of pregnancy.}}

Shafi'i, founder of another major sunni legal school, said that the istibra' in this situation was one and a half months (as mentioned above). See also the section below about polytheist slaves for his view that sex with polytheist child slaves becomes lawful only once the child has embraced Islam, which may be achieved by coercion in some circumstances.

These views contrast with the statement by Ibn Hajar discussed in another section above, that "the practice of many Companions" was to not observe istibra' for virgin pre-pubescent girls. He may have had in mind narrations similar to some attributed to the tabi'un (2nd generation after the companions) which were collected by Ibn Abi Shaybah (d. 849 CE). A chapter of the Musannaf of Ibn Abi Shaybah records a number of relevant narrations including these from 'Ikrima and the renowned judge Iyas b. Mu'awiyah:

{{Quote|1=[https://archive.org/details/waq110421/06_110426/page/n125/mode/1up?view=theater Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah 16906 and 16907] (for translation and further discussion see [https://theislamissue.wordpress.com/2019/06/01/child-sex-slavery/ here]|2=(16906) Waki <– Ali Bin Al-Mubarak <– Yahya Bin Abi Kathir <– Ikrimah:
Regarding the man who buys a pre-pubescent slave girl, even one younger than that. He said: “There is nothing wrong with touching her before observing Istibra” 

(16907) Zayd Bin Hubab <– Hammad Bin Salamah <– Iyas Bin Muawiyah:
Regarding a man who brought a pre-pubescent slave girl, do not those like her have sexual intercourse? He said: “there is nothing wrong with performing the sexual act upon her without observing istibra”}}

Screenshots of the sources used in this section are also available [https://web.archive.org/web/20220125095756/https://www.reddit.com/r/exmuslim/comments/sca71q/evidence_pedophilia_and_forced_marriages_in_islam/ here (archive)].

==Limitations on rape of slaves and war captives==
===Avoiding physical harm during intercourse===
Beyond the temporary requirement of waiting past the ''Iddah'' period or conversion of a slave, the only restriction on sex with one's slaves or wives is that they do not suffer physical harm in the process.<ref name="Brown2019page283" /> However, this derives from a generic prohibition against incurring harm (ḍarar) upon anyone at any time, and men are authorized in the view of jurists to [[Wife Beating in Islamic Law|beat]] their wives and slaves as a form of physical discipline if they deny him sexual access or fail to obey him in some other mandatory capacity.<ref name="Brown2014" />

In practical terms, the relevance of the "do-no-harm" principle in this case is that a man should not penetrate his wives or slaves against their will if they are physically too small to withstand penetration (i.e. in the case of [[Child Marriage in Islamic Law|very young girls]]) or if they are seriously ill or injured to the point where penetration would inhibit their healing or magnify their injury. There is no consideration here for harm in the form of "mental anguish", and men are permitted to sexually utilize very young, ill, and/or injured slaves against their will through means other than penetration if such less egregious means will help avoid severe physical injury.

===Waiting until the completion of the ''Iddah'' or childbirth===

A hadith graded sahih by Dar-us-Salam in Abu Dawud describes the ''Iddah'' waiting period as the "one menstrual period" after acquisition of the slave wherein the new owner must abstain from sexual contact in order to ascertain whether or not the slave is pregnant, so as not to confuse paternity.

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2157|darussalam}}|Abu Sa’id Al Khudri traced to Prophet (ﷺ) the following statement regarding the captives taken at Atwas. There must be no intercourse with pregnant woman till she gives birth to her child or with the one who is not pregnant till she has had one menstrual period.}}

Another hadith graded sahih by Dar-us-Salam in Tirmidhi explains that if the slave is pregnant

{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||3|19|1564}}|Narrated Umm Habibah bint 'Irbad bin Sariyah:

From her father who told her that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) prohibited intercourse with female prisoners, until they deliver what is in their wombs."}}

===Waiting until adult polytheist slaves convert, by force if necessary===

Although Muhammad's men seem to have had intercourse with captive polytheist women whom they had captured during the expedition to Awtas/Autas, most jurists later ruled that this was later forbidden by {{Quran|2|221}} (the verse only forbids marriage to polytheist women, but scholars inferred that this also applied to intercourse with slaves). Intercourse with Muslim, Christian, or Jewish slaves was not affected by this restriction.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/272452/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227215257/https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/272452/|title=Ruling on sexual intercourse with one's polytheistic slave-woman|date=November 14, 2014|publisher=Islamweb.net}}</ref>

Early scholars of fiqh devised a workaround for this restriction, including the allowance of raping younger captives who were polytheist:

{{Quote|{{citation| last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan| title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ISBN=9780511497568|pages=107-108|date=August 2009|series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tolerance-and-coercion-in-islam/603974A9EFEDC7FBD00B38D0845AECAA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614220208/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/tolerance-and-coercion-in-islam/603974A9EFEDC7FBD00B38D0845AECAA}}|According to a report included in the ''Jāmi‘'' of al-Khallāl (d. 311 A.H. / 923 A.D.), '''Ibn Hanbal maintained that

:'''if Zoroastrian and idolatrous women are taken prisoner, they are coerced into Islam; if they embrace it, sexual relations with them are permissible''' and they can (also) be used as maidservants. If they do not embrace Islam, they are used as maidservants but not for sexual relations (''wa idhā subhīna (sic) al-majūsiyyāt wa ‘abadat al awthān ujbirna 'alā al-Islām fa-in asl ama wutiʼna ma 'stukhdimna wa in lam yuslimna 'stukhdimna wa lam yūtaʼna'').

The contradiction inherent in this passage is evident: despite the unspecified coercive measures, some of the women in question refused conversion and, consequently, the masters could not take full advantage of their services. If the only way to embrace Islam is pronouncing the declaration of faith, the conversion of a defiant woman may not be possible: it is not always feasible to force someone to utter the shahāda. '''According to a tradition transmitted on the authority of Hasan al-Basri, the Muslims used various devices to attain their objective: they turned the Zorastrian slave-girl toward the Ka‘ba, ordered her to pronounce the shahāda and to perform ablution. Her master then engaged in sexual relations''' after she had one menstruating period while in his house. Others hold that the master must teach the slave-girl to pray, to purify herself and to shave her private parts before any intercourse. The participation of the girl in this procedure is minimal, and this wording may be interpreted us a considerable lowering of the conversion requirements so that the girl becomes eligible for sexual intercourse as expeditiously as possible. Among the early traditionists, only '''a few were willing to go beyond this and allow sexual relations with a Zoroastrian slave-girl without insisting on at least a semblance of conversion'''.

Shafi‘i's treatment of the issue is slightly different. Speaking of grown-up Zoroastrian or polytheist women taken into captivity, he maintains that no sexual relations with them are allowed before they embrace Islam without bringing up the question of converting them forcibly. If the female captives are minor but were taken captive with at least one of their parents, the ruling is the same. '''If, however, the girl was captured without her parents, or one of her parents embraced Islam, she is considered a Muslim and is coerced into embracing it''' (''nahkumu lahā bihukm al-Islām wa nujbiruhā ‘alayhi''). '''Once this happens, sexual relations with her are lawful.'''}}

==Modern perspectives==
While most Islamic scholars today are comfortable with at least the temporary abolition of slavery in light of the fact that Islamic scriptures universally praise the freeing of slaves as a meritorious act, few are comfortable with the idea of permanently and irreversibly amending divine law. As a result, the legal rulings relating to slaves and the technical permissibility of owning slaves under the proper circumstances (e.g. under the rule of a "legitimate [[Khilafah (Caliphate)|khilafah]]", or caliphate) persist, as exemplified in the following fatwa from the most popular Islamic fatwa website in the world, based in Saudi Arabia.{{Quote|1=

{{citation|url=https://islamqa.info/en/answers/13737/what-is-the-ruling-on-intimacy-with-slave-women | archiveurl=https://archive.fo/16upP| chapter= Fatwa No. 13737: What is the ruling on intimacy with slave women?|publisher= Islam Q&A|date= March 18, 2004|editor=Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid}}|2=With regard to your question about it being permissible for a master to be intimate with his slave woman, the answer is that that is because Allaah has permitted it. }}Likewise, as with all rulings of the shariah, the basic rulings governing family relations are unchanging. It would be difficult even today to find a trusted Islamic authority that does not still, at some level, permit marital rape and give general license for [[Wife Beating in Islamic Law|wife beating]] as a potential means by which to compel one's able but unwilling spouse into sexual activity, among other things.
{{Quote|{{citation|url= https://islamqa.info/en/answers/99756/his-wife-is-not-very-interested-in-intercourse-so-he-resorts-to-masturbation|chapter= Fatwa No. 99756: His wife is not very interested in intercourse so he resorts to masturbation| publisher= Islam Q&A|date= July 22, 2007|editor=Muhammad Salih al-Munajjid|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204173121/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/99756/his-wife-is-not-very-interested-in-intercourse-so-he-resorts-to-masturbation}}|The wife is obliged to obey her husband if he calls her to his bed, and if she refuses then she is sinning, because of the report narrated by al-Bukhaari (3237) and Muslim (1436) from Abu Hurayrah (may Allaah be pleased with him), that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “If a man calls his wife to his bed and she does not come to him, and he goes to sleep angry with her, the angels will curse her until morning.”}}

Others side with modern values regarding these issues. Khaled Abou al-Fadl is a prominent reformist scholar who has summarised his understanding of modern Islamic views on slavery and sexual exploitation:

{{Quote|Khaled Abou al-Fadl, ''The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists''<ref name="alFadl">Khaled Abou al-Fadl, ''The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists'', HarperOne, 2009, p. 255</ref>|Consider, for example, the recent truly ominous and disturbing development by one of the highest-ranking puritan jurists. Shaykh Saleh al-Fawzan, a Saudi jurist, issued a ''fatwa'' (a legal opinion) in which he claimed that not only is slavery lawful in Islam, but that it ought to be legalized in Saudi Arabia. Al-Fawzan went further in accusing Muslim scholars who condemned and outlawed slavery of being ignorant and infidels. This ''fatwa'' is particularly disturbing and dangerous because it effectively legitimates the trafficking in and sexual exploitation of so-called domestic workers in the Gulf region and especially Saudi Arabia. 
The position of slavery had been resolved for most of the twentieth century: slavery was condsidered unlawful and immoral, and all Muslim countries without exception had made the practice illegal. Importantly, most Muslim scholars had reached the reasonable conclusion that slavery is inconsistent with Qur'anic morality and the ethical objectives of the Islamic faith. In short, the prohibition of slavery was considered a closed matter.}}

==Modern revisionary perspectives and criticisms thereof==
===Freedom and marriage as a requirement for intercourse===

Verses 4:23-24 ({{Quran-range|4|23|24}}) are sometimes presented as evidence for the idea that a man must first manumit and marry a slave in order to have sex with her. The verse lists the types of women a Muslim man is permitted to marry, one given option being his slave women, of whom he may free and marry. While 4:23-24 do not mention slaves outside of a marital context, several other verses (e.g. {{Quran-range|23|1|6}} and {{Quran-range|70|29|30}}) make clear reference to sexual activity with slaves with whom the owner is not married by explicitly distinguishing between his sexual access to his wives and his sexual access to his slaves. The further example of Muhammad's companions raping captives from Banu al-Mustaliq prior to ransoming them (a scenario which effectively necessitates their non-marriage) confirms this idea.<ref>{{Bukhari|||4138|darussalam}}, {{Muslim||1438a|reference}},{{Muwatta|29||95}}, {{Abudawud||2172|darussalam}}, and {{Bukhari|||2229|darussalam}}</ref>

In addition, there is the universally attested legal category of the ''Umm Walad'' (literally "mother of child") that is used by Islamic jurists to refer to those slaves who have given birth to one of their master's children. The child is free from birth and the mother is free upon her owner's death. An ''Umm Walad'' is legally distinct from a free mother ''because'' she is still a slave. Indeed, the concept of ''Umm Walad'' is apparently attested even in the prophet's time according to a hadith in Sahih Muslim - further clarifying the matter is the fact that in this very hadith, Muhammad approves of the companion's sexual relations with his unmarried slave girl.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1438g|reference}}| Abu Sa'id al-Khudri (Allah be pleased with him) reported that mention was made of 'azl in the presence of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) whereupon he said:
Why do you practise it? They said: There is a man whose wife has to suckle the child, and if that person has a sexual intercourse with her (she may conceive) which he does not like, '''and there is another person who has a slave-girl and he has a sexual intercourse with her, but he does not like her to have conception so that she may not become Umm Walad''', whereupon he (the Holy Prophet) said: There is no harm if you do not do that, for that (the birth of the child) is something pre- ordained. Ibn 'Aun said: I made a mention of this hadith to Hasan, and he said: By Allah, (it seems) as if there is upbraiding in it (for 'azl).}}

===Encouragement to chastity as a prohibition on rape===

Verse 24:33 ({{Quran|24|33}}), which instructs unmarried men to keep chaste and instructs slaveowners to "force not [their] maids to prostitution", is sometimes presented as evidence for the idea that sexual activity is only permitted in a marital context and that slaveowners may not compel their slave girls to sexual activity of any sort.

{{Quote|1={{Quran|24|33}}|2='''Let those who find not the wherewithal for marriage keep themselves chaste''', until Allah gives them means out of His grace. And if any of your slaves ask for a deed in writing (to enable them to earn their freedom for a certain sum), give them such a deed if ye know any good in them: yea, give them something yourselves out of the means which Allah has given to you. But '''force not your maids to prostitution when they desire chastity''', in order that ye may make a gain in the goods of this life. But if anyone compels them, yet, after such compulsion, is Allah, Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful (to them),}}

Chastity is instructed throughout the Qur'an and is repeatedly defined as the habit of one who "guards their private parts" from all except "their wives [of whom they may have [[Polygamy in Islamic Law|up to four]]] and what their right hand possesses [i.e. female slaves, of whom they may have an unlimited number]" (e.g. {{Quran|23|6}}, {{Quran|33|50}}, {{Quran|33|52}}, and {{Quran|70|30}}). It is clear that, in the view of the Qur'an's author, an unmarried male may be considered chaste even if he engages in sexual activity with a technically unlimited number of women, so long as they are his slaves.

The portion of the verse which instructs slaveowners to "force not [their] maids to prostitution" has traditionally been understood in its simplest sense, which prohibits slaveowners from playing the role of a pimp and trafficking their slave women - such a business built on illegal intercourse is of course prohibited and, understood this way, the verse says nothing of novel import. Another accepted sense of this verse is that if a female slave desires her (or, say, her child's) freedom, her master ought to give her some legal means by which to pursue it, the alternative being her feeling compelled to prostitute herself to earn the funds necessary to purchase that freedom (traditional tafsirs also mention the also undesirable possibility of a master forcing a slave to prostitution as a condition for her freedom). Since such a temptation on the part of the slave girl is all the more plausible given the likelihood that she was captured in a war or raid where her people were both slaughtered and enslaved (leaving her with no means), and so the verse concludes by saying that if a slave girl is driven to such behavior, then Allah will be forgiving. And in the simpler sense, if her master forces her to prostitution, then Allah will forgive her for what was not in her control.<ref>See [https://tafsir.app/qurtubi/24/33 Tafsir Qurtubi 24:33] in particular; see also [https://tafsir.app/tabari/24/33 Tafsir al-Tabari 24:33], [https://tafsir.app/ibn-katheer/24/33 Tafsir Ibn Kathir 24:33], and [https://tafsir.app/24/33 Tafsirs 24:33] in general</ref>

===Violations of the spoils-distribution system as rape===
====Quote from al-Shafi'i====
A quote from ''al-Umm'' of Imam al Shafi'i, the founder of the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence, is sometimes misrepresented<ref name=":0">{{Citation|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112021758/https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/does_islam_permit_muslim_men_to_rape_their_slave_girls_|url=https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/does_islam_permit_muslim_men_to_rape_their_slave_girls_|author=Bassam Zawadi|publisher=Call to Monotheism|chapter=Does Islam Permit Muslim Men to Rape Their Slave Girls?}}</ref> as forbidding slave owners from raping their female slaves.

{{Quote|1={{citation|author=al-Shafi'i|title=al-Umm|volume=3|page=253}}|2="If a man acquires by force a slave-girl, then has sexual intercourse with her after he acquires her by force, and if he is not excused by ignorance, then the slave-girl will be taken from him, he is required to pay the fine, and he will receive the punishment for illegal sexual intercourse."}}

It is clear, however, that "acquires by force" here refers to the manner in which the man gained possession of the slave girl, not a description of the later sexual act. Indeed, this quote comes from the section entitled ghasb (property usurpation). According to Islamic law, a fifth of all war and raid spoils (referred to as the ''Khum -'' literally "fifth"), including captives who may be sold for funds, is to be allotted for public spending. Taking and raping a captive from this public allotment, as [[Rape in Islamic Law#Ali rapes a captive girl alloted to the khumus (state share of war booty)|Ali is reported to have in one instance]], amounts to theft and zina (illegal intercourse). This, as well as taking and raping someone else's slave, is of course prohibited and punishable. Indeed, in the remainder of his many-volume legal work ''al-Umm'', al-Shafi'i painstakingly outlines the laws regarding the sexual obligations of one's wives and slaves, in no place suggesting that rape of the female is punishable in these contexts.

====Quote from Malik====
A quote from the ''Muwatta'' of Imam Malik, founder of the Maliki school of jurisprudence, is also sometimes misrepresented in this vein.<ref name=":0" /> As with the quote taken from ''al-Umm'', this quote from the ''Muwatta'' is likewise only referring to stolen slaves and has no bearing on one's own slaves and wives. Fines for raping slave girls were always paid to the master.<ref>Hina Azam, "Sexual Violation in Islamic Law: Substance, Evidence, and Procedure" New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015, p. 104</ref> And, just like Imam Shafi'i, Malik details the legal practices of slavery in several other places throughout the same text.

{{Quote|1={{Muwatta|36||14}}|2=Malik related to me from Ibn Shihab that Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan gave a judgment that the rapist had to pay the raped woman her bride- price. Yahya said that he heard Malik say, "What is done in our community about the man who rapes a woman, virgin or non-virgin, if she is free, is that he must pay the bride-price of the like of her. If she is a slave, he must pay what he has diminished of her worth. The hadd-punishment in such cases is applied to the rapist, and there is no punishment applied to the raped woman. If the rapist is a slave, that is against his master unless he wishes to surrender him."}}

====Hadith regarding the caliph Umar====

A hadith in the Sunan of al-Bayhaqi describes the Caliph Umar punishing Dhiraar for raping a captive woman and is sometimes presented as evidence that one is not permitted to have sexual intercourse with slaves.<ref name=":0" />

{{Quote|1={{citation|title=Sunan al-Bayhaqi|volume=2|author=al-Bayhaqi|page=263|chapter=Hadith 18685}}|2=

Abu al-Hussain bin al-Fadhl al-Qatan narrated from Abdullah bin Jaffar bin Darestweh from Yaqub bin Sufyan from al-Hassab bin Rabee from Abdullah bin al-Mubarak from Kahmas from Harun bin Al-Asam who said: Umar bin al-Khatab may Allah be pleased with him sent Khalid bin al-Walid in an army, hence Khalid sent Dhiraar bin al-Azwar in a squadron and they invaded a district belonging to the tribe of Bani Asad. They then captured a pretty bride, Dhiraar liked her hence he asked his companions to grant her to him and they did so. He then had sexual intercourse with her, when he completed his mission he felt guilty, and went to Khalid and told him about what he did. Khalid said: 'I permit you and made it lawful to you.' He said: 'No not until you write a message to Umar'. (Then they sent a message to Umar) and Umar answered that he (Dhiraar) should be stoned. By the time Umar's message was delivered, Dhiraar was dead. (Khalid) said: 'Allah didn't want to disgrace Dhiraar'}}

As with the quote taken from Imam Shafi'i, this almost certainly refers to a violation of the system for distributing war spoils. Dhiraar's intercourse with the captive girl was illegal and merited stoning not because of her captive status or lack of consent, but because he had intercourse with the girl without that girl having been allotted to him at the behest of the caliph (Umar in this case), who has the responsibility of distributing spoils. Neither captivity nor consent are mentioned as a factor in the punishment. Indeed, in a [[Rape_in_Islamic_Law#Umar_tells_a_man_to_beat_his_wife_for_preventing_intercourse_with_his_slave_girl|another hadith discussed above]], Umar tells a man to have intercourse with his slave girl after his wife tried to prevent it.

===Quote from Shafi'i on pleasure without compulsion in intercourse===
A passage from al-Shāfiʿī's ''al-Umm'' is occasionally proposed on Islamic websites as establishing a principle for sexual consent in general from a major legal figure. However, such a generalization is not justified from the context, which is about marital relations and specifically the husband's obligation but not compulsion to satisfy his wife' sexual needs. Here are comments and a translation by Professor Kecia Ali:

{{Quote|Shāfiʿī's ''al-Umm'' quoted by Kecia Ali, ''Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam'', p.119<ref>Kecia Ali,"Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam", Massachussets: Harvard University Press, 2010, p.119</ref>|Where there was no question of justice to co-wives, Shāfiʿī explicitly denies the wife's claim to a specific amount of intercourse:
<blockquote>He said: And so if she is alone with him [i.e., he has no other wives], or with a slavegirl he has that he has sex with, he is ordered [to fulfill his obligations] in reverence to God the Exalted, and not to do her harm with regard to intercourse, and he is not obligated to any specific amount of it (wa lam yufraḍ ʿalayhi minhu shayʾbi ʿaynihi). Rather, he is only [obligated] to provide what she absolutely cannot do without, maintenance and lodging and clothing, and also to visit her (yaʾwī). However, intercourse is a matter of pleasure and no one is compelled to it.
</blockquote>
Shāfiʿī is unaware of his blinders. He obviously refers only to men when he declares that "intercourse is a matter of pleasure and no one is compelled to it." Women's sexual availability is, for him, a condition of their support and a prerequisite for their rights to visitation: "if any of them [his wives] refuses to have sex with him, she has disobeyed and abandoned her claim."}}

Professor Jonathan A. C. Brown in reference to the same ruling remarks, "Shafiʿi himself, in a ruling followed dutifully by the major figures of his school, did not require a husband to have sex with his wife or slave-concubine because, ‘as for sex, it is a locus of pleasure and no one should be compelled to do it.’"<ref name="Brown2019page283" />

==See Also==
[[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Rape of Slaves, Prisoners, and Wives]]

==External Links==

*{{external link|url= http://womanstats.wordpress.com/2013/01/16/the-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia/|title= The High Rape-Scale in Saudi Arabia|publisher= WomanStats Project (blog)|author= |date= January 16, 2013|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwomanstats.wordpress.com%2F2013%2F01%2F16%2Fthe-high-rape-scale-in-saudi-arabia%2F&date=2013-07-13|deadurl=no}}
*[https://theislamissue.wordpress.com/2019/06/15/islamweb-endorses-rape/ IslamWeb endorses rape] - The Islam Issue

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Honor violence]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sex]]
[[ru:Изнасилование в Исламе]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Slavery]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Child Marriage]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Hudud (punishments)]]
[[ar:الاغتصاب_في_الشريعة_الإسلامية]]
[[fr:Le viol dans la loi islamique]]

Islamic Fasting and Health

2026-03-20T21:59:21Z

Lightyears:

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<metadesc>Islamic fasting has significant harmful effects on health, national economy and productivity, crime rate, public safety and social behavior.</metadesc>
Numerous adverse effects of [[Islam|Islamic]] [[fasting]] (''[[Sawm]]'') have been observed in [[Islam and Science|scientific]] studies and reported on in news sources.

Intermittent and prolonged fasting is generally not conducive to a healthy lifestyle. Depriving the body of water and essential nutrients by dividing and postponing meals to irregular intervals does nothing to limit consumption. In fact it causes a host of health, performance and mood disorders. Fasting is not normally prescribed for the well being of human beings. Instead, it is commonly understood that eating healthy, smaller-portioned meals, interspersed throughout the day is far better in maintaining a well-balanced diet and far more forgiving on a person's metabolism. Based on scientific studies, any claims that prolonged and intermittent fasting contributes to the well-being of an individual's health are misleading in relation to Ramadan. The only benefit of fasting that can be claimed, then, must be metaphysical. However, what is clear is that the practice has concrete and definite physical, social, and economic harms.

==Introduction==

Medical fasting can have [[health]] benefits. Islamic fasting, however, differs in many respects, and thus has significant harmful effects on health, national economy and productivity, crime rate, public safety and social behavior. Health effects include heat stress, dehydration, migraines and, for lactating women, the nutritional make-up of their milk, among other harms.

===What is Islamic Fasting?===

The salient features of Islamic fasting are:

*For 30 days every [[Islamic Lunar Calendar|lunar year]] (during the month of Ramadan), waking up before dawn and eating and drinking to prepare for the fast (binge eating is a common habit).<ref name="Anjali Dange"></ref><ref>Abdel-Moneim Said - [{{Reference archive|1=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2009/963/op11.htm|2=2011-08-28}} Wasting Ramadan] - Al-Ahram Weekly, September 3, 2009</ref>
*Refraining from consuming any food or water from dawn to sunset
*Breaking the fast at sunset and again eating and drinking to prepare for the day ahead.

Some Muslims claim eating a small amount of food is the correct Islamic way but this is culturally uncommon.

==Effects on Health==

In a recent study done on the Arab world, diseases linked to cholesterol and diabetes increased by 27.65% because of overeating.<ref name="ANSA" /> Non-compliance with prescribed treatment regimens is common during Ramadan. <ref>Aslam M, Healey MA. Drug regimens and fasting Moslem patients [Letter]. Lancet 1985;290:1746</ref> Other health effects include:

===Dehydration===

One study finds that incidences of dehydration increase during the month of Ramadan:

{{Quote|| '''PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS'''
Evidence of hemoconcentration and dehydration has been found during Ramadan (El-Hazmi, Al-Faleh, & Al-Mofleh, 1987; Kayikcioglu et al., 1999; Ramadan et al., 1999; Schmahl & Metzler, 1991; Sweileh et al., 1992). Restricted fluid intake, leading to disturbance in the fluid balance, is likely to cause these conditions. In the initial stages of dehydration, the clinical signs are tachycardia, tiredness and malaise, headaches and nausea. Middle-aged or more elderly persons are usually more prone to the effects of dehydration (Schmahl & Metzler).
Dehydration is indicated by the increase of several serum biochemical parameters (El-Hazmi et al., 1987; Ramadan et al., 1999; Schmahl & Metzler, 1991; Sweileh et al., 1992). The increase in uric acid, however, should especially be noted (El-Ati et al, 1995; El-Hazmi et al., 1987; Fedail et al., 1982; Schmahl & Metzler, 1991), because hyperuricemia is one of the known sequelae of prolonged fasting (Murphy & Shipman, 1963). Hyperuricemia is associated with reduction in glomerular filtration rate, decrease in uric acid clearance and alterations in the renal transport of uric acid (Murphy & Shipman). During Ramadan, however, reports show that the increase in uric acid does not excessively deviate from the normal range and studies have not reported clinical gout (El-Hazmi et al., 1987; Fedail et al., 1982). Increased uric acid is, therefore, unlikely to affect healthy individuals.<ref name="Morimoto">Toda, Masahiro, Morimoto, Kanehisa, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3852/is_200401/ai_n9352292/ Ramadan Fasting - Effect on Healthy Muslims]", Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 2004</ref>}}

===Migraines===

Migraines are three times more common during Ramadan, affecting an estimated 90 million Muslims:

{{Quote||An estimated 90 million of the world’s 1.57 billion Muslims are likely to suffer from migraine headaches during the dawn-to-dusk fasts during the month of Ramadan – which begins on Wednesday, at the height of summer heat. But Jewish researchers in the US and Israel have suggested how to help prevent the problem.

Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Salameh, Israel’s only Beduin neurologist – who works at Soroka University Medical Center in Beersheba – headed a team that found migraine attacks are three times more common during the Muslim fast than in the rest of the year.

Working with colleagues Dr. Igal Plecht and Dr. Gal Ifergan of the Beersheba hospital, Abu-Salameh studied 32 Beduin who suffered from migraine attacks during the Ramadan fast last year and compared the statistics to an ordinary month without the fast as a control.

Migraines were much more common in women than men; three-quarters of the women complained of migraine while fasting, compared to a much lower figure among the men. The Soroka study was published recently in the Journal of Headache and Pain. . . . 

Abu-Salameh said that he has gotten migraine headaches during Ramadan, and has treated Beduin who came to his clinic complaining about severe headaches. He noted that the medical literature has almost ignored the phenomenon until now.

Meanwhile, Dr. Michael J. Drescher of Hartford Hospital in Connecticut and colleagues at Sheba and Shaare Zedek Medical Centers in Israel recently suggested that otherwise-healthy Muslims suffering from migraine attacks during the Ramadan fast ask their doctors for a prescription for etoricoxib (commercial name Arcoxia) to prevent the headaches that come with fasting.<ref>Judy Siegel-Itzkovich - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.jpost.com/HealthAndSci-Tech/Health/Article.aspx?id=184112|2=2011-04-04}} Beduin doctor: Migraines common during Ramadan fast] - The Jerusalem Post, August 9, 2010</ref>}}

===Tachycardia, Severe Headaches, Dizziness, Nausea, Vomiting and Circulatory Collapse===

The following study was carried out on Turkish Muslims in Germany who were involved in heavy and manual work. 'Moderate to severe health disturbances' including severe dehydration were found in such laborers during Ramadan:

{{Quote||
'''Abstract'''
During Ramadan, Moslems are required strictly to avoid fluids and nourishment from dawn to sunset. Heat stress during such abstinence represents a substantial health hazard. In the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) where numerous Moslems, particularly of Turkish origin, perform heat work and other heavy labour, we observed moderate to severe health disturbances in such labourers during Ramadan, e.g.: '''tachycardia, severe headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting and circulatory collapse'''. The '''severe dehydration''' of these workers was demonstrated by substantial increases in their hematocrit, serum protein, urea, creatinine, uric acid and electrolyte imbalance. Because of the evidence of the substantial health hazard to Islamic workers in such situations, we have strongly urged employers to refrain from assigning Islamic workers to heat work or heavy daytime work during Ramadan; we have therefore limited systematic studies of health problems during Ramadan to persons performing only moderate work. Even under these conditions signs of dehydration were found in the 32 labourers monitored. Some of these labourers also had to interrupt their observance of Ramadan due to health problems, e.g.: acute gout due to serum uric acid increase, or circulatory insufficiency. In light of the observed potentially harmful pathophysiological effects, the danger of dehydration of Islamic workers due to heat work during Ramadan should be taken very seriously.<ref>Schmahl FW, Metzler B, "The health risks of occupational stress in Islamic industrial workers during the Ramadan fasting period", Polish Journal of Occupational Medicine 1991 4:3 219-28</ref>}}

Naturally this would affect productivity, as is evidenced in a later section on Economical effects.

===Weight Fluctuation===

The following study takes a look at the significant fluctuations in the weight of individuals that occurs during the month of Ramadan, primarily as a result of the metabolic changes that occur in the body.

{{Quote||Numerous studies have reported significant weight loss during Ramadan (Adlouni, Ghalim, Benslimane, Lecerf, & Saile, 1997; Adlouni et al., 1998; Fedail, Murphy, Salih, Bolton, & Harvey, 1982; Kayikcioglu, Erkin, & Erakgun, 1999; Ramadan, Telahoun, Al-Zaid, & Barac-Nieto, 1999; Schmahl & Metzler, 1991; Sweileh, Schnitzler, Hunter, & Davis, 1992). The declines may result from water loss early in Ramadan and loss of body fat during the later period (Sweileh et al., 1992). In fact, we did find evidence of dehydration.
Loss of body fat would indicate the use of fat for energy production during Ramadan (Husain, Duncan, Cheah, & Ch'ng, 1987; Ramadan et al., 1999; Sweileh et al., 1992). In addition, researchers have found decreased heart rate and oxygen consumption during Ramadan (Husain et al., 1987; Ramadan et al., 1999; Sweileh et al., 1992). These findings suggest a metabolic adaptation to fasting. It seems that during the Ramadan daylight hours - when no food or water is taken in - to conserve stored energy, the metabolism slows down (Sweileh et al., 1992).
Other studies, however, have reported no change in body weight during Ramadan (El-Ati, Beji, & Danguir, 1995; Finch, Day, Razak, Welch, & Rogers 1998; Maislos et al., 1993; Maislos, Abou-Rabiah, Zuili, Iordash, & Shany, 1998). In fact, one study carried out in Saudi Arabia reported a significant increase in body weight during Ramadan (Frost & Pirani, 1987). Such variations may be attributable to local custom and food quality. In short, in Islamic communities - as elsewhere - food habits vary according to geography, culture, and socioeconomic factors (Musaiger, 1993; Rashed, 1992). Ramadan is a special month and the variety of foods generally increases (Karaagaoglu & Yucecan, 2000) so, during this period, richer meals and special treats are not uncommon in households that can afford them.<ref name="Morimoto"></ref>}}

===Affect on Circadian Patterns and Sleep Disorders===

The results of the following study can lead to the conclusion that fasting negatively effects an individual's circadian rhythm. As a result, unfavorable side-effects such as lethargy and a lack of motivation, may contribute to a society's lack of productivity:

{{Quote||This change of meal schedule is accompanied with changes in sleep habits, such as delayed and shortened sleep periods, which may affect endocrine and neuroendocrine circadian patterns. Several cardiovascular parameters (i.e., heart rate, blood pressure, vascular tone, and coagulation-fibrinolysis) show circadian pattern. Several studies reported that autonomic activity and melatonin rhtyhmicity may be responsible for circadian patterns of cardiovascular parameters. '''Changes of sleep habit in Ramadan affects autonomic activity and melatonin rhtyhmicity'''. The other negative effects may be that, during fasting patients with cardiovascular disease cannot consume medications, such as anti-ischemic, anti-platelet, anti-hypertensive drugs, and drugs of heart failure on time. Some patients may get admitted to the hospital with cardiovascular symptoms owing to failure of therapy.<ref>"Does Ramadan modify the Circadian Patterns?", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, March 2006, Vol. 52 Issue 1 [https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/6924/1/jp06011.pdf pdf]</ref>}}

The following study was done in Saudi Arabia and it was observed that melatonin levels and REM sleep decreased during Ramadan:

{{Quote||'''Abstract:'''
Fasting during Ramadan is distinct from regular voluntary or experimental fasting. This project was conducted to objectively assess the effect of Ramadan fasting on sleep architecture, daytime sleepiness and the circadian cycle of melatonin level. Eight healthy volunteers reported to the Sleep Disorders Center on four occasions for polysomnography and multiple sleep latency tests: 1) an initial visit for adaptation; 2) 2 weeks before Ramadan (BL); and 3,4) during the first and third weeks of Ramadan (R1, R3). Salivary melatonin level was measured using radioimmunoassay. Sleep latency at night was significantly shorter and the amount of rapid eye movement sleep was significantly less, at R3 compared to BL. There was no difference in multiple sleep latency test data between BL and Ramadan. Although melatonin level kept the same circadian pattern at BL, R1 and R3, '''it had a flatter slope and a significantly lower peak at midnight (00:00) at R1 and R3.''' '''This study showed a significant reduction in sleep latency and rapid eye movement sleep during the third week of Ramadan fasting.''' Otherwise, there was no significant effect of Ramadan on sleep architecture and assessment revealed no increase in daytime sleepiness. Although melatonin level had the same circadian pattern during Ramadan, the '''level of the hormone dropped significantly from baseline.'''<ref>Ahmed S. BaHammam, "[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1479-8425.2004.00135.x/abstract Effect of fasting during Ramadan on sleep architecture, daytime sleepiness and sleep pattern]", Sleep and Biological Rhythms, Volume 2, Issue 2, pages 135–143, June 2004</ref>}}

===Daytime Drowsiness, Alertness and Cognition===

Naturally, a fast would indicate that individuals are ingesting less food. But the following two studies reveal that the decrease in the number of meals that are eaten directly disturbs normal sleep habits and thereby increases daytime drowsiness.

{{Quote||
'''Abstract'''
Few epidemiological data have been reported on the relation between Ramadan fasting, life habits (meal frequency, sleep habits) and daytime sleepiness during Ramadan. This paper presents the results of a detailed study of the chronotype and daytime sleepiness before and during Ramadan. It was conducted on a sample of 264 subjects aged between 20 and 30 years. Results have revealed a significant decrease in the meal frequency during Ramadan compared with the control period. Before Ramadan, the majority of subjects woke up between 6 and 7 a.m. and went to sleep between 10 and 11 p.m. however, during Ramadan fasting, they woke up after 8 a.m. and preferred to go to sleep later (after midnight). Chronotype as evaluated by the Horne and Ostberg scale was changed significantly during Ramadan: an increase of the evening type and a decrease in the morning type of subjects was observed. Daytime sleepiness as evaluated by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale was significantly increased.<ref>Taoudi Benchekroun M, Roky R, Toufiq J, Benaji B, Hakkou F, "Epidemiological study: chronotype and daytime sleepiness before and during Ramadan.", Therapie 54:567-72</ref>}}

The following study studies the effect that fasting has on the alertness of an individual. Evidently, the change in sleep patterns causes a decrease in oral temperature and alertness:

{{Quote||
'''Abstract'''
During the month of Ramadan, Moslems abstain from drinking and eating daily between sunrise and sunset. This change of meals schedule is accompanied with changes in sleep habit, which may affect diurnal alertness. This study examined the effect of Ramadan intermittent fasting on the diurnal alertness and oral temperature in 10 healthy young subjects. The cognitive task battery including movement reaction time (MRT), critical flicker fusion (CFF) and visual analogue scale, was administered at 6 different times of the day: 09.00, 11.00, 13.00, 16.00, 20.00 and 23.00 h on the 6th, 15th, and 28th days of Ramadan. The baseline day was scheduled one week before Ramadan, and the recovery day 18 days after this month. Oral temperature was measured prior to each test session and at 00.00 h. During Ramadan oral temperature decreased at 09.00, 11.00, 13.00, 16.00 and 20.00 h and increased at 23.00 and 00.00 h. Subjective alertness decreased at 09.00 and 16.00 h and increased at 23.00 h. Mood decreased at 16.00 h. MRT was increased at the beginning of Ramadan (R6) and CFF was not changed. These results showed that daytime oral temperature, subjective alertness and mood were decreased during Ramadan intermittent fasting.<ref>Roky R, Iraki L, HajKhlifa R, Lakhdar Ghazal N, Hakkou F, "Daytime alertness, mood, psychomotor performances, and oral temperature during Ramadan intermittent fasting.", Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2000 44:101-7</ref>}}

===Cognition===
The physical fatigue associated with fasting results in impairment of cognitive function, as shown by performance in flicker fusion tests. <ref>Ali MR, Amir T. Effects of fasting on visual flicker fusion.
Percept Mot Skills 1989;69:627-31</ref>

===Lactating women===

In a certain study, the nutritional status of lactating women was affected by Ramadan fasting. All of the nutrient intakes (except vitamins A, E and C) decreased during Ramadan. The study said that it would seem prudent to excuse lactating women from fasting during Ramadan.<ref>"The effect of Ramadan on maternal nutrition and composition of breast milk." Pg. 278-283, vol. 48 - Nutrition and Dietetics; Food Engineering, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey</ref>

===Binge eating, headaches and increase in gastric acidity===

{{Quote||'Binge eating is a ''fairly common habit'' during the Ramadan period, especially as the day is spent without eating or drinking,' says Anjali Dange, Dietitian at Welcare Hospital.

"During the initial days of fasting, you may encounter slight dizziness as well as frequent headaches."

Dr Phadke says that fasting can also increase levels of gastric acidity in the stomach which can cause burning and heaviness, and sometimes a sour taste in the mouth.<ref name="Anjali Dange">[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.khaleejtimes.com%2FDisplayArticleNew.asp%3Fcol%3D%26section%3Dtheuae%26xfile%3Ddata%2Ftheuae%2F2008%2FSeptember%2Ftheuae_September167.xml&date=2011-07-12 Dietitian Advises Selective Eating Habits During Ramadan] - Khaleej Times Online, September 7, 2008</ref>}}

{{Quote||During Ramadan most of the population sleep during the day, with the iftar beginning at sundown: large feasts at which many end up eating so much they need to be taken to hospital casualty wards, with a record high almost 8,000 cases of indigestion recorded at the Hamad Medical Hospital emergency room solely in the first week of Ramadan 2011.<ref name="ANSMarch132012Ram">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ansamed.info/ansamed/en/news/sections/generalnews/2012/03/13/visualizza_new.html_131156617.html|2=2012-03-15}} Qatar: surge in diabetes/obesity, unhealthy Arab habits] - ANSAmed, March 13, 2012</ref>}}

Dr. Muhammad Alabdooni, a Muslim and the chairman of the Dutch Moroccan Physicians Association, also maintains there is no scientific proof that Islamic fasting is physiologically beneficial.<ref>[http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/fasting-during-ramadan-good-your-health Is fasting during Ramadan good for your health?] - Radio Netherlands Worldwide</ref>

==Social Effects==

===Irritability===

The following study in Morocco found that irritability increased during Ramadan:

{{Quote||
'''Abstract'''

OBJECTIVES: We hypothesized that people in Morocco are more irritable during the month of Ramadan than during the rest of the year. Our objectives were to measure irritability in fasting Muslims during the month of Ramadan, to describe its various modes of expression, and to examine risk factors for this irritability.

METHODS AND SUBJECTS: We studied 100 healthy volunteers during the month of Ramadan for two successive years (1994 and 1995). All subjects were male (mean age, 32+/-5.8 years), and 51% of them were smokers. Irritability was assessed over a 6-week period (before, four times during, and after the end of Ramadan). We assessed both subjective (visual analog scale) and objective irritability. We also recorded the consumption of psychostimulants, duration of sleep, and anxiety level as measured by the Hamilton Anxiety Scale.

RESULTS: Irritability was significantly higher in smokers than in nonsmokers before the beginning of Ramadan. It was higher in both groups during the Ramadan month. '''Irritability increased continuously during Ramadan and reached its peak at the end of the month.''' Consumption of psychostimulants (coffee and tea) and anxiety level followed the same pattern. Smokers and nonsmokers had a similar pattern of irritability over time, but irritability increased more in smokers than in nonsmokers.<ref>Kadri N, Tilane A, El Batal M, Taltit Y, Tahiri SM, Moussaoui D, "[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/reprint/62/2/280.pdf|2=2011-04-04}} Irritability During the Month of Ramadan]", Psychosomatic Medicine 2000 Mar-Apr 62:2 280-5</ref>}}

{{Quote||Wael Bakor, 29, marketing manager at a major company in Jeddah, expressed regret at the attitude of employees. “Unfortunately, people become more tense and irritated during Ramadan. One can easily notice the bad moods, the tension and the inability to put up with anyone or anything,” he said.<ref name="arabnews">Hassna’a Mokhtar - [http://www.webcitation.org/61GqHsLOo Productivity and Self-Discipline in Ramadan] - ArabNews, September 30, 2007</ref>}}

===Crime Rate===

In a study done on the Arab world,<ref name="ANSA" /> experts claimed that increases in blood crimes (+1.5%) and theft (+3.5%) were observed during Ramadan.

{{Quote||[Egypt] In the past few years, Ramadan — a month usually reserved for pious contemplation and reverence — has been marred by an alarming rise in violent crime, experts have said.<ref>Yasmine Saleh - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.dailystaregypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=3746|2=2011-07-12}} Ramadan saw rise in violent domestic crimes] - Daily News Egypt, November 2, 2006</ref>}}

{{Quote||Director of Jakarta Police’s General Crime Unit, Sr. Comr. Muhammad Iriawan called on Jakarta residents to be alert as crimes tended to increase during the fasting month of Ramadan.
...
Iriawan said crimes such as house break-ins and robberies tend to increase during Ramadan, when the need for extra money was high because of the festivities.<ref>Bati Kartini & Samuel L - [{{Reference archive|1=http://thejakartaglobe.com/home/4-gold-shop-robbers-killed-2-caught-during-police-raids-across-the-city/326794|2=2011-07-12}} 4 Gold Shop Robbers Killed, 2 Caught During Police Raids Across the City] - The Jakarta Globe, August 28, 2009</ref>}}

{{Quote||official of the Jakarta city administration, A Sjarief Mustafa, says that the number of prostitutes caught by his office had increased from 94, before Ramadan, to 264 during it. He also said that the numbers of beggars had increased.

He claimed that the incidence of social ills such as begging and prostitution always increased during the "holy month", and said that people from the provinces often used the "momentum" of Ramadan to come to Jakarta and seek money from the Jakarta's residents.<ref>David - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.indonesiamatters.com/762/ramadan-crime/|2=2011-07-12}} Ramadan Crime] - Indonesia Matters, October 20, 2006</ref>}}

{{Quote||The Passports Department in Makkah arrested over 1,800 persons suspected of pickpocketing and stealing from pilgrims and visitors during the [2011] Umrah and Ramadan seasons ... Hussein stated that the advancement in technology, particularly facial recognition, reduced crimes tremendously in previous years.<ref>[http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article499367.ece 1,800 nabbed for thefts in Ramadan] - Arab News, September 9, 2011</ref>}}

===Emergency Services===

====Increase in Accidents====

In 1994, the Accident and Emergency Department of St Mary's Hospital in London conducted a study to examine if accident and emergency attendances increased during Ramadan for Muslim patients. At the time, the department was treating 55,000 new patients every year:

{{Quote||2=The results are shown in Table 1. This demonstrates a '''significant rise in the number of Muslims attending during Ramadan''' compared to non-Muslims, with the proportion of Muslims rising from 3.63% of total attendances in the periods before and after Ramadan to 5.11% during Ramadan (P=0.0024). '''The rise in non accident-related attendances among Muslims was also significant''' when compared to non-Muslims (P=0.027) [...]<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1294766/ The effect of the fast of Ramadan on accident and emergency attendances] (J R Soc Med. 1994 September; 87(9): 517–518.)</ref>}}

An increase in road traffic accidents in the United Arab Emirates during Ramadan was reported.<ref>Bener, A., Absood, G. H., Achan, N. V., & Sankaran-Kutty, M. (1992). Road traffic injuries in Al-Ain City, United Arab Emirates. The Journal of the Royal Society of Health, 112, 273-276.</ref>

====Disruption of Services====

In August, 2010, Mustafa Mor, who was involved in a road accident in Turkey, was left waiting on a stretcher due to the X-ray service being closed for fast-breaking.

{{Quote||investigation after a patient waited at the door of an X-ray service in a hospital, which was closed for half an hour at the time for fast-breaking.

Mustafa Mor’s car went off the road and crashed into a tree in the Nizip district of the southern province of Gaziantep. Bekir Karabacak, a passerby, took him and his cousin, who has the same name and was a passenger in the vehicle, to the Nizip Public Hospital. The doctors thought that the passenger Mor might have had a broken leg and sent him to the X-ray service.

The health care personnel took Mor on a stretcher to the X-ray service, where they found a note that said, “I am having dinner, I am about to return,” hanging on the door. Karabacak, who had taken him to the hospital, said: “We are also fasting. Should this place be closed? There is an injured man here, and this is a hospital.” After Mor waited half an hour, the staff returned from dinner.

Cengiz Öztop, the chief physician of Nizip Public Hospital, claimed that there was no neglect in the situation.<ref name="Hurriyet Daily">[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=man-gets-delayed-healthcare-service-due-to-ramadan-2010-08-15 Man gets delayed health care due to Ramadan in Turkey] - Hurriyet Daily News, August 15, 2010</ref>}}

Search and rescue teams in Kocaeli, Turkey, had also stopped working due to Ramadan.

{{Quote||Search and rescue teams including 200 people who were working on the beaches of the western province of Kocaeli have stopped working due to Ramadan. Vacationers have criticized the decision and said that people swam in the area unperturbedly thanks to the rescue teams. According to the vacationers, the shores will be full of people until the schools start.

Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality officers said that they would review the decision once again.<ref name="Hurriyet Daily"></ref>}}

===Reduced Blood Donation===

{{Quote||Blood Transfusion Organization announced that blood donations have dropped by 35 percent since the beginning of the Muslim fasting month of Ramadan (Sept. 25).<ref name="iran">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2674/pdf/i5.pdf Iran-Daily.com (pdf)] - October 1, 2006</ref>}}

The same news source said that "each blood unit can save three lives". This implies that Ramadan also results in loss of life since life-saving blood donations drop by one-third.

===Physical Exhaustion and Incapacitation===

Another study takes a look at fasting Muslims who were stricken with lethargy and fatigue due to the behavioral changes that accompany the month long celebration.

{{Quote||
'''Abstract'''
This study was conducted in five provinces and food consumption, physical activity types and duration for 3 consecutive days were recorded in the questionnaire together with some general characteristics of 750 (320 males, 430 females) adults who were on fast during Ramadan at time of interview. One hundred and eighty-seven subjects had some type of health problems, among whom 60.4% were using drugs, and 31.6% were on diets; however, during Ramadan 9.7 and 18.8% of the subjects dropped taking drugs and did not regularly keep on diets, respectively. During the fasting time, from dawn to sunset, 34.3% of the subjects developed some behavioural disturbances, such as feeling tired and being unwilling to work. Although the meal consumed at dawn consisted of foods that were usually eaten at breakfast, the meal consumed at sunset consisted of a great variety of foods. Calcium intake was the most insufficiently consumed nutrient. It was observed that the daily energy intakes were less than the expenditures both in males and females. Further research should be done on the effects of fasting in health and disease.<ref>Karaaðaoðlu N, Yücecan S, "Some behavioural Changes observed among fasting subjects, their nutritional habits and energy expenditure in Ramadan", International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 2000 Mar 51:125-34</ref>}}

In September 2009, Stephen Constantine, Head coach of Sudan partly blamed his side’s loss to the Black Stars to the fasting of most of his players. <ref>[http://sports.peacefmonline.com/soccer/200909/26144.php "Fasting affected my players" – Sudan coach] - Peace FM, September 6, 2009</ref> In Italy, both a prominent coach and a team owner in the top Serie A league linked the rigors of Ramadan's sunrise-to-sunset fasting to Muslim players' poor performance on the pitch. <ref>Jeff Israely - [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1919106,00.html Soccer Star Benched for Fasting During Ramadan] - TIME, August 27, 2009</ref>

===Violence and Anti-Social Behavior Towards Non-Muslims===

The month of Ramadan often sees an increase in violence and anti-social behavior towards religious minorities living among a large Muslim population.<ref name="MNN"></ref> In some Muslim majority countries like Algeria,<ref name="Algeria">[http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/09/22/3018315.htm?section=justin Christians tried for breaking Ramadan fast] - ABC News, September 22, 2010</ref> Morocco,<ref>Doug Bandow - [http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=11966 Morocco: The Limits of Islamic Religious Tolerance] - KATO Insitute, July 8, 2010</ref> Pakistan,<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/181534/25-jailed-pak-eating-public.html|2=2011-08-06}} 25 jailed in Pak for eating in public during Ramadan] - PTI, August 5, 2011</ref> Saudi Arabia,<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.bikyamasr.com/73404/saudi-warns-non-muslims-with-expulsion-if-eating-drinking-in-public-during-ramadan/|2=2012-07-22}} Saudi warns non-Muslims with expulsion if eating, drinking in public during Ramadan] - Bikya Masr, July 21, 2012</ref> and in parts of the United Arab Emirates,<ref>Anissa Haddadi - [{{Reference archive|1=http://uk.ibtimes.com/articles/190323/20110801/non-muslim-holidaying-in-dubai-warned-to-respect-ramadan-rules.htm|2=2011-08-02}} Non-Muslim Holidaying in Dubai Warned to Respect 'Ramadan Rules'] - International Business Times, August 1, 2011</ref> it is against the law to eat or drink in public during fasting hours, and violating these laws can involve jail-time or expulsion.

{{Quote||Last year [2009] during Ramadan, there was an upsurge against Christians in the Muslim world," says Jerry Dykstra of Open Doors, USA. Dykstra says that although persecution did not increase in every Muslim nation, it did increase significantly in many of them, Egypt being one of the worst.

During Ramadan last year in Egypt, a church was burned to the ground. At least 155 Egyptian Christians were arrested for not participating in Ramadan. Last September, Rody Rodeheaver with I.N. Network explained that Ramadan "is a time when Muslims who are moderate often become much more aggressive about their faith, and they [see it] as a time to be aggressive as they deal with Christians." Rodeheaver also noted that many people are somewhat psychologically distraught by a lack of food since Muslims are required to fast during Ramadan.

This year, with tension rising after Muslim attacks on Christians in Afghanistan, Somalia, Pakistan and other nations just before Ramadan, prospects don't look much better. The potential for a swell in persecution in the next 28 days is high.

Ramadan--August 11 to September--is especially daunting for Muslim converts to Christianity.<ref name="MNN">[http://www.mnnonline.org/article/14591 Ramadan a time of fasting and...persecution?] - Mission Network News, August 13, 2010</ref>}}

{{Quote||Hocine Hocini, 44, and Salem Fellak, 34, were arrested on August 13 [2010] on the building site where they worked in the northern region of Kabylie [Algeria] after they were spotted eating lunch. The pair admit to eating but insist it happened in a discreet place. Muslims are not allowed to eat during daylight hours during the Ramadan holy month. In Algeria breaking the fast can be punished with three months in jail.

"I am optimistic," Hocini, a Protestant with a one-month-old daughter, said as he left the courtroom in Ain el Hammam after the hearing. "I have no regrets, I'm Christian and assume my responsibilities. We are innocent, and we haven't done any harm to anyone...We are Christians and we have not eaten in a public place."

The verdict is due on October 5. The prosecutor called for the full three months in prison for both men.<ref name="Algeria"></ref>}}

{{Quote||Police in Pakistan arrested two Christians for eating during the Islamic fasting season of Ramadan in the city of Silanwali on Aug. 25 [2009], reports Michael Ireland, chief correspondent, ASSIST News Service. . . . 

In a media release, ICC says that after the waiter served them tea and a snack, several policemen started to question them as to why they were desecrating Ramadan by eating during the Islamic fasting season. The two Christians told the police that since they are Christians, they are not supposed to fast during Ramadan. . . . 

Azzaq Bhatti, the father of Gull Masih and paternal uncle of Ashir Sohail, in an interview with ICC said that, "during Lent, all Muslims eat, drink and smoke publicly and neither police nor government authorities take notice of it. And none of the Muslims are arrested for desecrating Christians' Lent season."

ICC's Jonathan Racho said: "Forcing Christians to fast during the Islamic fasting month is both outrageous and a clear violation of freedom of religion. We call upon Pakistani officials to immediately release Gull and Ashir and take appropriate legal measures against police officers who detained them."<ref>[http://www.christiantelegraph.com/issue6747.html Christians arrested in Pakistan for eating during Ramadan] - The Christian Telegraph, September 2, 2009</ref>}}

Ramadan-inspired violence against non-Muslims and non-observant Muslims is on the increase in secular societies. Notable incidents include; a Jewish women in Toulouse, France, being called a "dirty Jew" and struck on the head by two Muslim teenagers for buying food during fasting hours; a Muslim man in a central Lyon Restaurant struck in the head with a glass bottle and hit with a chair by three youths for not respecting Ramadan;<ref>[http://vladtepesblog.com/?p=25211 Two people assaulted in France for eating during Ramadam. One was not even Muslim] - Vlad Tepes, August 24, 2010</ref> an 11-year-old in Sydney, Australia, chased and later beaten by Muslim students because he ate a salami sandwich during Ramadan;<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/national/parents-say-son-was-tormented-for-eating-salami-sandwich-during-ramadan/story-e6frfkvr-1225797140592 Parents say son was tormented for eating salami sandwich during Ramadan] - The Daily Telegraph, November 13, 2009</ref> a Turkish MP in Berlin, Germany, beaten by restaurant staff for ordering pork sausages;<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://news.am/eng/news/70698.html|2=2011-08-12}} Turkish MP was beaten for ordering pork sausage in Germany] - NEWS.am, August 11, 2011</ref> and the following report is of an atheist living in the United Kingdom:

{{Quote||Monzur Rahman was left with a broken arm, damaged eye and lying unconscious in the street after the violent attack earlier this month. The 39-year-old atheist claims he was brutally set upon by a pack of youths for failing to observe Ramadan.

Arif Raham, a friend of Monzur (who speaks little English), relayed to the Advertiser his terrifying story. He said Monzur had been chatting with a friend who was drinking during Ramadan.

He claims he was then approached by a group of around ten young men who asked him why he wasn’t observing Ramadan. When he replied that he was an atheist they are believed to have chased him to nearby Walburgh Street, attacking him outside his home.

Monzur was reportedly battered until unconscious and later taken to the Royal London Hospital. His left arm was broken and metal bolts later put in. Tower Hamlets police have made no arrests and enquiries are ongoing.<ref>Sheena McKenzie - [http://www.eastlondonadvertiser.co.uk/news/battered_stepney_man_in_recovery_1_655839?action=login Battered Stepney man in recovery] - East London Advertiser, September 23, 2010</ref>}}

==Economic Effects==

As some of the above studies establish, fasting can cause dehydration, sleep disorders and other harmful affects. Naturally all of this would affect productivity and the national economy. Those living in Muslim majority nations can readily feel the effects of stagnation that accompanies the month of Ramadan. In such places, it is a month that is marked by very low productivity. When the entire population of a country observes fasting during the time they are at work, it is inevitable that they will suffer a significant loss in general productivity. In a survey carried out by Cairo’s Institute of Social Sciences of the Arab World it is found that the productivity of Arab businesses during the month of Ramadan dropped by a staggering 78%:

{{Quote||During Ramadan, the productivity of Arab businesses drops by 78%. The essential factors? Fewer work hours, absenteeism, and sick leave. (...) The figures are included in a survey carried out by Cairòs Institute of Social Sciences of the Arab World which was printed today by 'Leaders', a Tunisian website. (ANSAmed)<ref name="ANSA">[http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4GGIH_enUS280US281&q=%28ANSAmed%29+-+Tunis%2C+September%2C3+++During+Ramadan%2C+the+productivity+of+Arab+businesses+drops+by+78%25.+The+essential+factors%3F+Fewer+work+hours%2C+absenteeism%2C+and+sick+leave.&btnG=Search&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai= Ramadan: Productivity of Arab Businesses Drops by 78%] - ANSAmed, September 3, 2009 (''[http://www.ansamed.info/en/news/ME02.@AM60065.html original URL]'')</ref>}}

Production in almost all businesses in Morocco drops during the month of Ramadan, analysts say, although consumption increases significantly:

{{Quote||Work hours are shorter during Ramadan, with employees working seven-hour days compared to the regular 8.5-hour days. Some businesses don't open until 10 am, and school timetables change to accommodate the Ramadan calendar.

"The drop in productivity could be due to the disruption of the body clock," said A. Hamdi, who works in an industrial unit. "It is difficult to get used to the work day.

In addition to the women who race home to make iftar, others are sneaking out earlier to avoid traffic jams, which usually start at 4 pm with the end of the normal working day."<ref>Hassan Benmehdi - [http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2008/09/19/feature-03 Productivity drops during Ramadan in Morocco] - Magharebia (Casablanca), September 19, 2008</ref>}}

{{Quote||'''Low productivity during Ramadan affects Dubai employees''' Performance in most companies, institutions and government departments around the Arab world is usually at a low during the month of Ramadan, with poor productivity and constant reported absences.<ref>[http://www.kuwaittimes.net/read_news.php?newsid=NjkyOTQ3NTM0 Low productivity during Ramadan affects Dubai employees] - Kuwait Times, September 24, 2007</ref>}}

In Bahrain, the work day is reduced to six-hours instead of the normal eight hours:<ref name="arabnews" />

{{Quote||Alaa Al-Mohammadi, 27, works as a teaching assistant at King Abdul Aziz University, which, during Ramadan, opens between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. Al-Mohammadi noticed the low level of productivity during the month of Ramadan, especially among students. “On account of the nature of the month when people stay up all night, absenteeism increases among students,” she said.<ref name="arabnews"/>}}

{{Quote||"Jordanian workers in general are not hard working and in Ramadan, employees frequently are absent or ask for leave, a notable phenomenon that negatively affects the overall economic performance," economist Salameh Darawi told The Jordan Times over the phone Wednesday.

Economic analyst Hussam Ayesh said productivity drops by about 50 per cent in the public and private sectors during Ramadan.<ref name="jordan">Mohammad Ghazal - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.jordantimes.com/?news=19888|2=2011-04-04}} Productivity suffers during holy month] - The Jordan Times, September 10, 2009</ref>}}

===Comments from Muslims and former Muslims===

{{Quote||An employee at a construction material company, who preferred anonymity, said: "Everything is slow in Ramadan and I myself tend to delay work. The only fast thing I see in Ramadan is lunatic drivers speeding to get home for iftar."<ref name="jordan"/>}}

{{Quote||In Ramzan the working hours are nine to one. That’s it. And in these four hours work is the last thing on the workers’ mind. Go to any government office during these four hours and you will encounter a grouchy, lazy and sick-of-life person with bad breath (apparently even brushing your teeth in the morning is not kosher if you are fasting). No matter how urgent your work, leave the place and come back after two and a half months in the third week of Muharram. This man is in no mood to do anything. He’d rather go home and watch an Indian movie till he breaks fast.<ref>Nasir Abbas Mirza - [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2009\08\23\story_23-8-2009_pg3_6 OPINION: Rejoice! The season to shun work is here] - Daily Times, August 23, 2009</ref>}}

{{Quote||I couldn't concentrate in school. I had nasty heart burn all morning, because we'd wake up at an ungodly hour to gorge! [...] There are many women in my life and some of them are extremely old with various medical conditions. They all feel compelled to fast. It drives me insane!<ref>[http://nimbu.wordpress.com/2007/09/14/its-a-strange-ramadan/ It’s a strange Ramadan] - Blog from Nimbu, a former Muslim, September 14, 2007</ref>}}

==Apologetic Arguments==

#'''''"Most of the evidence provided is from newspaper articles. Not very scientific is it?"''''' The majority of evidence for the harms of Ramadan fasting come directly from the conclusions of scientific studies
#'''''"Muslims do not fast in Ramadan so they can be healthy. They fast because Allah commanded them to."''''' This is true. Yet many Muslim [[Du'aah]] attempt to justify this unhealthy practice by claiming it is healthy
#'''''"Islam is just one of numerous religions (Hinduism, Christianity, Catholicism etc.) that prescribe fasting for its people."''''' This claim is true, but also very disingenuous. Rules vary but fasting in Christianity is not compulsory, nor is it expected to be a complete fast, meaning Christians generally reduce (not stop) their intake of food, and also drink freely during fasts. This is perfectly healthy and not comparable to the Islamic sawm. Similarly in Hinduism, fasting is a part of the religion, but individuals observe different kinds of fasts based on their personal beliefs and local customs.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasting|2=2013-03-14}} Fasting] - Wikipedia, accessed March 14, 2013</ref> This argument is also a logical fallacy known as ad hominem tu quoque, meaning it is not a valid defense of Islamic fasting, but a diversion from the main point.

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Fasting|Fasting}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=13&art_id=vn20080914093305299C824902 Ramadan diet poses health risk - experts]

===Scientific Studies===

*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9100605 Ramadan diet restrictions modify the circadian time structure in humans. A study on plasma gastrin, insulin, glucose, and calcium and on gastric pH] ''(extract)''

*[http://www.unboundmedicine.com/medline/ebm/related/9198696/%5BRamadan__A_month_of_fasting_with_risk_for_both_nocturnal_overeating_dehydration_and_starving%5D Medical Search Engine Result]'' - more studies on fasting''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Fasting]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Ritual]]

Farewell Sermon

2026-03-20T21:58:40Z

Lightyears:

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'''The Farewell Sermon''' (خطبة الوداع‎, Khuṭbatu l-Wadāʕ) is purported to be the Prophet [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] final [[Farewell Sermon|sermon]] to his followers before [[Muhammad's Death|his death]] in 632 CE, 10 H. However like most elements of the Islamic tradition our sources for this are late, with the earliest mention coming from Ibn Isḥāq who was born 70 years after the death of the prophet. The entirety of the supposed speech shows up in Ibn Isḥāq while Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim and Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī report shorter versions. Other sources in Hadith repeat isolated fragments of the speech, one of which reminds men to treat their wives well given that they are prisoners to their husbands. It also echoes [[Qur'an]] 4:34 in commanding the beating of women in the case of disobedience. It should be noted that [[List_of_Fabricated_Hadith#Muhammad.27s_Farewell_Sermon|a more recent retelling of the speech]] which omits this injunction is a recent fabrication and not part of the attested classical tradition.

==Introduction==
According to Muslim historians, Muhammad’s ''Farewell Sermon'' was delivered on the ninth day of ''Dhu al-Hijjah'' (Month of Hajj- Pilgrimage 632 CE) in the valley of mount Arafat. This area located in Saudi Arabia was, and still is, considered holy and even today non-Muslims are forbidden from entering.

The sermon took place ten years after Muhammad’s ''Hijra'' (هِجْرَة Migration) to [[Medina]], meaning it was after conquering Mecca.

This event took place following this [[Qur'an|Qur'anic]] [[Revelation|revelation]]:

{{Quote| {{Quran|9|28}} | O ye who believe! Truly the Mushrikuns (Pagans and all unbelievers) are unclean; so let them not, after this year of theirs, approach the Sacred Mosque. And if ye fear poverty, soon will Allah enrich you, if He wills, out of His bounty, for Allah is All-knowing, All-wise. }}

Accordingly, according to the tradition the listeners of the Farewell Sermon were all strictly Muslim. Muhammad was addressing his own people, since no others were allowed to enter the area of the Sacred Mosque, which includes the Plain of Arafat.

== Sources of the Sermon ==
The sermon is reported in numerous Hadith sources. Some reports mention the full sermon, while others mention fragments of it.

The earliest account of the full sermon was by Ibn Isḥāq (d.150 H) who reported it on the authority of Abdullāh Bin Abī Nujayḥ (d.131) who was a prominent religious authority in Mecca.<ref>Siyar Aʕlām Al-Nubalāʾ by Al-Dhahab. Al-Risālah. Vol.6 p.125

سير أعلام النبلاء للذهبي، ط الرسالة، ج6 ص125

قَالَ ابْنُ عُيَيْنَةَ: هُوَ مُفْتِي أَهْلِ مَكَّةَ بَعْدَ عَمْرِو بنِ دِيْنَارٍ</ref> Since that he never reported any Hadith directly from a companion of Muhammad<ref>ibid

الذهبي: وَلَمْ أَجِدْ لَهُ شَيْئاً عَنْ أَحَدٍ مِنَ الصَّحَابَةِ</ref>, this means that the chain of narration of Ibn Isḥāq’s sermon report has two missing links: The sermon witness and the one who heard the witness’s report.

Ibn Isḥāq’s report is found in Ibn Hishām’s (d. 213 H) biography of Muhammad<ref>سيرة ابن هشام، تحقيق السقا، ج2 ص603

Sīrat Ibn Hishām. Taḥqīq by Al-Saqqā. Vol.2 p.603</ref> which is a summary of Ibn Isḥāq’s missing work. Ibn Isḥāq’s report is also found in the History of Al-Ṭabarī (d. 310 H).<ref>تاريخ الطبري، دار المعارف، ج3 ص150

Tārīkh Al-Ṭabarī. Dār Al-Maʕārif. Vol.3 p.150</ref>

The second earliest mention of the full sermon after Ibn Isḥāq was by Al-Wāqidī (d. 207 H) who reported it with two chains of narrations: One goes back to Ibn Abbas a cousin of Muhammad, and the other goes back to a witness named ʕamr Bin Yathribī.<ref>مغازي الواقدي، دار الأعلمي، ج3 ص1111

Maghāzī Al-Wāqidī. Dar Al-Aʕlamī. Vol.3 p.1111</ref>

Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim reports a shorter version of the sermon in a narration where the great great grandson of Muhammad (The grandson of Ḥusayn) meets Jābir, a companion of Muhammad who lived until the age of 94 (d.78 H). He asked Jābir to tell him about the prophet’s pilgrimage. Jābir proceeded to detail the events of the pilgrimage including the farewell sermon.<ref>صحيح مسلم تحقيق عبد الباقي، ج2 ص886

Sahih Muslim. Tahqiq by Abdul Baqi. Vol.2 p.886</ref>

Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī reports a short version that lacks the portion about women. (see next section)

==Text of the Farewell Sermon==

'''<big>Ibn Isḥāq's version which is the earliest report of the sermon:</big>'''{{Quote|The History of al-Tabari, Volume 9 The Last Years of the Prophet (Translated by Ismail K. Poonawala), pp. 112-113|O people, listen to my words. I do not know whether I shall ever meet you again in this place after this year. O people, your blood and your property are sacrosanct until you meet your Lord, just as this day and this month of yours are sacred. Surely you will meet your Lord and He will question you about your deeds. I have [already] made this known. Let he who has a pledge return it to the one who entrusted him with it; all usury is abolished, but your capital belongs to you. Wrong not and you shall not be wronged. Allah has decreed that there will be no usury, and the usury of Abbas b. Abd al-Muttalib is abolished, all of it. All blood shed in the pre-Islamic days is to be left unavenged. The first such claim I revoke is that of Ibn Rabiah b. al-Harith b. Abd al-Muttalib, who was nursed among the Banu Layth and was slain by the Banu Hudhayl. His is the first blood shed in the pre-Islamic days with which I shall set an example. O people, indeed Satan despairs of ever being worshipped in this land of yours. He will be pleased, however, if he is obeyed in a thing other than that, in matters you minimize. So beware of him in your religion, O people, intercalculating a month is an increase in unbelief whereby the unbelievers go astray; one year they make it profane, and hallow it another [in order] to agree with the number that Allah has hallowed, and so profane what Allah has hallowed, and hallow what Allah has made profane. Time has completed its cycle [and is] as it was on the day that Allah created the heavens and the earth. The number of the months with Allah is twelve; [they were] in the Book of Allah on the day He created the heavens and the earth. Four of them are sacred, the three consecutive [months] and the Rajab [which is the month of] Mudar, which is between Jumada and Sha’ban. Now then, O people, you have a right over your wives and they have a right over you. You have [the right] that they should not cause anyone of whom you dislike to tread on your beds; and that they should not commit any open indecency. If they do, then Allah permits you to shut them in separate rooms and to beat them, but not severely. If they abstain from [evil], they have the right to their food and clothing in accordance with the custom. Treat women well, for they are [like] domestic animals with you and do not possess anything for themselves. You have taken them only as a trust from Allah, and you have made the enjoyment of their persons lawful by the word of Allah, so understand and listen to my words, O people. I have conveyed the Message, and have left you with something which, if you hold fast to it, you will never go astray; that is, the Book of Allah and the sunnah of his Prophet. Listen to my words, O people, for I have conveyed the Message and understand [it]. Know for certain that every Muslim is a brother of another Muslim, and that all Muslims are brethren. It is not lawful for a person [to take] from his brother except that which he has given him willingly, so do not wrong yourselves. O Allah, have I not conveyed the message?}}

'''<big>Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī's verion:</big>'''{{Quote| Sahih al-Bukhari » Military Expeditions led by the Prophet (pbuh) (Al-Maghaazi) - كتاب المغازى » Hadith 4406
https://sunnah.com/bukhari:4406|The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Time has taken its original shape which it had when Allah created the Heavens and the Earth. The year is of twelve months, four of which are sacred, and out of these (four) three are in succession, i.e. Dhul-Qa'da, Dhul-Hijja and Al-Muharram, and the fourth is Rajab which is named after the Mudar tribe, between (the month of) Jumaida (ath-thania) and Sha'ban." Then the Prophet (ﷺ) asked, "Which is this month?" We said, "Allah and His Apostle know better." On that the Prophet (ﷺ) kept quiet so long that we thought that he might name it with another name. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Isn't it the month of Dhul-Hijja?" We replied, "Yes." Then he said, "Which town is this?" "We replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." On that he kept quiet so long that we thought that he might name it with another name. Then he said, "Isn't it the town of Mecca?" We replied, "Yes, " Then he said, "Which day is today?" We replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." He kept quiet so long that we thought that he might name it with another name. Then he said, "Isn't it the day of An- Nahr (i.e. sacrifice)?" We replied, "Yes." He said, "So your blood, your properties, (The sub-narrator Muhammad said, 'I think the Prophet (ﷺ) also said: And your honor..) are sacred to one another like the sanctity of this day of yours, in this city of yours, in this month of yours; and surely, you will meet your Lord, and He will ask you about your deeds. Beware! Do not become infidels after me, cutting the throats of one another. It is incumbent on those who are present to convey this message (of mine) to those who are absent. May be that some of those to whom it will be conveyed will understand it better than those who have actually heard it." (The sub-narrator, Muhammad, on remembering that narration, used to say, "Muhammad spoke the truth!") He (i.e. Prophet) then added twice, "No doubt! Haven't I conveyed (Allah's Message) to you?"}}

'''<big>Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim's version:</big>'''{{Quote| Sahih Muslim. The Book of Pilgrimage - كتاب الحج . Hadith 1218
https://sunnah.com/muslim:1218a|Verily your blood, your property are as sacred and inviolable as the sacredness of this day of yours, in this month of yours, in this town of yours. Behold! Everything pertaining to the Days of Ignorance is under my feet completely abolished. Abolished are also the blood-revenges of the Days of Ignorance. The first claim of ours on blood-revenge which I abolish is that of the son of Rabi'a b. al-Harith, who was nursed among the tribe of Sa'd and killed by Hudhail. And the usury of she pre-Islamic period is abolished, and the first of our usury I abolish is that of 'Abbas b. 'Abd al-Muttalib, for it is all abolished. Fear Allah concerning women! Verily you have taken them on the security of Allah, and intercourse with them has been made lawful unto you by words of Allah. You too have right over them, and that they should not allow anyone to sit on your bed whom you do not like. But if they do that, you can chastise them but not severely. Their rights upon you are that you should provide them with food and clothing in a fitting manner. I have left among you the Book of Allah, and if you hold fast to it, you would never go astray. And you would be asked about me (on the Day of Resurrection), (now tell me) what would you say? They (the audience) said: We will bear witness that you have conveyed (the message), discharged (the ministry of Prophethood) and given wise (sincere) counsel. He (the narrator) said: He (the Holy Prophet) then raised his forefinger towards the sky and pointing it at the people (said):" O Allah, be witness. 0 Allah, be witness," saying it thrice.}}

== Importance of the Sermon ==
The Hadith corpus mentions many sermons by Muhammad but they are very short and usually each sermon includes a single main point. The farewell sermon is the only reported sermon that is long and includes many different points, making it the only one that resembles a full sermon one would hear in a mosque. This sermon is significant to Muslims since Muhammad, in front of thousands of followers, bid farewell to his nation by saying that he might not be here ever again, and he died just three months later. He preached several important lessons in this farewell sermon: The sacredness of Muslims’ blood and properties, the abolition of everything pertaining to the pre-Islamic era, how women should be treated by their husbands, and finally that Muslims will never go astray if they hold fast to the book of Allah.

What adds more significance to the sermon is the reports that the following verse was revealed on that day<ref>Tafsir of Ibn Kathir. Al-ʕilmiyyah publication. vol.3 p.22</ref>:

{{Quote| {{Quran|5|3}} |This day I have perfected for you your religion and completed My favor upon you and have approved for you Islam as religion.}}The sermon has impacted practiced Islam in the following ways:

1-Following in the footsteps of Muhammad, delivering a public sermon by an Imam became a ritual part of the Hajj. This sermon called the sermon of Arafah and it’s delivered in Arafah. In modern times this sermon is delivered by a prominent Imam chosen by the Saudi government. The grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia Abdul Aziz Al-Shikh used to be chosen to deliver the sermon every year for over 3 decades until 2015 when he fell ill<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231005044425/https://sabq.org/saudia/8dwtlle5zt صحيفة سبق الألكترونية، مقالة بقلم فلاح الجوفان بعنوان: 14 في 100 عام عنقود خطباء عرفة]<nowiki> </nowiki>

بعد ذلك تم تكليف الشيخ عبدالعزيز بن عبدالله آل الشيخ، حفيد أول خطيب لجامع نمرة (في الدولة السعودية الثالثة)، بالخطابة، واستمر الشيخ عبدالعزيز في الخطابة في منبر مسجد نمرة أطول فترة؛ إذ خطب منذ موسم حج عام 1402هـ حتى موسم حج عام 1436هـ.

بعدها اعتذر المفتي عن عدم الخطابة لظروفه الصحية،
</ref>.

2-The sermon clarified that the beating mentioned in the Quran as a punishment for wives with ill-conduct shouldn’t be severe. No other Hadith tradition clarified this.

3-The sermon in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim is part of a long report by Jābir where he detailed the events of Muhammad's pilgrimage. This detailed report became an important source for how the Hajj should be conducted.

4-Muhammad ended the sermon by saying “Haven't I conveyed to you? O Allah bear witness”. This expression is sometimes used by religious and public speakers at the end of an important speech.

Although the Hadith corpus is full of reports that are considered misogynistic in modern standards, the farewell sermon is the only Hadith that describes wives as prisoners with their husbands. This description is mentioned in the version by Ibn Isḥāq, Al-Wāqidī and several other sources such as Sunan Ibn Majah<ref>Sunan Ibn Majah » The Chapters on Marriage - كتاب النكاح » Hadith 1851

<nowiki>https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah:1851</nowiki></ref> and Al-Tirmidhi<ref>Jami` at-Tirmidhi » Chapters on Tafsir - كتاب تفسير القرآن عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم » Hadith 3087

https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi:3087</ref>. But it isn’t mentioned in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim’s version. The version of Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī drops the portion about beating women from the sermon altogether.

== Authenticity of the Sermon ==
Traditional Sunni Islam takes the sermon as authentic especially that large parts of it are reported in Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim which are deemed by Sunni Muslims as the most authentic collections of Hadith.

From a critical scholarly point of view, though, the narrations have a number of issues: apparent that the sermon includes two fabrications:

1-In many versions of the sermon, including the earliest version by Ibn Isḥāq, Muhammad says “O people! listen to my words. I do not know whether I shall ever meet you again in this place after this year.” The fact that Muhammad died 3 months later turns what he said into a prophecy, which means it was a fabrication as it’s the habit of historians to deem accounts of miracles and prophecies in any tradition as ahistorical. In the sermon's versions reported in Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī and Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, there’s no mention of this prophecy.

2-The sermon as reported by Ibn Isḥāq, Al-Wāqidī, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim and some other sources includes the following line:

“I have left you with something which, if you hold fast to it, you will never go astray; that is, the Book of Allah.“

Ibn Isḥāq’s version adds to it: “and the sunnah of his Prophet.”

The mention of "the Sunnah of the prophet" is seems to be apocryphal, as Patricia Crone showed in her book ''God's Caliph'', since such a concept did not exist in actual khalifal/Islamic jurisprudence until well into the Abbassid period. Other renditions such as that of Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim don’t mention the Sunnah of the prophet.

== The correct translation of ʿawān عوان ==

The sermon as reported by Ibn Isḥāq and many other sources includes the following portion:

“Treat women well, for they are ʿawān with you”.

All Hadith exegesis and classical Arabic dictionaries agree that ʿawān mentioned in this Hadith means captives or prisoners. Despite this unanimous agreement, some modern Muslims have mistranslated this word in some English translations into as follows:

1-“Domestic animals” which appears in Ismail K. Poonawala’s translation of Al-Ṭabarī’s history.

This mistranslation stems from the existence of two Arabic words identical in pronunciation but different in meaning. One is singular and the other is plural:

The word ʿawān in the Hadith is a plural word since that it’s describing a plural noun (women). The sentence in the Hadith literally means “They are ʿawān at you”. The singular of ʿawān is ʿāniyah عانية which means female captive. It’s derived from the verb ʿanā عنا which means (he) submitted (to). <ref>Abū ʿubayd (d. 224 H), Gharīb Al-Ḥadīth, Dāʾirat Al-Maʿārif, vol.2 p.186

‌‌عَنَّا هدى وَقَالَ أَبُو عبيد: فِي حَدِيث النَّبِي عَلَيْهِ السَّلَام: اتَّقوا اللَّه فِي النِّسَاء فَإِنَّهُنَّ عنْدكُمْ ‌عوانٍ. قَوْله: ‌عوان واحدتها عانية وَهِي الْأَسِيرَة يَقُول: إِنَّمَا هن عنْدكُمْ بِمَنْزِلَة الأسرى وَيُقَال للرجل من ذَلِك: هُوَ عانٍ وَجمعه عناة. وَمِنْه حَدِيث النَّبِي عَلَيْهِ السَّلَام: عَودوا الْمَرِيض وأطعموا الجائع وفكوا العاني. يَعْنِي الْأَسير وَلَا أَظن هَذَا مأخوذا إِلَّا من الذل والخضوع لِأَنَّهُ يُقَال لكل من ذل واستكان: قد عَنَّا يعنو. [و -] قَالَ الله [تبَارك و -] تَعَالَى {وَعَنَتِ الْوُجُوُه لِلْحَيَّ الْقَيُّوم}»</ref>

There’s another ʿawān in Arabic which is a singular word so it cannot be the one meant in the Hadith. This singular ʿawān is listed in Lane’s lexicon which makes it clear the word is singular and has the plural form of ʿūn. Lane lists several meanings for ʿawān including beast or a cow.

2- Rizwi Faizer in her translation of Al-Wāqidī's ''Life of Muhammad, translated'' ʿawān as: “for they are bound to you and are dependent on you.”<ref>Rizwi Faizer (2011). ''The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi''. Routledge. p. 544</ref> This translation misses the vital meaning of the word, they are indeed dependent on their husbands but this is because they are captives.

3- Another apologetic translation that appears on many websites such as the international Islamic university in Malysia.<ref>https://www.iium.edu.my/deed/articles/thelastsermon.html</ref>

In this popular English translation of the sermon, ʿawān is translated as “partners and helpers” which is not what the words mean. This mistranslation might have originated from the misconception that the word ʿawān is derived from the word ʿawn عون which means help. Whereas all classical sources affirm the word ʿawān is derived from ʿanā which means to submit in captivity . And not a single classical source says that ʿawān has anything to do with “help”.

== Related Text ==
Note that while translations of the following hadiths of the farewell sermon differ, the same Arabic text occurs in the line about beating without severity. In Arabic, 'beat them, but not severely' is ''fa-idribuhunna darban ghayra mubarrihin'' (فَاضْرِبُوهُنَّ ضَرْبًا غَيْرَ مُبَرِّحٍ), which literally translates to mean 'beat them, a beating without violence/severity/sharpness/vehemence<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000219.pdf Lane's Lexicon] Book I page 182</ref>'.{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||1905|darussalam}}|[...] Fear Allaah regarding women for you have got them under Allah’s security and have the right to intercourse with them by Allaah’s word. It is a duty from you on them not to allow anyone whom you dislike to lie on your beds but if they do beat them, but not severely. [...]}}The version of the farewell sermon in Sunan Abu Dawud was collected also in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1218a|reference}}|[...] Fear Allah concerning women! Verily you have taken them on the security of Allah, and intercourse with them has been made lawful unto you by words of Allah. You too have right over them, and that they should not allow anyone to sit on your bed whom you do not like. But if they do that, you can chastise them but not severely. [...]}}

The translations of Al-Ṭabarī and Ibn Isḥāq add that the women possess nothing for themselves or lack control over their persons, respectively.{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|10|1163}}|Sulaiman bin Amr bin Al-Ahwas said:

“My father narrated to me that he witnessed the farewell Hajj with the Messenger of Allah. So he thanked and praised Allah and he reminded and gave admonition. He mentioned a story in his narration and he (the Prophet) said: “And indeed I order you to be good to the women, '''for they are but captives with you over whom you have no power than that, except if they come with manifest Fahishah (evil behavior). If they do that, then abandon their beds and beat them with a beating that is not harmful.''' And if they obey you then you have no cause against them. Indeed you have rights over your women, and your women have rights over you. As for your rights over your women, then they must not allow anyone whom you dislike to treat on your bedding (furniture), nor to admit anyone in your home that you dislike. And their rights over you are that you treat them well in clothing them and feeding them.”
"}}
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|9|3|9|1851}}|It was narrated that: Sulaiman bin Amr bin Ahwas said: “My father told me that he was present on the Farewell pilgrimage with the Messenger of Allah. He praised and glorified Allah, and reminder and exhorted (the people). The he said: 'I enjoin good treatment of women, for '''they are prisoners with you''', and you have no right to treat them otherwise, unless they commit clear indecency. If they do that, then '''forsake them in their beds and hit them''', but without causing injury or leaving a mark if they obey you, then do not seek means of annoyance against them. You have rights over your women and you women have rights over you. Your rights over you women are that they are not to allow anyone whom you dislike on treat on your bedding (furniture), not allow anyone whom you dislike to enter your houses. And their right over you are that should treat them kindly with regard to their clothing and food.' ” (Sahih)}}{{Quote|Ibn Ishaq. ''Sirat Rasul Allah''. 969. p. 651|You have rights over your wives and they have rights over you. You have the right that they should not defile your bed and that they should not behave with open unseemliness. '''If they do, God allows you to put them in separate rooms and beat them''' but not with severity. If they refrain from these things they have the right to their food and clothing with kindness. Lay injunctions on women kindly, '''for they are prisoners with you having no control of their persons.''' You have taken them only as a trust from God, and you have the enjoyment of their persons by the words of God, so understand…}}

These versions of the farewell sermon all allude to a verse in the Quran in which [[Wife Beating in Islamic Law|beating of women]] is mandated in certain situations.

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|34}}|Men are the maintainers of women because Allah has made some of them to excel others and because they spend out of their property; the good women are therefore obedient, guarding the unseen as Allah has guarded; and (as to) those on whose part you fear desertion, admonish them, and leave them alone in the sleeping-places '''and beat them'''; then if they obey you, do not seek a way against them; surely Allah is High, Great.}}

==External Links==

*{{external link| url = http://staringattheview.blogspot.com/2013/07/muhammads-last-sermon.html| title = Muhammad's Last Sermon| publisher = Staring At The View| author = | date = | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fstaringattheview.blogspot.com%2F2013%2F07%2Fmuhammads-last-sermon.html&date=2013-08-05| deadurl = no}}

*{{external_link|url=http://bjhollingum.blogspot.com/2010/05/farewell-sermon.html |title=The Farewell Sermon |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://bjhollingum.blogspot.com/2010/05/farewell-sermon.html&date=2011-03-01 |archivedate=2011-03-01 |linkdesc=Blog post discussing the "sources" provided for this alternative Farewell Sermon |deadurl=no}}
*{{external_link|url=http://www.islam-watch.org/authors/89-other-authors/134-fraudulent-translation-of-muhammad-last-sermon-egalitarian.html |title=Fraudulent Translation of Muhammad's 'Last Sermon' to Make It Egalitarian |publisher=Islam-Watch |author=T. Omar Moros |date=August 18, 2009 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.islam-watch.org/authors/89-other-authors/134-fraudulent-translation-of-muhammad-last-sermon-egalitarian.html&date=2013-05-31 |archivedate=2013-05-31 |deadurl=no}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Sirah]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]
[[Category:Abrogation]]

Safiyah

2026-03-20T21:55:43Z

Lightyears:

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[[File:Banunadirsubmit.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Mohammed receiving the submission of the Banu Nadir]]
'''Safiyah bint Huyayy''' (صفية بنت حيي‎, c. 610 - c. 670) (also spelled Saffiya, Safiyya, Safiya bint Huyai) was the bride of [[Kinana]] and the chief mistress of the Jewish tribes of [[Banu Qurayza|Quraizah]] and An-Nadhir. According to the [[sira|sira,]] Muhammad captured and married her after killing her husband. She is considered an أم المؤمنين or "mother of the believers". She and her husband were both captured after the victorious conclusion of Muhammad's [[conquest of Khaybar]]. The narrations agree that Muhammad chose her due to her exceeding beauty, as had been his custom in other engagements where the believers took slave women as booty, such as the conquest of the [[Banu Qurayzah]]. There was apparently some concern for his safety the night of their wedding on the part of his followers, as he had just that day murdered her husband after taking him as a prisoner of war, going so far as to torture him in order to ascertain the location of his treasure, and had earlier killed her father after the siege of the [[Banu Qurayzah]]. Modern Muslims have found the story embarrassing from the modern, liberal point of view, which supports the rights of people to not be slaves and to choose their own sexual and marriage partners. The story of Safiyah flies in the face of these norms, instead reflecting a world where powerful men like Muhammad take women as prizes in war and use them sexually to their own advantage with little regard to the women's emotional well being. Rather than admit this quite plain reading of source texts, many Muslim [[Dawah|duaah]] and apologists rather seek to use isolated narratives to recast Safiyah as a woman deeply in love with the man who had just killed her brother, husband (including torturing him in order to find his gold), and had earlier killed her father, and profoundly possessed by the conviction that he was a prophet of [[Allah (God)|Allah]].

==Story of Her Capture and Marriage to Muhammad==

When the Muslims invaded and conquered [[Khaybar]], the fighting men were killed and Safiyah was taken captive (along with the rest of the women and children) and allotted as booty to Dihya Al-Kalbi, a Muslim.<ref>{{Bukhari|||947|darussalam}}</ref> Kinana, her husband, was tortured and executed by the Muslims in order to discover the hiding places of treasure,<ref>Ishaq. I (Author), Guillaume. A (Translator). (2002). [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Muhammad-I-Ishaq/dp/0196360331/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252901691&sr=8-1#reader ''The Life of Muhammad'']. (p. 515). Oxford University Press</ref><ref>The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, vol. 8 translated by Michael Fishbein, p.123</ref><ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=5QMMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The Life of Mahomet, New Edition'']. (pp. 390-391) London:Smith, Elder and Co.</ref> and one source relates that he and Safiyah had been married for only one day.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=5QMMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The Life of Mahomet, New Edition'']. (pp. 392) London:Smith, Elder and Co.</ref> She was so [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Beauty and Makeup|beautiful]], that the Muslims began praising her in the presence of [[Muhammad]],<ref>{{Muslim||1365f|reference}}</ref> and so the prophet commanded that Dihya be brought before him along with Safiyah.{{Quote|{{Muslim||1365e|reference}}|Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said: Khaibar is ruined. Verily when we get down in the valley of a people, evil is the morning of the warned ones (al-Qur'an, xxxvii. 177). Allah, the Majestic and the Glorious, defeated them (the inhabitants of Khaibar), and there fell to the lot of Dihya a beautiful girl, and Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) got her in exchange of seven heads, and then entrusted her to Umm Sulaim so that she might embellish her and prepare her (for marriage) with him. }}

Upon seeing her, Muhammad said, "Take any slave girl other than her from the captives"<ref>{{Bukhari|||371|darussalam}}</ref> and he selected her for himself (as was his custom, he had done similarly with Rayhana after [[The Massacre of the Banu Qurayza]]):<ref>Ibn Sa'd, Dar Al-Kutub Al-Ilmiyyah, vol.2 p.58</ref> {{Quote|2={{right|لما فتح رسول الله ص الْقَمُوصَ، حِصْنَ ابْنِ أَبِي الْحُقَيْقِ، أُتِيَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ بِصَفِيَّةَ بِنْتِ حُيَيِّ بْنِ أَخْطَبَ، وَبِأُخْرَى مَعَهَا، فَمَرَّ بِهِمَا بِلالٌ- وَهُوَ الَّذِي جَاءَ بِهِمَا- عَلَى قَتْلَى مِنْ قَتْلَى يَهُودَ، فَلَمَّا رَأَتْهُمُ الَّتِي مَعَ صَفِيَّةَ صَاحَتْ وَصَكَّتْ وَجْهَهَا، وَحَثَتِ التُّرَابَ عَلَى رَأْسِهَا، فَلَمَّا رَآهَا رَسُولُ اللَّهِ قَالَ: أَغْرِبُوا عَنِّي هَذِهِ الشَّيْطَانَةَ، وَأَمَرَ بِصَفِيَّةَ فَحِيزَتْ خَلْفَهُ، وَأُلْقِيَ عَلَيْهَا رِدَاؤُهُ، فَعَرَفَ المسلمون ان رسول الله ص قد اصطفاها لنفسه، فقال رسول الله ص لِبِلالٍ- فِيمَا بَلَغَنِي- حِينَ رَأَى مِنْ تِلْكَ الْيَهُودِيَّةِ مَا رَأَى أَنُزِعَتْ مِنْكَ الرَّحْمَةُ يَا بِلالُ، حَيْثُ تَمُرُّ بِامْرَأَتَيْنِ عَلَى قَتْلَى رِجَالِهِمَا

[https://shamela.ws/book/23833/1073#p2 كتاب سيرة ابن هشام ت السقا ج 2 ص 336]
}}

When the apostle had conquered al-Qamus the fort of B. Abu'l-Huqayq, Safiya d Huyayy b. Akhtab was brought to him along with another woman. Bilal who was bringing them led them past the Jews who were slain; and when the woman who was with Safiya saw them she shrieked and slapped her face and poured dust on her head. When the apostle saw her he said 'Take this she-devil away from me.' He gave orders that Safiya was to be put behind him and threw his mantle over her, so that the Muslims knew that he had chosen her for himself. I have heard that the apostle said to bilal when he saw this Jewess behaving this way, “Have you no compassion, Bilal, when you brought two women past their dead husbands?”|A. Guillaume (trans.), The Life of Muhammad: A translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 515
}}

In the above passage, one might surmise that Kinana was killed in battle, but in the next passage ibn Ishaq himself confirms that he was murdered by the Muslims by torture in order to find his treasure.

The Muslims left Khaybar to return to Medina and on the way they stopped at a place called Sadd Al-Sahba; it was at this time Safiyah became clean from her menses.<ref>{{Bukhari|||4211|darussalam}}</ref> {{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2893|darussalam}}|Then we reached Khaibar; and when Allah enabled him to conquer the Fort (of Khaibar), the beauty of Safiya bint Huyai bin Akhtab was described to him. Her husband had been killed while she was a bride. So Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) selected her for himself and took her along with him till we reached a place called Sa`d-AsSahba,' where her menses were over and he took her for his wife. Haris (a kind of dish) was served on a small leather sheet. Then Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) told me to call those who were around me. So, that was the marriage banquet of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and Safiya.}}

The prophet decided to marry her, and he considered her manumission to be an adequate [[Mahr (Marital Price)|mahr]] (dowry).<ref>{{Bukhari|||4200|darussalam}}</ref> The "marriage banquet" consisted of Hays (a dish made of dates and butter) served on a small leather sheet and a gathering of those who were conveniently nearby.<ref>{{Bukhari|||2893|darussalam}}</ref> Another narrator describes the banquet in this way: "...there was neither meat nor bread in that banquet, but the Prophet ordered Bilal to spread the leather mats on which dates, dried yogurt and butter were put."<ref>{{Bukhari|||4213|darussalam}}</ref> Muhammad stayed three nights there and consummated his marriage with Safiyah.<ref>{{Bukhari|||4213|darussalam}}</ref> According to al-Tabari and Ibn Ishaq,<ref>Ishaq. I (Author), Guillaume. A (Translator). (2002)[https://archive.org/details/GuillaumeATheLifeOfMuhammad/page/n281/mode/2up ''The Life of Muhammad''] (pp. 516-517). Oxford University Press</ref> there was apparently some fear amongst the believers that she would kill him in revenge for her father, brother and husband:{{Quote|The History of Al-Tabari, State University of New York Press, vol.39 translated by Ella Landau-Tasseron, p.185

[https://al-maktaba.org/book/9783/6355 تاريخ الطبري، دار التراث، ج11 ص610]
|قال ابن عمر: حَدَّثَنِي كَثِيرُ بْنُ زَيْدٍ عَنِ الْوَلِيدِ بْنِ رباح عن ابى هريرة، قال:
لما دخل رسول الله ص ‌بصفيه بات ابو ‌أيوب على باب النبي ص، فلما اصبح فراى رسول الله ص كبر، ومع ابى ‌أيوب السيف، فقال: يا رسول الله كانت جاريه حديثه عهد بعرس، وكنت قتلت أباها وأخاها وزوجها، فلم آمنها عليك فضحك رسول الله ص، وقال له خيرا

Ibn ‘Umar [al-Waqidi] – Kathir b. Zayd – al-Walid b. Rabah – Abu Hurayrah: While the Prophet was lying with Safiyah Abu Ayyub stayed the night at his door. When he saw the Prophet in the morning he said "God is the Greatest." He had a sword with him; he said to the Prophet, "O Messenger of God, this young woman had just been married, and you killed her father, her brother and her husband, so I did not trust her (not to harm) you." The Prophet laughed and said "Good".}}

A hadith in Ibn Hibban's sahih collection narrates how Safiyah felt towards Muhammad for killing her family.

{{Quote|[https://www.islamweb.net/ar/library/content/314/5204 Sahih Ibn Hibban 5199 (11/609)] It is also graded sahih by al-Albani in al-Tabarani's collection (see below)|قالت : وكان رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم من أبغض الناس إلي ؛ قتل زوجي وأبي وأخي ، فما زال يعتذر إلي ، ويقول : إن أباك ألب علي العرب وفعل وفعل ، حتى ذهب ذلك من نفسي

[...] The Messenger of Allah was among the most hated people for me. He killed my husband, father and brother. He kept excusing to me that my father used to incite the Arabs against him and this and that until it went from my mind [...]}}

Despite the marriage banquet, and the nights he spent with her, the Muslims were still not sure whether she would be considered a wife or a right hand possession (i.e. a sex slave/concubine) until Muhammad set off and allowed her to wear a veil as she rode behind him on his camel (as slave women are not allowed to wear the [[hijab]] according to traditional [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|shari'ah (Islamic law)]]).<ref>{{Bukhari|||4213|darussalam}}</ref>

==Analysis==

From the information provided in the Hadith, it can be reasonably concluded that Safiyah did not have a choice in this marriage; rather she was war booty for Muhammad, a not uncommon practice at the time. There do exist passages in ibn Sa'd's "Tabaqat" that indicate that Muhammad gave Safiyah the choice between marrying him and returning to her people:{{Quote|Ibn Sa'ad Life of Muhammad, 8/123

[https://al-maktaba.org/book/1686/2749 طبقات ابن سعد، دار الكتب العلمية، ج8 ص97]|فقال: لها رسول الله: اختاري، فإن اخترت الإسلام أمسكتك لنفسي وإن اخترت اليهودية فعسى أن أعتقك فتلحقي بقومك. فقالت: يا رسول الله لقد هويت الإسلام وصدقت بك قبل أن تدعوني حيث صرت إلى رحلك وما لي في اليهودية أرب وما لي فيها والد ولا أخ، وخيرتني الكفر والإسلام فالله ورسوله أحب إلي من العتق وأن أرجع إلى قومي

... So, the Prophet said to her: ‘Make your choice, if you will choose Islam, I’ll select you for myself and if you chose Judaism, I’ll set you free and send you to your people.’ She said; ‘O Allah’s Messenger indeed I felt affection for Islam and testified for you even before you gave me this invitation when I came to you. I have no guardian among the Jews, neither father nor brother and I prefer Islam over disbelief. Allah and His Messenger are dear to me then freedom and to return to my people.

}}

This is however contradicted by numerous traditions that she was held captive up until the marriage, and when Muhammad decided that she would be a wife rather than a slave-girl, that is when he made known that her manumission was her Mahr (dowry).{{Quote|{{Muslim||1365d|reference}}|أَنَّهُ أَعْتَقَ صَفِيَّةَ وَجَعَلَ عِتْقَهَا صَدَاقَهَا ‏.‏ وَفِي حَدِيثِ مُعَاذٍ عَنْ أَبِيهِ تَزَوَّجَ صَفِيَّةَ وَأَصْدَقَهَا عِتْقَهَا.

Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) emancipated Safiyya, and her emancipation was treated as her wedding gift, and in the hadith transmitted by Mu'adh on the authority of his father (the words are): "He (the Holy Prophet) married Safiyya and bestowed her emancipation as her wedding gift."

}}

Based on the sources, it seems that Muhammad took Safiyah based on her beauty. Her social status would not have mattered in this particular situation because Muhammad did not intend on maintaining amiable ties with the Jews of Khaybar, and in hand has subjected them by imposing the [[dhimma]] and [[jizyah]] upon them. In fact, he intended on forcing them into exile but was talked out of it by the Jews who agreed to cultivate the land and give half of its earnings to the Muslims.<ref>{{Bukhari|||2338|darussalam}}</ref>

In later, non-sahih accounts, there are reports that Safiyah desired to become a Muslim; however, there is no evidence of this in sahih accounts. She was the Jewish chief mistress of two tribes who had rebelled against ''Allah and his Apostle'', so her religious piety would not have been a considering factor for Muhammad. Her wealth had been confiscated as war booty, so her wealth would not have been a considering factor either. Muhammad knew nothing about Safiyah until her capture and distribution as booty; his interest seems only to have been sparked when he heard about her beauty.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2893|darussalam}}|Then we reached Khaibar; and when Allah enabled him to conquer the Fort (of Khaibar), the beauty of Safiya bint Huyai bin Akhtab was described to him. Her husband had been killed while she was a bride. So Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) selected her for himself and took her along with him till we reached a place called Sa`d-AsSahba,' where her menses were over and he took her for his wife.
}}

==Additional Narratives==

Many narratives outside of the sahih hadith tradition exist about Safiyah:

When the Muslims conquered al-Qamus (the fort of B. Abu'l-Huqayq), Bilal (one of Muhammad's companions) brought Safiyah and another woman to Muhammad. He led them past the slain Jews, and when the woman with Safiyah saw them she shrieked and slapped her face and poured dust on her head. Muhammad said, "Take this she-devil away from me." He then commanded that Safiyah be put behind him and he threw his mantle over her, indicating that he had chosen her for himself. It had been said that the apostle asked Bilal, "Had you no compassion, Bilal, when you brought two women past their dead husbands?"<ref>Ishaq. I (Author), Guillaume. A (Translator). (2002). [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Muhammad-I-Ishaq/dp/0196360331/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252901691&sr=8-1#reader ''The Life of Muhammad'']. (p. 515). Oxford University Press</ref>

The Sahih Hadith contradict this account, describing Safiyah being brought with Dihya, not another woman, for the sole purpose of satisfying Muhammad's curiosity about her beauty.

Safiyah had a mark on her face, and when Muhammad asked her about it, she told him that her husband had hit her so hard that he blacked her eye. She said she had a dream while she was married to Kinana, and in that dream the moon fell in her lap. When she described it to her husband, he said, "This simply means that you covet the king of the Hijaz, Muhammad", and then he hit her.<ref>Ishaq. I (Author), Guillaume. A (Translator). (2002). [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Muhammad-I-Ishaq/dp/0196360331/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1252901691&sr=8-1#reader ''The Life of Muhammad'']. (p. 515). Oxford University Press</ref>

In another story, Safiyah was veiled after the wedding feast and Muhammad put her on his camel in order to conduct her to the bridal tent. In the morning, Muhammad heard the noise of someone rustling against the curtain of the tent. Abu Ayub was there, and he had kept watch all night with a drawn sword. When Muhammad asked his reason for being there, his friend explained that he did not trust Safiyah because Muhammad had just slain her husband the previous day. Muhammad thanked him for his vigilance and sent him away.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=5QMMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The Life of Mahomet, New Edition'']. (pp. 392-393) London:Smith, Elder and Co.</ref>

==Issue of Saffiyah's 'Iddah (Waiting Period)==

According to Islamic law, a woman whose husband dies must undergo her [[iddah]] or waiting period of four months and ten days:

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|234}}|And those who are taken in death among you and leave wives behind - they, [the wives, shall] wait four months and ten [days]. And when they have fulfilled their term, then there is no blame upon you for what they do with themselves in an acceptable manner. And Allah is [fully] Acquainted with what you do.}}

As such, Muhammad theoretically should have waited the allotted waiting period to marry her. The hadith narrations, though, seem to indicate that he married her soon after taking her as a slave, waiting only a few days for her to pass her first menstrual period.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4211|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik:
We arrived at Khaibar, and when Allah helped His Apostle to open the fort, the beauty of Safiya bint Huyai bin Akhtaq whose husband had been killed while she was a bride, was mentioned to Allah's Apostle. The Prophet selected her for himself, and set out with her, and when we reached a place called Sidd-as-Sahba, Safiya became clean from her menses then Allah’s Apostle married her. Hais (i.e. an ‘Arabian dish) was prepared on a small leather mat. Then the Prophet said to me, "I invite the people around you." So that was the marriage banquet of the Prophet and Safiya. Then we proceeded towards Medina, and I saw the Prophet, making for her a kind of cushion with his cloak behind him (on his camel). He then sat beside his camel and put his knee for Safiya to put her foot on, in order to ride (on the camel).}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4213|darussalam}}|arrated Anas:
The Prophet stayed for three nights between Khaibar and Medina and was married to Safiya. I invited the Muslims to his marriage banquet and there was neither meat nor bread in that banquet but the Prophet ordered Bilal to spread the leather mats on which dates, dried yogurt and butter were put. The Muslims said amongst themselves, "Will she (i.e. Safiya) be one of the mothers of the believers, (i.e. one of the wives of the Prophet) or just (a lady captive) of what his right-hand possesses?" Some of them said, "If the Prophet makes her observe the veil, then she will be one of the mothers of the believers (i.e. one of the Prophet's wives), and if he does not make her observe the veil, then she will be his lady slave." So when he departed, he made a place for her behind him (on his camel) and made her observe the veil.}}

As such it would appear that Muhammad broke the rules of Islamic 'iddah in order to have sex with Safiyah so soon after he had tortured her husband to death. The issue is muddied, though, since in traditional Islamic law, capturing a married woman annules her marriage, and thus she wouldn't need to observe the 'Iddah. In order to ensure she is not pregnant, a single menstrual cycle suffices for a captured slave girl. After this single menstrual period her new owner can proceed to have sex with her. The Encyclopedia of Unanimous Islamic Rulings says: “Al-Balluti (d.355 AH) said: Scholars have unanimously agreed on the annulment of the marriage of a captured woman whose husband lives in a land of war (i.e. uncontrolled by Muslims), and that her owner can have sex with her after she menstruates for one time only.” <ref>Mawsu'at Al-Ijma' Fil-Fiqh Al-Islami, Al-Maktabah Al-Shamilah, published by Dar Al-Fadhilah, 2012, vol.6 p.255
موسوعة الإجماع في الفقه الإسلامي، دار الفضيلة الطبعة الأولى، المكتبة الشاملة، ج6 ص255
----</ref>

==Modern Perspectives==

The story of Safiyah is retold by Muslims in numerous biographies and books. Some examples are given below:

{{Quote|1=Ahmed, Dr. (Mufti) M. Mukarram. (2005) [http://books.google.com/books?id=bHLO1brCbm0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false Encyclopaedia of Islam]. (pp 163-164). New Delhi: J.L. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd.|2=''Marriage with the Holy Prophet'': After the Muslims victory in the battle of Khyber all the prisoners of war were assembled. A companion of the Holy Prophet, Hadrat Dehia Kalbi, requested him for a maid. The Holy Prophet allowed him to select one. Accordingly, he picked up Hadrat Safiyah. But another companion brought to the notice of the Holy Prophet that Dehia had chosen the leading lady of the Bany Nuzair and Quraiza tribes, who should have gone to the lot of the Holy Prophet. He meant that the leading woman of an Arab tribe should not be treated as an ordinary woman. The Holy Prophet therefore, allotted another woman prisoner to Hadrat Dehia as his maid. He freed Hadrat Safiyah and married her. (Bukhari) 

:According to another story when Hadrat Safiyah had been assigned to Hadrat Dehia, the Holy Prophet went round the camp inspecting the prisoners. Hadrat Safiyah represented her case to the Holy Prophet stating that she being the daughter of the chief of her tribe, deserved better treatment than accorded to her. The Holy Prophet who was moved by the implorings of Hadrat Safiya, secured her freedom from Hadrat Dehia on consideration of seven heads of cattle. Thereafter was invited to accept the true faith of Islam. Hadrat Safiyah was already inclined towards Islam and hence she readily accepted the same. The Holy Prophet then married her. (Usudul Ghaba) 

On his way to Medina the Holy Prophet halted at a place called Sahba where he held the Walima feast. While starting from Sahba, the holy Prophet got Hadrat Safiyah mounted on his own camel and covered her with his robe indicating that she had now become his wife. In happiness Hadrat Safiya forgot the tragedy that had befallen her family, thinking that now she was the most fortunate lady after marriage with the Holy Prophet of Islam.}}

This version is remarkable for the very selective reading of the sources and outright recasting of some of the material. Gone are the accounts of Safiyah being grieved at the death of her husband and the slaughter of her tribe. The idea that women should be the war booty of the men who conquer their tribe is never even questioned. The fact that she had no husband because he had been tortured to death with a fire on his chest is also conveniently omitted. This clearly shows the contemporary Muslim drive to reconcile elements of the prophet's biography which clash with contemporary liberal mores about war, slavery, and sexual consent.

The following quotes are from [http://www.bismikaallahuma.org/archives/2005/umm-ul-mukminin-Safiyah-the-jewish-wife-of-muhammad/ "Umm ul-Mukminin Safiyah: The Jewish Wife of Muhammad"] by Mohd Elfie Nieshaem Juferi, September 20, 2005:
{{Quote|2=There has been some criticism going around as to the nature of marriage of Safiyah(R), the Jewish wife of Muhammad(P). A rabid missionary hostile to the Prophet Muhammad(P) had in fact the audacity to say that: 
''Muhammad forced himself on a captured woman on the same day that he killed her father, husband and many of her relatives. He was a rapist.'' 
This statement made by this ignorant missionary is due not only to the gutter environment that he was brought up and subjected to, but also because of his inability to understand the circumstances surrounding this event. Insha’allah, our purpose here is to explain the circumstances and the nature of the marriage of Safiyah to the Prophet(P).}}

The above author clearly views a plain retelling of the facts as related by the tradition to be an attack on the character. He attacks the mere thought of their presentation in a neutral matter as "ignorant missionary" rhetoric, attacking the motive behind even questioning whether Muhammad was morally right to take a woman as war booty and then marry her after having killing her father, husband, and brother. Rather than dealing with the meaning of "rape" in such a context of slavery and pre-modern society the author instead casts aspersions.

The following quote deals with the issue through the lens of lineage, which is actually an important angle in Islamic legal thought about marriage:

{{Quote|2='''The Marriage of the Prophet(P) to Safiyah(R)''' 

Safiyah was the daughter of Huyayy ibn Akhtab, the undisputed leader of the Banu al-Nadir as well as a Jewish rabbi. Hence, she was of noble regal and rabbinical heritage. She became a captive of the Muslims when they seized al-Qamus, the fortress of Khaybar. When a Companion of the Prophet(P) heard of Safiyah’s captivity, he approached the Prophet(P) with a suggestion that since she was a lady of Banu al-Nadir, only the Prophet(P) was fit enough to marry her. The Prophet(P) agreed to this suggestion and hence granted her freedom and married her.|Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad (North American Trust Publications, 1976), p. 373}}
The issue of نسب nasab or "lineage" is an important issue in [[Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)]] vis-a-vis marriage; in short, lineage is one of the legally allowable categories when considering suitable marriage partners and [[Mahr (Marital Price)]]. From an Islamic perspective, thus, it does make sense to take such an issue into consideration; yet this fact itself makes no appearance in the original sources, and the author makes no mention of the role played by Safiyah's beauty in the story.

Conquerors in pre-modern times generally married the daughters and wives of the kings whom they had conquered to give themselves legitimacy as the new rulers (in addition, of course, to slaking their lust with women who could not refuse their offers of marriage). Another angle often taken by pro-Islamic authors is often that of possible political motivations behind the marriage. Left out of this analysis, though, is that the feelings and dignity of the girls and women involved were the least of a conqueror's concern. In medieval England, for example, the Norman conquerors occasionally used intermarriage to claim land. The marriage to Safiyah is thus cast as having political significance as well, as it would supposedly help to reduce hostilities and cement alliances with the conquered people. John L. Esposito notes that

{{Quote|2=As was customary for Arab chiefs, many were political marriages to cement alliances. Others were marriages to the widows of his companions who had fallen in combat and were in need of protection.|John L. Esposito. Islam: The Straight Path (5 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-063215-1. OCLC 1027626873, 2016. p.19-20}}
Esposito posits peacemaking as a goal of the marriage, yet the tribe that Safiyah hailed from was and continued to be at war with the Muslims; the people of Khaybar itself were reduced to dhimmitude and along with the rest of the Jews were eventually expelled from Arabia. In addition to this, before Muhammad heard of her beauty, he was going to allow Dihya to keep her as his slave.

{{Quote|2=As for the accusation that Safiyah was coerced into marriage or taken advantage of, as alleged by a known Islamophobic, this claim has no basis at all. It is known that Safiyah(R) remained loyal to the Prophet until he passed away.4 We have in fact the Prophet(P) making the following offer to her, as recorded by Martin Lings:
:He '''[the Prophet Muhammad - Ed.]''' then told Safiyah that he was prepared to set her free, and he offered her the choice between remaining a Jewess and returning to her people or entering Islam and becoming his wife. “I choose God and His Messenger,” she said; and they were married at the first halt on the homeward march.<ref>5. Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based On The Earliest Sources (George Allen & Unwin, 1983), p. 269</ref>|[https://web.archive.org/web/20190613050745/http://noor.kalemasawaa.com/sbeelalislam/www.sbeelalislam.com/Eng/Q%26A/Proph/new_page_16.html;"Safiyah, the Wife of Muhammad" By Bassam Zawadi ]}}

Ling does not cite any source for this assertion. In contrast to Ling's assertion, we have Sahih Hadith that indicate that Safiyah was chosen for her beauty and kept captive up until her "wedding" night with Muhammad.

{{Quote|2=The other wives of the Prophet(P) used to show their jealousy of her by making slights upon her Jewish origin. But the Prophet(P) always defended her. Once Safiyah was vexed to the extreme by the taunts of all the Arab wives of the Prophet(P). She took the complaint to the Prophet(P), who felt great compassion for her. He consoled and encouraged her. He equipped her with logic by saying: “Safiyah, take courage and be bold. They are in no way superior to you. Tell them: I am a daughter of the Prophet Harun, a niece of the Prophet Musa, and a wife of the Prophet Muhammad”. This is thus an excellent example of the Prophet Muhammad(P) trying to wipe out pre-Islamic anti-Semitism amongst the Arabs.|[http://prophetlawyermtg.blogspot.com/2018/03/prophets-pbuh-marriage-with-safiya-ra.html"Prophet's (PBUH) marriage with Safiya (RA)" (in tr)]}}

"...trying to wipe out pre-Islamic anti-Semitism amongst the Arabs" is an assertion that is not supported by the primary texts we have. In fact according the traditional sources Muhammad's companions eventually expelled all of the Jews from Arabia, save the [[Banu Qurayza]] whom Muhammad slaughtered and enslaved to the last.

The following Islamic message board post attempts to take the marriage as a sign of the prophet's compassion:

{{Quote|2='''Conclusion''' 
With the evidences laid bare before us, we do not see the justification of accusing the Prophet(P) of being a “rapist”, as those anti-Islamic critics allege. That the Prophet(P) himself married Safiyah(R) so as to avoid the certainty of her being a slave of the Muslims and helped her to defend herself from the taunts of her co-wives is enough proof that the Prophet(P) was a man of exemplary conduct and remained honourable even to relatives of his most bitter foes.|[https://www.islamicboard.com/companions-of-the-prophet/1016-safiyya-bint-huyayy-radiallahu-anha.html|"Safiyya Bint Huyayy (RadiAllahu Anha)", IslamicBoard]}}

The above shows a clear apologetic bias at work; no modern person, especially given contemporary concerns about sexual consent prevalent in modern culture, would cast the marriage of a woman taken as a slave to the man who had just defeated her tribe in battle after an unprovoked surprise attack and murdered her husband, father, and brother as an example of fair and equal consent. The author above is clearly more concerned with modern perceptions of Muhammad and how they conform to contemporary mores around things like sexual consent than the plain facts of what is written in the texts.

Meraj Mohiuddin's book 2015 Revelation: The Story of Muhammad, provides only a single paragraph on the story of Safiyah's capture and betrothal to Muhammad, summarizing it as such:

{{Quote|2=While the people of Khaybar return to their homes, Kinanah's 17-year-old widow, Safiyah bint Huyay, approaches the Prophet and relates a dream in which she saw a brilliant moon over the city of Medina. The moon moved to Khaybar and then fell into her lap. The Prophet interprets her dream by giving her the choice of returning to her people or embracing Islam and joining his household as his 10th wife. Safiyah readily chooses the latter.|Meraj Mohiuddin. Revelation: The Story of Muhammad : Peace and Blessings be Upon Him. Whiteboard Press. pp. 291. ISBN 978-0-9896288-0-8. OCLC 1069569279, 2015.}}No passages are cited by ''Revelation'' to support this story but the following hadith is probably in mind here.{{Quote|2=There was a green scar in an eye of Safiyya. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) asked her, ‘What is this scar in your eye?’ She said, “I mentioned before my husband my dream that a moon fell into my lap upon which he slapped me and said; ‘Do you long for the King of Yathrib [the Prophet].’” She said: ‘There was none more hateful to me than the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) as he had my father and husband killed. The Prophet (ﷺ), however, kept on explaining, ‘Safiya! Your father instigated the Arabs against me and did such and such.’ He kept doing so till all my harsh feelings for him vanished.|al-Tabarani, Abu al-Qasim, al-Mu’jam al-Kabir, (Cairo: Maktaba Ibn Taimiya, 1994) Vol.24, 67 Hadith 177; rated as as sahih by Albani in Silsala al-Ahadith al-Sahiha, (Riyadh: Dar al-Ma‘rif, 1996) Vol.6, Hadith 2793}}It should be noted that the tradition seems to contradict the other traditions which show that Safiyah was in great anguish at the death of her family at the hands of Muhammad and his believers. It is also notable that at least one other version of the tradition exists in the same hadith collection where it is the sun, not the moon, that falls into her lap. {{Quote|2=نَزَلَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ خَيْبَرَ وَصَفِيَّةُ عَرُوسٌ فِي مَجَاسِدِهَا، فَرَأَتْ فِي الْمَنَامِ كَأَنَّ الشَّمْسَ نَزَلَتْ حَتَّى وَقَعَتْ عَلَى صَدْرِهَا، فَقَصَّتْ ذَلِكَ عَلَى زَوْجِهَا، فَقَالَ: وَاللَّهِ مَا تَمَنَّيْنَ إِلا هَذَا الْمَلِكَ الَّذِي نَزَلَ بنا، فَفَتَحَهَا رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ وَضَرَبَ عُنق زوجها صبرا، وتعرض من هناك من فتية النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ليتزوجها حَتَّى أَلْقَى لَهُمْ رَسُولُ اللهِ صَلَّى اللهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ تَمْرًا عَلَى مُنْتَصَفٍ، فَقَالَ: «كُلُوا وَلِيمَةَ رَسُولِ اللهِ عَلَى صَفِيَّةَ»

When Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) reached Khyber while Safiya was a bride at her place. She saw in her dream that the sun came into her lap. She mentioned it before her husband. He said; ‘By Allah you do not wish for anyone except the King who has come upon us.’ Allah’s Messenger conquered Khyber and her husband was killed in captivity. The prophet offered dates to his companions and said “This is the wedding feast of the marriage of the messanger of Allah and Safiyyah."|Tabarani Kabeer, Maktabat Ibn Taymiyah, Hadith 176}}

''Revelation'' makes no mention of the numerous traditions mentioned above which indicate that Safiyah was filled with sadness at the murder of her family members by the Muslims (and the torture of her husband Kinana). Rather than dealing with the wide range of sources available on Safiyah, ''Revelation'' chooses to cherry pick a single tradition which casts her marriage to Muhammad as divinely pre-ordained and in accordance with her personal wishes, which is what modern liberal audiences would expect of a man claimed to be a good example ([[Uswa Hasana|Uswa Hasana)]]. Again, these modern Muslims seem embarrassed to admit the truth about the multiple different narrations that exist about Safiyah. And instead of presenting the tradition as it exists, they attempt to whitewash it in order to suit modern, liberal sensitivities around consent and slavery.

==See Also==

*[[Muhammad's Marriages|Muhammad's Wives]]
*[[Forced Marriage]]

==External Links==

*[https://www.answering-christianity.com/bassam_zawadi/rebuttaltoalisina10.htm "Safiyah, the Wife of Muhammad"-Rebuttal to Ali Sina] ''- Bassam Zawadi, Answering Christianity''
*[https://www.answering-islam.org/Muhammad/Inconsistent/idda_Safiyah.html Muhammad and the Law of 'Iddah] ''- Sam Shamoun, Answering Islam''
*[https://www.answeringislam.org/Responses/Osama/zawadi_Safiyah.htm Muhammad’s Marriage to Safiyah] ''- Sam Shamoun, Answering Islam''
*[https://www.answering-islam.org/Responses/Osama/zawadi_Safiyah2.htm Muhammad’s Marriage to Safiyah Revisited] ''- Sam Shamoun, Answering Islam''
*[https://www.icraa.org/two-issues-around-prophet-muhammads-marriage-with-safiyya/#_ftn14 Two Issues Around Prophet Muhammad’s Marriage With Safiyya] - ''Waqar Akbar, ICRAA.org''
*[https://atheism-vs-islam.com/index.php?view=article&id=79:safiya-bint-huyai-s-father-husband-brother-killed-by-prophet-muhammad-and-next-night-he-had-sex-with-her&catid=9\= Safiya bint Huyai's father, husband & brother killed by Prophet Muhammad] ''- Lehrasap, Atheism vs Islam''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Muhammad's wives and concubines]]
[[Category:Articles needing to be rewritten]]
[[Category:Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House)]]
[[Category:Sahabah (companions)]]
[[ar:صفية]]

Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Apostasy

2026-02-24T20:12:53Z

Lightyears:

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All of the schools of Islamic jurisprudence agree that the punishment for an apostate, a Muslim who renounces the faith, is death. This punishment is based on the command of the prophet mentioned and practiced by his companions according to hadiths. This tradition, even when not legislated or enforced by most modern states, brings an intense negativity over apostasy in Islam, often with personal risk or severe social consequences, and thereby maintaining a powerful deterant and silencing effect. Apostates in many cases also face [[Shari%27ah_(Islamic_Law)#Interfaith_Marriage|annulment of their marriages]], disinheritance, loss of child custody, and other consequences when local religious authorities pressure families to follow Islamic law. [https://persecution.exmuslims.org/countries A maintained list of punishments for apostates] legislated in majority Muslim countries today is available.

Today, traditionalist Islamic scholars generally either take the view that all apostasy is punishable, or see punishment as necessary only for those who are public about their renunciation of Islam. In contrast, Islamic modernists generally point to {{Quran|2|256}}, the interpretations of which are described in the article [[Let There be no Compulsion in Religion|Let There be no Compulsion in Religion]]. The death penalty mentioned in hadiths is incompatible with this verse as interpreted by modernists, so to them it is reasonable to reject the tradition as inauthentic, in line with their relative skepticism towards the hadith corpus.

The Quran itself speaks of apostates in terms of Allah's punishment for them in the next world. It has yet harsher words for the hypocrites (al munafiqun). The hypocrites too "disbelieved after [their] belief", but claimed to still believe Muhammad while privately criticising and mocking him, refusing to leave Medina to strive with their wealth and lives in the cause of Allah and enjoining others to do likewise. The Quran says that Allah will give the hypocrites a painful punishment in this world and the next. Hypocrites who "turn away" are to be seized and killed if they might join the fight against the believers.
{{Main|Islam and Apostasy}}

==Qur'an==
===Those who disbelieved after they believed===
{{Quote|{{Quran-range|3|86|91}}|How shall Allah guide a people who disbelieved after their belief and had witnessed that the Messenger is true and clear signs had come to them? And Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people. Those - their recompense will be that upon them is the curse of Allah and the angels and the people, all together, Abiding eternally therein. The punishment will not be lightened for them, nor will they be reprieved. Except for those who repent after that and correct themselves. For indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful. Indeed, those who reject the message after their belief and then increase in disbelief - never will their [claimed] repentance be accepted, and they are the ones astray. Indeed, those who disbelieve and die while they are disbelievers - never would the [whole] capacity of the earth in gold be accepted from one of them if he would [seek to] ransom himself with it. For those there will be a painful punishment, and they will have no helpers.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|54}}|O ye who believe! if any from among you turn back from his Faith, soon will Allah produce a people whom He will love as they will love Him,- lowly with the believers, mighty against the rejecters, fighting in the way of Allah, and never afraid of the reproaches of such as find fault. That is the grace of Allah, which He will bestow on whom He pleaseth. And Allah encompasseth all, and He knoweth all things.}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|16|106}}|Whoso disbelieveth in Allah after his belief - save him who is forced thereto and whose heart is still content with the Faith - but whoso findeth ease in disbelief: On them is wrath from Allah. Theirs will be an awful doom.}}
{{Quote|{{cite quran|88|21|end=24|style=ref}}|Therefore do remind, for you are only a reminder. You are not a watcher over them; But whoever turns back and disbelieves, Allah will chastise him with the greatest chastisement.}}

===The hypocrites (al munafiqun)===

An entire surah (63, al-Munafiqun) is dedicated to the hypocrites, who were a frequent complaint in the Quran. The hypocrites (al munafiqun) too "disbelieved after [their] belief", but claimed to still follow Muhammad while refusing to help in his cause and sought to lead others to do likewise.

In a lengthy passage condemning the hypocrites in surah 9 (at-Tawbah), some of the hypocrites are denounced for secretly criticising and mocking Muhammad and the Quran, and for proposing some plan motivated by resentment (there are conflicting traditions as to what this referred). Unless they repent, it commands the believers to strive against them if "they turn away" (yatawallaw). This word occurs in the same Arabic verb form also in a brief passage in surah 4 (al-Nisa), which commands that hypocrites who "turn away" are to be seized and killed unless they are clearly not a threat or take refuge with a people protected by treaty. According to conflicting traditions this passage related either to deserters from the battle of Uhud, or to some hypocrites who had emerged from Mecca.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|4|88|91}}|What is [the matter] with you [that you are] two groups concerning the hypocrites, while Allah has made them fall back [into error and disbelief] for what they earned. Do you wish to guide those whom Allah has sent astray? And he whom Allah sends astray - never will you find for him a way [of guidance]. They wish you would disbelieve as they disbelieved so you would be alike. So do not take from among them allies until they emigrate for the cause of Allah. But if they turn away, then seize them and kill them wherever you find them and take not from among them any ally or helper. Except for those who take refuge with a people between yourselves and whom is a treaty or those who come to you, their hearts strained at [the prospect of] fighting you or fighting their own people. And if Allah had willed, He could have given them power over you, and they would have fought you. So if they remove themselves from you and do not fight you and offer you peace, then Allah has not made for you a cause [for fighting] against them. You will find others who wish to obtain security from you and [to] obtain security from their people. Every time they are returned to [the influence of] disbelief, they fall back into it. So if they do not withdraw from you or offer you peace or restrain their hands, then seize them and kill them wherever you overtake them. And those - We have made for you against them a clear authorization.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|4|137|138}}|Indeed, those who have believed then disbelieved, then believed, then disbelieved, and then increased in disbelief - never will Allah forgive them, nor will He guide them to a way. Give tidings to the hypocrites that there is for them a painful punishment -}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|64|68}}|They hypocrites are apprehensive lest a surah be revealed about them, informing them of what is in their hearts. Say, "Mock [as you wish]; indeed, Allah will expose that which you fear." And if you ask them, they will surely say, "We were only conversing and playing." Say, "Is it Allah and His verses and His Messenger that you were mocking?" Make no excuse; you have disbelieved after your belief. If We pardon one faction of you - We will punish another faction because they were criminals. The hypocrite men and hypocrite women are of one another. They enjoin what is wrong and forbid what is right and close their hands. They have forgotten Allah, so He has forgotten them [accordingly]. Indeed, the hypocrites - it is they who are the defiantly disobedient. Allah has promised the hypocrite men and hypocrite women and the disbelievers the fire of Hell, wherein they will abide eternally. It is sufficient for them. And Allah has cursed them, and for them is an enduring punishment.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|9|73|74}}|O Prophet! Strive against the disbelievers and the hypocrites! Be harsh with them. Their ultimate abode is hell, a hapless journey's end. They swear by Allah that they said nothing (wrong), yet they did say the word of disbelief, and did disbelieve after their Surrender (to Allah). And they purposed that which they could not attain, and they sought revenge only that Allah by His messenger should enrich them of His bounty. If they repent it will be better for them; and if they turn away, Allah will afflict them with a painful doom in the world and the Hereafter, and they have no protecting friend nor helper in the earth.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|63|1|3}}|When the hypocrites come to you, [O Muhammad], they say, "We testify that you are the Messenger of Allah." And Allah knows that you are His Messenger, and Allah testifies that the hypocrites are liars. They have taken their oaths as a cover, so they averted [people] from the way of Allah. Indeed, it was evil that they were doing.That is because they believed, and then they disbelieved; so their hearts were sealed over, and they do not understand.}}

==Hadith==
A number of hadiths, often with multiple narrators and appearing in multiple hadith collections, refer to capital punishment for apostates. In versions narrated by the companion Abdullah Ibn Mas'ud, the punishment applies to apostates who also abandon the community. Some academic scholars argue that the hadiths narrating punishment for apostates reflect an attitude that would have arisen during the Riddah (apostasy) wars under the first Caliph, Abu Bakr.

===Sahih Bukhari===
{{quote |{{Bukhari|||3017|darussalam}} | Narrated Ikrima:

Ali burnt some people and this news reached Ibn 'Abbas, who said, "Had I been in his place I would not have burnt them, as the Prophet said, 'Don't punish (anybody) with Allah's Punishment.' No doubt, I would have killed them, for the Prophet said, 'If somebody (a Muslim) discards his religion, kill him.' "}}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6922|darussalam}} | Narrated 'Ikrima:

Some Zanadiqa (atheists) were brought to 'Ali and he burnt them. The news of this event, reached Ibn 'Abbas who said, "If I had been in his place, I would not have burnt them, as Allah's Apostle forbade it, saying, 'Do not punish anybody with Allah's punishment (fire).' I would have killed them according to the statement of Allah's Apostle, 'Whoever changed his Islamic religion, then kill him.'"}}

['Islamic religion' is simply 'deen' in the arabic, as with the other versions of the same hadith]

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||4344|darussalam}} | Narrated Abu Burda:

That the Prophet sent his (i.e. Abu Burda's) grandfather, Abu Musa and Mu'adh to Yemen and said to both of them "Facilitate things for the people (Be kind and lenient) and do not make things difficult (for people), and give them good tidings, and do not repulse them and both of you should obey each other." Abu Musa said, "O Allah's Prophet! In our land there is an alcoholic drink (prepared) from barley called Al-Mizr, and another (prepared) from honey, called Al-Bit"' The Prophet said, "All intoxicants are prohibited." Then both of them proceeded and Mu'adh asked Abu Musa, "How do you recite the Quran?" Abu Musa replied, "I recite it while I am standing, sitting or riding my riding animals, at intervals and piecemeal." Muadh said, "But I sleep and then get up. I sleep and hope for Allah's Reward for my sleep as I seek His Reward for my night prayer." Then he (i.e. Muadh) pitched a tent and they started visiting each other. Once Muadh paid a visit to Abu Musa and saw a chained man. '''Muadh asked, "What is this?" Abu Musa said, "(He was) a Jew who embraced Islam and has now turned apostate." Muadh said, "I will surely chop off his neck!"'''}}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6923|darussalam}} | Narrated Abu Burda:

Abu Musa said, "I came to the Prophet along with two men (from the tribe) of Ash'ariyin, one on my right and the other on my left, while Allah's Apostle was brushing his teeth (with a Siwak), and both men asked him for some employment. The Prophet said, 'O Abu Musa (O 'Abdullah bin Qais!).' I said, 'By Him Who sent you with the Truth, these two men did not tell me what was in their hearts and I did not feel (realize) that they were seeking employment.' As if I were looking now at his Siwak being drawn to a corner under his lips, and he said, 'We never (or, we do not) appoint for our affairs anyone who seeks to be employed. But O Abu Musa! (or 'Abdullah bin Qais!) Go to Yemen.'" The Prophet then sent Mu'adh bin Jabal after him and when Mu'adh reached him, he spread out a cushion for him and requested him to get down (and sit on the cushion). Behold: There was a fettered man beside Abu Musa. '''Mu'adh asked, "Who is this (man)?" Abu Musa said, "He was a Jew and became a Muslim and then reverted back to Judaism." Then Abu Musa requested Mu'adh to sit down but Mu'adh said, "I will not sit down till he has been killed. This is the judgment of Allah and His Apostle (for such cases) and repeated it thrice. Then Abu Musa ordered that the man be killed, and he was killed.''' Abu Musa added, "Then we discussed the night prayers and one of us said, 'I pray and sleep, and I hope that Allah will reward me for my sleep as well as for my prayers.'" }}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||7157|darussalam}} |Narrated Abu Musa:

A man embraced Islam and then reverted back to Judaism. Mu`adh bin Jabal came and saw the man with Abu Musa. Mu`adh asked, "What is wrong with this (man)?" Abu Musa replied, "He embraced Islam and then reverted back to Judaism." Mu`adh said, "I will not sit down unless you kill him (as it is) '''the verdict of Allah and His Apostle.'''}}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6878|darussalam}} | Narrated 'Abdullah:

Allah's Apostle said, "The blood of a Muslim who confesses that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that I am His Apostle, cannot be shed except in three cases: In Qisas for murder, a married person who commits illegal sexual intercourse and the one who reverts from Islam (apostate) and leaves the Muslims." }}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6899|darussalam}} | Narrated Abu Qilaba:

Once 'Umar bin 'Abdul 'Aziz sat on his throne in the courtyard of his house so that the people might gather before him. Then he admitted them and (when they came in), he said, "What do you think of Al-Qasama?" They said, "We say that it is lawful to depend on Al-Qasama in Qisas, as the previous Muslim Caliphs carried out Qisas depending on it." Then he said to me, "O Abu Qilaba! What do you say about it?" He let me appear before the people and I said, "O Chief of the Believers! You have the chiefs of the army staff and the nobles of the Arabs. If fifty of them testified that a married man had committed illegal sexual intercourse in Damascus but they had not seen him (doing so), would you stone him?" He said, "No." I said, "If fifty of them testified that a man had committed theft in Hums, would you cut off his hand though they did not see him?" He replied, "No." I said, '''"By Allah, Allah's Apostle never killed anyone except in one of the following three situations:''' (1) A person who killed somebody unjustly, was killed (in Qisas,) (2) a married person who committed illegal sexual intercourse and '''(3) a man who fought against Allah and His Apostle and deserted Islam and became an apostate."''' Then the people said, "Didn't Anas bin Malik narrate that Allah's Apostle cut off the hands of the thieves, branded their eyes and then, threw them in the sun?" I said, "I shall tell you the narration of Anas. Anas said: "Eight persons from the tribe of 'Ukl came to Allah's Apostle and gave the Pledge of allegiance for Islam (became Muslim). The climate of the place (Medina) did not suit them, so they became sick and complained about that to Allah's Apostle. He said (to them ), "Won't you go out with the shepherd of our camels and drink of the camels' milk and urine (as medicine)?" They said, "Yes." So they went out and drank the camels' milk and urine, and after they became healthy, they killed the shepherd of Allah's Apostle and took away all the camels. This news reached Allah's Apostle , so he sent (men) to follow their traces and they were captured and brought (to the Prophet). He then ordered to cut their hands and feet, and their eyes were branded with heated pieces of iron, and then he threw them in the sun till they died." I said, "What can be worse than what those people did? They deserted Islam, committed murder and theft."

Then 'Anbasa bin Said said, "By Allah, I never heard a narration like this of today." I said, "O 'Anbasa! You deny my narration?" 'Anbasa said, "No, but you have related the narration in the way it should be related. By Allah, these people are in welfare as long as this Sheikh (Abu Qilaba) is among them." I added, "Indeed in this event there has been a tradition set by Allah's Apostle. The narrator added: Some Ansari people came to the Prophet and discussed some matters with him, a man from amongst them went out and was murdered. Those people went out after him, and behold, their companion was swimming in blood. They returned to Allah's Apostle and said to him, "O Allah's Apostle, we have found our companion who had talked with us and gone out before us, swimming in blood (killed)." Allah's Apostle went out and asked them, "Whom do you suspect or whom do you think has killed him?" They said, "We think that the Jews have killed him." The Prophet sent for the Jews and asked them, "Did you kill this (person)?" They replied, "No." He asked the Al-Ansars, "Do you agree that I let fifty Jews take an oath that they have not killed him?" They said, "It matters little for the Jews to kill us all and then take false oaths." He said, "Then would you like to receive the Diya after fifty of you have taken an oath (that the Jews have killed your man)?" They said, "We will not take the oath." Then the Prophet himself paid them the Diya (Blood-money)." The narrator added, "The tribe of Hudhail repudiated one of their men (for his evil conduct) in the Pre-lslamic period of Ignorance.

Then, at a place called Al-Batha' (near Mecca), the man attacked a Yemenite family at night to steal from them, but a man from the family noticed him and struck him with his sword and killed him. The tribe of Hudhail came and captured the Yemenite and brought him to 'Umar during the Hajj season and said, "He has killed our companion." The Yemenite said, "But these people had repudiated him (i.e., their companion)." 'Umar said, "Let fifty persons of Hudhail swear that they had not repudiated him." So forty-nine of them took the oath and then a person belonging to them, came from Sham and they requested him to swear similarly, but he paid one-thousand Dirhams instead of taking the oath. They called another man instead of him and the new man shook hands with the brother of the deceased. Some people said, "We and those fifty men who had taken false oaths (Al-Qasama) set out, and when they reached a place called Nakhlah, it started raining so they entered a cave in the mountain, and the cave collapsed on those fifty men who took the false oath, and all of them died except the two persons who had shaken hands with each other. They escaped death but a stone fell on the leg of the brother of the deceased and broke it, whereupon he survived for one year and then died." I further said, "'Abdul Malik bin Marwan sentenced a man to death in Qisas (equality in punishment) for murder, basing his judgment on Al-Qasama, but later on he regretted that judgment and ordered that the names of the fifty persons who had taken the oath (Al-Qasama), be erased from the register, and he exiled them in Sham." }}

{{quote |{{Bukhari|||6930|darussalam}} | Narrated 'Ali:

Whenever I tell you a narration from Allah's Apostle, by Allah, I would rather fall down from the sky than ascribe a false statement to him, but if I tell you something between me and you (not a Hadith) then it was indeed a trick (i.e., I may say things just to cheat my enemy). No doubt I heard Allah's Apostle saying, "During the last days there will appear some young foolish people who will say the best words '''but their faith will not go beyond their throats (i.e. they will have no faith) and will go out from (leave) their religion as an arrow goes out of the game. So, where-ever you find them, kill them, for who-ever kills them shall have reward on the Day of Resurrection."''' }}

===Sahih Muslim===

{{quote | {{Muslim||1676a|reference}} |'Abdullah (b. Mas'ud) reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: It is not permissible to take the life of a Muslim who bears testimony (to the fact that there is no god but Allah, and I am the Messenger of Allah), but in one of the three cases: the married adulterer, a life for life, and the deserter of his Din (Islam), abandoning the community.}}
{{quote | {{Muslim||1676c|reference}} | 'Abdullah (b. Mas'ud) reported: Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) stood up and said: By Him besides Whom there is no god but He, the blood of a Muslim who bears the testimony that there is no god but Allah, and I am His Messenger, may be lawfully shed only in case of three persons: the one who abandons Islam, and deserts the community [Ahmad, one of the narrators, is doubtful whether the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) used the word li'l-jama'ah or al-jama'ah), and the married adulterer, and life for life.}}
{{quote | {{Muslim||1733d|reference}} | It has been reported on the authority of Abu Musa who said: I went to the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) and with me were two men from the Ash'ari tribe. One of them was on my right hand and the other on my left. Both of them made a request for a position (of authority) while the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) was brushing his teeth with a tooth-stick. He said (to me): Abu Musa (or 'Abdullah b. Qais), what do you say (about the request they have made)? I said: By God Who sent thee on thy mission with truth, they did not disclose to me what they had in their minds, and I did not know that they would ask for a position. The narrator says (while recalling this hadith): I visualise as if I were looking at the miswak of the Holy Prophet (may peace be upon him) between his lips. He (the Holy Prophet) said: We shall not or shall never appoint to the public offices (in our State) those who with to have them, but you may go, Abu Musa (or Abdullah b. Qais) (to take up your assignment). He sent him to Yemen as governor. then he sent Mu'adh b. jabal in his wake (to help him in the discharge of duties). When Mu'adh reached the camp of Abu Musa, the latter (received him and) said: Please get yourself down; and he spread for him a mattress, while there was a man bound hand and foot as a prisoner. '''Mu'adh said: Who is this? Abu Musa said: He was a Jew. He embraced Islam. Then he reverted to his false religion and became a Jew. Mu'adh said: I won't sit until he is killed according to the decree of Allah and His Apostle (may peace be upon him) (in this case). Abu Musa said: Be seated. It will be done. He said: I won't sit unless he is killed in accordance with the decree of Allah and His Apostle (may peace be upon him). He repeated these words thrice. Then Abu Musa ordered him (to be killed) and he was killed.''' Then the two talked of standing in prayer at night. One of them, i. e. Mu'adh, said: I sleep (for a part of the night) and stand in prayer (for a part) and I hope that I shall get the same reward for sleeping as I shall get for standing (in prayer).}}

===Ibn Majah===

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|20|3|20|2533}}|It was narrated from Abu Umamah bin Sahl bin Hunaif that: `Uthman bin 'Affan looked at them when they spoke of killing. He said: “Are they kill threatening to kill me? Why would they kill me? I heard the Messenger of Allah say: “It is not lawful to shed the blood of a Muslim except in one of three (cases): a man who commits adultery when he is a married person, then he should be stoned; a man who kills a soul not in retaliation for murder; and a man who apostatizes after becoming Muslim.' By Allah (SWT), I never committed adultery either during Ignorance days nor in Islam, and I have never killed a Muslim soul, and I have not apostatized since I became Muslim.” (Sahih)}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|20|3|20|2534}}|It was narrated from 'Abdullah, who is Ibn Mas`ud, that the Messenger of Allah said: “It is not lawful to shed the blood of a Muslim who bears witness that none has the right to be worshiped but Allah (SWT), and that I am the Messenger of Allah, except in one of three cases: a soul for a soul; a married person who commits adultery, and one who leaves his religion and splits from the Jama`ah.” (Sahih)}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|20|3|20|2535}}|It was narrated from Ibn`Abbas that the Messenger of Allah said: “Whoever changes his religion, execute him.” (Sahih)}}

===Abu Dawud===

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4355|darussalam}}|Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

AbuMusa said: Mu'adh came to me when I was in the Yemen. A man who was Jew embraced Islam and then retreated from Islam. When Mu'adh came, he said: I will not come down from my mount until he is killed. He was then killed. One of them said: He was asked to repent before that.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4502|darussalam}}|Narrated Uthman ibn Affan: AbuUmamah ibn Sahl said: We were with Uthman when he was besieged in the house. There was an entrance to the house. He who entered it heard the speech of those who were in the Bilat. Uthman then entered it. He came out to us, looking pale.

He said: They are threatening to kill me now. We said: Allah will be sufficient for you against them, Commander of the Faithful! He asked: Why kill me? I heard the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) say: It is not lawful to kill a man who is a Muslim except for one of the three reasons: Kufr (disbelief) after accepting Islam, fornication after marriage, or wrongfully killing someone, for which he may be killed.

I swear by Allah, I have not committed fornication before or after the coming of Islam, nor did I ever want another religion for me instead of my religion since Allah gave guidance to me, nor have I killed anyone. So for what reason do you want to kill me?}}

===Malik's Muwatta===

{{Quote|1=[http://sunnah.com/urn/414660 Muwatta Malik 36:16]|2=Malik related to me from Abd ar-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Qari that his father said, "A man came to Umar ibn al- Khattab from Abu Musa al-Ashari. Umar asked after various people, and he informed him. Then Umar inquired, 'Do you have any recent news?' He said, 'Yes. A man has become a kafir after his Islam.' Umar asked, 'What have you done with him?' He said, 'We let him approach and struck off his head.' '''Umar said, 'Didn't you imprison him for three days and feed him a loaf of bread every day and call on him to tawba that he might turn in tawba and return to the command of Allah?'''' Then Umar said, 'O Allah! I was not present and I did not order it and I am not pleased since it has come to me!' "}}

===Sunan Nasa'i===

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|37|4063}}|Ibn 'Abbas said:
"The Messenger of Allah [SAW] said: 'Whoever changes his religion, kill him.'"}}

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|45|4747}}|It was narrated from 'Aishah, the Mother of the Believers, that the Messenger of Allah said:
"It is not permissible to kill a Muslim except in one of three cases: A adulterer who has been married, who is to be stoned; a man who kills a Muslim deliberately; and a man who leaves Islam and wages war against Allah, the Mighty and Sublime, and His Messenger, who is to be killed, crucified or banished from the land."}}

{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|37|4073}}|It was narrated that Ibn 'Abbas said:
"A man from among the Ansar accepted Islam, then he apostatized and went back to Shirk. Then he regretted that, and sent word to his people (saying): 'Ask the Messenger of Allah [SAW], is there any repentance for me?' His people came to the Messenger of Allah [SAW] and said: 'So and so regrets (what he did), and he has told us to ask you if there is any repentance for him?' Then the Verses: 'How shall Allah guide a people who disbelieved after their Belief up to His saying: Verily, Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful' was revealed. So he sent word to him, and he accepted Islam."}}

==Sirah==

===Ibn Ishaq===

{{Quote|{{citation|title=The Life of Muhammad|trans_title=Sirat Rasul Allah|ISBN=0-19-636033-1|year=1955|publisher=Oxford UP|author1=Ibn Ishaq (d. 768)|author2=Ibn Hisham (d. 833)|editor=A. Guillaume|url=https://archive.org/details/GuillaumeATheLifeOfMuhammad/page/n1/mode/2up|page=550}} {{citation|title=سيرة ابن هشام ت السقا|author1=ابن إسحاق|author2=ابن هشام|url=https://app.turath.io/book/23833|publisher=al-Maktabah al-Shamilah|volume=vol. 2|page=409}}|"The apostle had instructed his commanders when they entered Mecca only to fight those who resisted them, except a small number who were to be killed even if they were found beneath the curtains of the Kaba. Among them was Abdullah Sa'd, brother of the B. Amir Luayy. '''The reason he ordered him to be killed was that he had been a Muslim and used to write down revelation; then he apostatized''' and returned to Quraysh [Mecca] and fled to Uthman Affan whose foster brother he was. The latter hid him until he brought him to the apostle after the situation in Mecca was tranquil, and asked that he might be granted immunity. They allege that the apostle remained silent for a long time till finally he [Muhammad] said yes [granting Abdullah immunity from the execution order].

When Uthman had left he [Muhammad] said to his companions who were sitting around him, ‘I kept silent so that one of you might get up and strike off his head!’ One of the Ansar said, "Then why didn't you give me a sign, O apostle of God?’ He answered that a prophet does not kill by pointing."}}

==Scholars==

===Fiqh===
====Maliki====

The Risala of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani:

{{Quote|The Risala of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani A Treatise on Maliki Fiqh (Including commentary from ath-Thamr ad-Dani by al-Azhari)(310/922 - 386/996)|'''37.19 Crimes against Islam'''

37.19a. Zandaqa

A zindiq is killed and his repentance is not accepted. He is the one who conceals disbelief while making an outward display of Islam.

[ This is a hadd punishment, not for disbelief, i.e. when he repents after we have exposed him. The legal consequences are that when he is killed for a hadd, his property goes to his heirs. An example of his repentance after being exposed is that he denies the zandaqa which is proven against him. If he admits it and does not repent, his killing is not a hadd. It is disbelief and so his property is that of an apostate and his heirs do not inherit. His property goes to the Muslim treasury. If he repents, it is not accepted. It is accepted if he comes in repentance before he is exposed. Such a person was considered a hypocrite in the time of the Prophet.]

37.19b. Sorcery

The same is true for a sorcerer. His repentance is not accepted.

[ He is killed without being asked to repent once he has been exposed. If he comes in repentance before he is exposed, then his repentance is accepted.]

37.19c. Apostasy

An apostate is killed unless he repents. He is given three days to repent. The same ruling applies to a woman.

[ Someone who recants from Islam. Apostasy is disbelief after affirming Islam. If he does not repent, he is killed. One does not execute him immediately but repentance is offered to him. If he refuses then he is killed. It is obligatory to delay execution for three days. If he repents, there is no problem. If not, he is killed after sunset on the third day. This judgement includes men and women. A pregnant woman is deferred until she gives birth.]

[Hashiyya: The School is that he is offered Islam every day without being punished by beating or pain or made thirsty and without threats.]

37.19d. Someone who refuses to pray

If someone has not apostasised but affirms the prayer and yet says, "I will not pray," he is given a respite until the time of the next prayer. If he does not pray, he is killed.

[ "I will not pray now and will pray later" or "I will not pray at all." He is still in the daruri time in which he can pray one rak'at without considering being at rest or balance or recitation of the Fatiha. This is to protect blood as much as possible. If he rises to pray, there is no problem. Otherwise he is killed with the sword immediately.]

37.19e. Refusing to pay zakat

If someone refuses to pay zakat, it is taken from him by force.

[ Even if it leads to fighting him, and if he dies in that, his blood is of no consequence.]

37.19f. Refusing to go on hajj

If someone does not go on hajj, he is left to Allah.

[ He is not threatened by death or anything else since he may not have all the preconditions for the hajj, even if that seems so outwardly.]

37.19g. Not praying out of denial

Someone who abandons the prayer out of denial of its obligatory is like an apostate. He is asked to repent for three days. If he does not repent, he is killed.

[ The obligatory prayer. Denial means to reject its obligatory nature. Such a person is killed for disbelief and not by a hadd. Then the funeral prayer is not said for him and he is not buried in the Muslim cemetery and there is no inheritance between him and his heirs and his property goes to the Muslim treasury.]

[Hashiyya: The same applies to the one who denies the obligatory nature of zakat.]

37.19h. Insulting the Messenger of Allah

If someone curses the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, he is killed and his repentance is not accepted. If one of the people of dhimma abuses him outside of that which constitutes his disbelief or curses Allah Almighty other than what constitutes his disbelief, he is killed unless he becomes Muslim.

[ When he says something to deprecate him. His execution is a hadd and hence it is of no use if he repents or denies it when there is clear evidence of it. Repentance does not cancel a hadd. This is why he says that his repentance is not accepted.]

[The same principle applies to someone who curses one of the Prophets or one of the angels or denies one of the Books of Allah. If someone abuses someone whose prophethood is a matter of dispute, like al-Khidr, he is strongly punished but not killed.

Statements of dhimmis which constitutes their disbelief would be things like a Jew saying, "He is not a messenger to us, Our Messenger is Musa." Abuse beyond their intrinsic disbelief would be criticising the character of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. An example of that which constitutes his disbelief is saying that God is three or that He has a son.]

37.19i. Estate of an apostate

The estate of the apostate goes to the Muslim community.

[ It is placed in the treasury.]

[http://bewley.virtualave.net/RisAhkam.html The Risala of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani Chapter 37 on Aisha Bewly's website]

'''40.18b. The exceptions to that rule'''

''The life of a Muslim is not lawful '''unless he apostasies after belief''', commits illicit sex after he is muhsan, kills someone when it is not a case of retaliation, or engages in corruption in the earth or renounces the deen.''

[ The exception to this inviolability is for a legal right, which refers to the three matters which he mentioned. In property, anyone who destroys something must pay for it.

'''The cases when taking life is permitted are indicated here. In the case of apostasy, he is asked to repent for three days.''' "Corruption in the earth" is banditry and highway robbery. Renouncing the deen is to embrace the dogma of the people of the sects about whom the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "They will pass through the deen like an arrow passes through game." In the Misbah, it goes through one side and comes out the other. ]

[http://bewley.virtualave.net/RisGeneral.html The Risala of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani Chapter 40 on Aisha Bewly's website]

'''1.8d. Islam and Wrong actions'''

No Muslim becomes an unbeliever (kafir) through wrong actions.

[It must be believed that no Muslim who commits a wrong action becomes an unbeliever as long as he believes. The same applies to someone who commits acts of disobedience while he nevertheless believes that the Shari'a forbids them. If someone does something which demonstrates that he lacks belief, like throwing a copy of the Qur'an into the rubbish, then he is an apostate...]

[http://bewley.virtualave.net/Riscreeds.html The Risala of 'Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani Chapter 1 on Aisha Bewly's website]}}

====Shafi====

Reliance of the Traveller: A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law, by Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri:

('O:' represents a excerpt from the commentary of Sheikh ‘Umar Barakat.
'A:' represents a comment by Sheikh ‘Abd al-Wakil Durubi.
'n:' represents a comment by Sheikh Nuh ‘Ali Salman)

{{Quote|[http://deanbibleministries.org/dbmfiles/notes/2018-ChaferConf-Hadian-01-Document.pdf Reliance of the Traveller: A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law] Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Edited and Translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller (p. 595)|2='''Chapter O8.0: Apostasy from Islam (Ridda)'''

(O: Leaving Islam is the ugliest form of unbelief (kufr) and the worst. It may come about through sarcasm, as when someone is told, “Trim your nails, it is sunna, '' and he replies, “I would not do it even if it were, '' as opposed to when some circumstance exists which exonerates him of having committed apostasy, such as when his tongue runs away with him, or when he is quoting someone, or says it out of fear.)

O8.1
'''When a person who has reached puberty and is sane voluntarily apostatizes from Islam, he deserves to be killed.'''

O8.2
In such a case, it is obligatory for the caliph (A: or his representive) to ask him to repent and return to Islam. If he does, it is accepted from him, but if he refuses, he is immediately killed.

O8.3
If he is a freeman, no one besides the caliph or his representative may kill him. If someone else kills him, the killer is disciplined (def: o17) (O: for arrogating the caliph's prerogative and encroaching upon his rights, as this is one of his duties).

O8.4
'''There is no indemnity for killing an apostate (O: or any expiation, since it is killing someone who deserves to die).'''

O8.5
If he apostatizes from Islam and returns several times, it (O: i.e. his return to Islam, which occurs when he states the two Testifications of Faith (def: o8.7 (12)) ) is accepted from him, though he is disciplined (o17).

O8.6
(A: If a spouse in a consummated marriage apostatizes from Islam, the couple are separated for a waiting period consisting of three intervals between menstruations. If the spouse returns to Islam before the waiting period ends, the marriage is not annulled but is considered to have continued the whole time (dis: m7.4).)

'''O8.7: Acts that Entail Leaving Islam'''
(O: Among the things that entail apostasy from Islam (may Allah protect us from them) are:

1 to prostrate to an idol, whether sarcastically, out of mere contrariness, or in actual conviction, like that of someone who believes the Creator to be something that has originated in time. Like idols in this respect are the sun or moon, and like prostration is bowing to other than Allah, if one intends reverence towards it like the reverence due to Allah;

2 to intend to commit unbelief, even if in the future. And like this intention is hesitating
whether to do so or not: one
thereby immediately commits unbelief;

3 to speak words that imply unbelief such as “Allah is the third of three, '' or “I am Allah'' unless one's tongue has run away with one, or one is quoting another, or is one of the friends of Allah Most High (wali, def: w33) in a spiritually intoxicated state of total oblivion (A: friend of Allah or not, someone totally oblivious is as if insane, and is not held legally responsible (dis: k13.1 (O:)) ), for these latter do not entail unbelief;

4 to revile Allah or His messenger (Allah bless him and give him peace);

5 to deny the existence of Allah, His beginingless eternality, His endless eternality, or to deny any of His attributes which the consensus of Muslims ascribes to Him (dis: v1);

6 to be sarcastic about Allah's name, His command, His interdiction, His promise, or His threat;

7 to deny any verse of the Koran or anything which by scholarly consensus (def: b7) belongs to it, or to add a verse that does belong to it;

8 to mockingly say, “I don't know what faith is'';

9 to reply to someone who says, “There is no power or strength save through Allah''; “Your saying `There's no power or strength, etc, ' won't save you from hunger'';

10 for a tyrant, after an oppressed person says, “This is through the decree of Allah, '' to reply, “I act without the decree of Allah'';

11 to say that a Muslim is an unbeliever (kafir) (dis: w47) in words that are uninterpretable as merely meaning he is an ingrate towards Allah for divinely given blessings (n: in Arabic, also “kafir'');

12 when someone asks to be taught the Testification of Faith (Ar. Shahada, the words, “La ilaha ill Allahu Muhammadun rasulu Llah'' (There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah)), and a Muslim refuses to teach him it;

13 to describe a Muslim or someone who wants to become a Muslim in terms of unbelief (kufr);

14 to deny the obligatory character of something which by the consensus of Muslims (ijma`, def: B7) is part of Islam, when it is well known as such, like the prayer (salat) or even one rak'a from one of the five obligatory prayers, if there is no excuse (def: u2.4);

15 to hold that any of Allah's messengers or prophets are liars, or to deny their being sent;

(n: `Ala' al-din' Abidin adds the following:

16 to revile the religion of Islam;

17 to believe that things in themselves or by their own nature have any causal influence
independent of the will of Allah;

18 to deny the existence of angels or jinn (def: w22), or the heavens;

19 to be sarcastic about any ruling of the Sacred Law;

20 or to deny that Allah intended the Prophet's message (Allah bless him and give him
peace) to be the religion followed by the entire world (dis: w4.3-4) (al-Hadiyya al-`Ala'iyya (y4), 423-24).)

There are others, for the subject is nearly limitless. May Allah Most High save us and all
Muslims from it.)}}

{{Quote|1=[http://deanbibleministries.org/dbmfiles/notes/2018-ChaferConf-Hadian-01-Document.pdf Reliance of the Traveller: A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law] Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Edited and Translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller (p. 508, o1.1-2)|2=Who is Subject to Retaliation for Injurious Crimes

'''o1.1''' - Retaliation

Retaliation is obligatory (A: if the person entitled wishes to take it (dis: o3.8)) against anyone who kills a human being purely intentionally and without right. (O: Intentionally is a first restriction and excludes killing someone through an honest mistake, while purely excludes a mistake made in a deliberate injury (def: o2.3), and without right excludes cases of justifiable homicide such as lawful retaliation.) [back to top]

'''o1.2''' '''The following are not subject to retaliation''':

-1- a child or insane person, under any circumstances

-2- '''a Muslim for killing a non-Muslim''';

-3- '''a Jewish or Christian subject of the Islamic state for killing an apostate from Islam (O: because a subject of the state is under its protection, while killing an apostate from Islam is without consequences)''';

-4- A father or mother (or their fathers of mothers) for killing their offspring, or offspring's offspring;

-5- nor is retaliation permissible to a descendant for (A: his ancestor's) killing someone whose death would otherwise entitle the descendant to retaliate, such as when his father kills his mother.}}

Shafi`i teaching is also given by Nawawi in his book Minhaj-at-Talibin which is a standard work in Egypt, South India, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Nawawi defines apostasy as follows:

{{Quote|[http://therationaliser.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/apostasy-in-islam.html Minhaj at talibin] By Nawawi, cited on The Rationaliser blog Mostly also available [http://www.somalimission.org/en/articles/143-islam here]|'''Definiton of apostasy'''

Page 436: the abjuration of Islam either mentally or by words, or by acts incompatible with faith. As to oral abjuration it matters little whether the words are said in joke or through a sprit of contradiction or in good faith. Before such words can be considered as a sign of apostasy they must contain a precise declaration

That one does not believe in the existence of the Creator, or of his Apostles; or
That Muhammad, or one of the other apostles, is an impostor; or
That one considers lawful what is strictly forbidden by the ijmaa; or
The one considered to be forbidden what is lawful according to the ijmaa
That one is not obliged to follow the precepts of the ijmaa, as well positive as negative; or
That one intends shortly to change one's religion; or that one has doubts upon the subject of the truth of Islam etc.

Page 436: As to acts, these are not considered to be incompatible with faith, unless they show a clear indication of a mockery or denial of religion. Throwing the Quran upon a muck heap, prostrating oneself before an idol, or worshipping the sun.

Page 69: A sane adult Moslem who refuses to pray and dénies the obligation is an apostate and punishable as such ; even if he has merely neglected prayer through laziness, without denying its obligation, he is none the less punishable with death.

Page 241: By the fact of being born of Moslem parents, even though only one of them may bave been Moslem at the moment of the child's conception. If such a child, after attaining majority becomes an infidel, he must be regarded and punished as an apostate

'''Punishment:'''

Page 437: An attempt should be made to induce the apostate to return from his or her errors; though, according to one authority, this is only a commendable proceeding. The exhortation should take place immediately, or, according to one jurist, in the first three days; and if it is of no effect, '''the guilty man or woman should be put to death.'''

Page 523: Where, after execution of a death penalty, either under the law of talion, or for apostasy, or even by stoning or whipping, the witnesses déclare that they hâve made a false declaration, intentionally, against the executed person, they are punishable either with death under the law of talion, or with payment of the price of blood on the higher scale

Page 69: '''Capital punishment is liable to be incurred by the omission of even one single prescribed prayer''', the moment its time is passed, if done designedly and without ofïering any excuse. One should begin by exhorting the culprit to repentance, and if this be unavailing strike him upon the neck. Some authorities prefer that he should be pricked with a sharp instrument until he either prays or dies.}}

Nawawi continues on the subject of an apostate's property and someone who insults Muhammad or another prophet:

{{Quote|[http://www.somalimission.org/en/articles/143-islam Minhaj-at-Talibin] by Nawawi|2=As to the ownership of the property of an apostate dead in impenitence, it remains in suspense, i.e. the law considers it as lost from the moment of abjuration of the faith; but in case of repentance it is considered never to have been lost. However, there are several other theories upon the subject, though all authorities agree that debts contracted before apostasy, as well as the personal maintenance of the apostate during the period of exhortation, are charges upon the estate. It is the same with any damages due in consequence of pecuniary prejudice caused to other persons, the maintenance of his wives, whose marriage remains in suspense, and the maintenance of his descendant or descendants. Where it is admitted that ownership remains in suspense, the same principle must be applied to dispositions subsequent to apostasy, in so far as they are capable of being suspended, such as enfranchisement by will, and legacies, which all remain intact where the exhortation is successful, though not otherwise. On the other hand, dispositions which, by their very nature, do not admit of such suspension, such as sale, pledging, gift, and enfranchisement by contract, are null and void ab initio, though Shafi`i, in his first period, wished to leave them in suspense. All authorities, however, are agreed that an apostate's property may in no case be left at his disposition, but must be deposited in charge of some person of irreproachable character. But a female slave may not be so entrusted to a man; she must be entrusted to some trustworthy woman. An apostate's property must be leased out, and it is to the court that the slave undergoing enfranchisement by contract should make his periodical payments.

'''Someone who slanders Muhammad or insults one of the prophets of Islam is killed without being given the chance of repentance.'''}}

====Hanafi====

Shaybani's Siyar (The Islamic law of nations), by Muhammad Shaybani (Imam Abu Hanifa's student):

{{Quote|1=[http://therationaliser.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/apostasy-in-islam.html Shaybani's Siyar (The Islamic law of nations)] By Muhammad Shaybani (Imam Abu Hanifa's student), cited on The Rationaliser blog|2=985 I asked: If a Muslim apostatizes (irtadda) from Islam, what do you think would be the ruling regarding him?

986 He replied: '''Islam would be offered to him; he has either to accept it or be killed at once, unless he asked for deferment.''' This would be given to him and its duration would be 3 days.

987 I asked: Has any narrative come to your knowledge about this matter?

988 He replied: Yes, it has been related to us from the Prophet to this effect, as well as [narratives] from [The caliph] Abi b. Abi Taalib, AbdAllah b. Mas'ud, and Mu'adh b. Jabal. Thus this ruling is based on the Sunna.

...

1033 I asked: Would you think that the apostate's slaughtered animal would be lawful to eat

1034 He replied: No

1035 I asked: Even if he had become a Christian?

1036 He replied: Even if he had [apostatized to Christianity], because he would not enjoy the status of a Jew or a Christian. Do you think that he would be permitted to remain in the religion [he had adpoted]? He would have to become a Muslim or else be executed.

...

1053 I asked: If a man has apostatized from Islam and another [man] cut off his hand or destroyed, intentionally or unintentionally, his eye or committed against him any other tort, intentionally or unintentially, would this [other] man be held liable for anything?

1054 He replied: No

1055 I asked: Why?

1056 He replied: '''Since his blood is lawful to shed nobody would be liable for any tort against him, whether cutting off his hand or foot or committing a tort or injury against him.'''

1057 I asked: Would [the ruling] be the same if he accepts Islam and then dies of the wound?

1058 He replied: The person who has committed [the said tort] would not be liable for anything.

...

1069 I asked: If a woman apostatized from Islam, what would be the ruling regarding her?

1070 He replied: '''Abu Hanifa held that she would not be executed, but imprisoned indefinitely until she returns to Islam.'''

...

1130 + However, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad [b. al-Hasan] held that the apostate woman would be liable to execution unless she returns to Islam. But Abu Hanifa held that she would be in the same category as a very old man.

...

1159 I asked: If a tort was committed against [the slave woman] in apostasy, would the offender be held liable for anything?

1160 He replied: No

1161 I asked: Why, if you do not approve of the execution of women?

1162 He replied: Since some of the jurists hold that apostate women should be executed, I hold that a tort committed against them would not render [the offender] liable [for paying compensation]

...

1330 I asked: If a group [of Muslims] apostatized from Islam and were attacked by [other] Muslims without [first] having been invited to adopt Islam, do you think that those [who attacked] would be liable for anything?

1331 He replied: No

1332 I asked: Why? According to Sunna they should be invited [to accept Islam] before being fought.

1333 He replied: Even so, they would not be liable for anything.

1334 I asked: Would the same be true if a single man apostatized from Islam and was killed by another before was invited [to return] to Islam?

1335 He replied: Yes

...

1341 + Men [who apostatize] would be liable to be executed, regardless whether they were slaves or free.

...

1344 I asked: If a lad apostatized from Islam before he reached puberty, do you think that he would be executed?

1345 He replied: No

1346 I asked: Would the same hold true if he had come of age while still an unbeliever?

1347 He replied: I would order his imprisonment rather than execution, because he had never professed Islam after he had come of age.}}

====Hanbali====

Al Umda fi al Fiqh, by Imam Muwaffaq Ibn Qudama (A.H. 541-620):

{{Quote|1=[http://www.kalamullah.com/Books/Umdat%20al-Fiqh.pdf 'Al Umda fi al Fiqh'] By Imam Muwaffaq Ibn Qudama (A.H. 541-620), page 309|2='''The Legal Ruling on the Apostate [Hukum al-Murtaad]'''

'''If someone apostatizes from Islam, whether it be a man or a woman, the penalty of death must be enforced, because of the saying of Allah's Apostle "If someone changes his religion, you must kill him".'''

The apostate should not be killed until he has been invited three times to repent. If he repents [he is spared], but if not, he is killed by the sword. If someone denies Allah's existence, or attributes to Him a partner, or a consort, or a son, or if he accuses Allah (Exhalted is He) of telling lies, or blasphemes him, or if he calls His Messenger a liar, or insults him, or if he denies a Prophet, or denies the Book of Allah or anything from it, or denies one of the basic pillars of Islam, or if he attributes lawfulness to something declared unlawful by the consensus of legal opinion, he is guilty of apostasy - unless he is one of those who are unaware of the religious duties and prohibitions, in which case he must be informed thereof, and if he does not accept, he is guilty of unbelief.

The Islam of the Intelligent Minor is considered authentic. If he apostatizes, he must not be killed until he has been invited to repent, three times after his adolescence. If someone's apostasy is established, but he professes Islam, it is accepted of him. In his profession of Islam, it is sufficient for him to bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is Allah's messenger, unless his belief takes the form of denying a prophet, or a book, or an obligatory religious duty, or something of the kind, or he is convinced that Muhammad (Allah bless him and give him and peace) was sent to the Arabs exclusively, in which case it is not accepted of him until he affirms what he denies.

If two spouses both apostatize, and they settle in the region of war and are taken captive, their enslavement is not permissible, nor is the enslavement of a child born to them before their apostasy, but the enslavement of the rest of their children is permissable.}}

===Fatwas===

{{Quote|[[:File:Al-Azhar Apostasy Fatwa.jpg|(Image of original Arabic fatwa)]] Abdullah al-Mishadd, Head of the Fatwa Council of Al-Azhar, Al-Azhar University, September 23, 1978|This question was presented by Mr. Ahmed Darwish and brought forward by [name obscured] who is of German nationality.

A man whose religion was Islam and his nationality is Egyptian married a German Christian and the couple agreed that the husband would join the Christian faith and doctrine.

1) What is the Islamic ruling in relation to this man? What are the punishments prescribed for this act?

2) Are his children considered Muslim or Christian?

The Answer:

All praise is to Allah, the Lord of the Universe and salutations on the leader of the righteous, our master Muhammed, his family and all of his companions.

Thereafter:

'''This man has committed apostasy; he must be given a chance to repent and if he does not then he must be killed''' according to Shariah.

As far as his children are concerned, '''as long as they are children they are considered Muslim, but after they reach the age of puberty, then if they remain with Islam they are Muslim, but if they leave Islam and they do not repent they must be killed''' and Allah knows best.}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://islam-qa.com/en/ref/12406|2=2011-10-21}} Why should a person who disbelieves after becoming Muslim be executed?] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 12406|2='''The punishment for apostasy from the religion of Islam is execution'''. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“And whosoever of you turns back from his religion and dies as a disbeliever, then his deeds will be lost in this life and in the Hereafter, and they will be the dwellers of the Fire. They will abide therein forever”

[al-Baqarah 2:217]

And it was proven that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “Whoever changes his religion, execute him.” Narrated by al-Bukhaari in his Saheeh. What this hadeeth means is that whoever leaves Islam and changes to another religion and persists in that and does not repent, is to be executed. It was also proven that the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: “It is not permissible to shed the blood of a person who bears witness that there is no god but Allaah and that I am the Messenger of Allaah except in three cases: a life for a life, a previously-married person who commits adultery, and one who leaves Islam and forsakes the jamaa’ah.” Narrated by al-Bukhaari and Muslim.

This harsh punishment is for a number of reasons:

1 – This punishment is a deterrent to anyone who wants to enter Islam just to follow the crowd or for hypocritical purposes. This will motivate him to examine the matter thoroughly and not to proceed unless he understands the consequences of that in this world and in the Hereafter. '''The one who announces his Islam has agreed to adhere to all the rulings of Islam of his own free will and consent, one of which rulings is that he is to be executed if he apostatizes from the faith'''.

2 – The one who announces his Islam has joined the jamaa’ah (main body) of the Muslims, and whoever joins the main body of the Muslims is required to be completely loyal and to support it and protect it against anything that may lead to fitnah or destroy it or cause division. Apostasy from Islam means forsaking the jamaa’ah and its divine order, and has a harmful effect on it. Execution is the greatest deterrent that will prevent people from committing such a crime.

3 – Those Muslims who are weak in faith and others who are against Islam may think that the apostate has only left Islam because of what he has found out about its real nature, because if it were the truth then he would never have turned away from it. So they learn from him all the doubts, lies and fabrications which are aimed at extinguishing the light of Islam and putting people off from it. In this case executing the apostate is obligatory, in order to protect the true religion from the defamation of the liars and to protect the faith of its adherents and remove obstacles from the path of those who are entering the faith.

4 – We also say that the death penalty exists in the modern laws of man to protect the system from disorder in some situation and to protect society against certain crimes which may cause its disintegration, such as drugs etc. If execution can serve as a deterrent to protect man-made systems, then it is more appropriate that the true religion of Allaah, which Falsehood cannot come to it from before it or behind it [cf. Fussilat 41:42], and which is all goodness, happiness and tranquility in this world and in the Hereafter should punish those who commit acts of aggression against it and seek to extinguish its light and defame its image, and who fabricate lies against it to justify their apostasy and deviation.

Fataawa al-Lajnah al-Daa’imah, 21/234-231.}}

{{Quote|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100419182404/https://islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1119503547222&pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaEAskTheScholar Group of Muftis, Islam Online, July 26, 2003 Source of the Punishment for Apostasy ]|2=Speaking of the authority of the punishment and its being genuine and based on the authentic sources of Islam, Sheikh `Attiyah Saqr, former Head of Al-Azhar Fatwa Committee, states:

"It is not right to deny the punishment of apostasy claiming that it has not been reported in the Qur'an, because it has been recorded in the mutawatir (Hadith which has been reported by at least four of the Companions in different times and places in a way that make a person sure that such Hadith is not fabricated) and the non-mutawatir Sunnah of the Prophet (peace and blessing be upon him). Hudud (Islamic punishment specified for certain crimes) may, of course, be based on the non-mutawatir Sunnah."

Detailing the issue and showing some of the evidence for the punishment of apostasy, the prominent Muslim scholar Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, states:

'''"All Muslim jurists agree that the apostate is to be punished. However, they differ regarding the punishment itself. The majority of them go for killing; meaning that an apostate is to be sentenced to death.'''

Many authentic Hadiths have been reported in this regard. Ibn `Abbas reported that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said, "Whoever changes his religion, you kill him." (Reported by all the group except Muslim, and at-Tabarani also reported it with a sound chain of narrators. Also recorded in Majma` Az-Zawa'id by Al-Haythamiy.)

There is also the Hadith of Ibn Mas`ud that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) said, "The blood of a Muslim individual who bears witness that there is no god but Allah and that I am the Messenger of Allah, is not to be shed except in three cases: in retaliation (in murder crimes), married adulterers (and adulteresses), and the one who abandons his religion and forsakes the Muslim community." (Reported by the Group)

The actual example of one of the greatest Companions, `Ali ibn Abi Talib (may Allah be pleased with him) gives credit to this also. He himself carried out the punishment on some people who had deified him. He gave them three days respite to repent and go back to their senses. When they proved adamant, he put them to fire.”}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/811/apostasy|2=2011-10-21}} Why death is the punishment for Apostasy] Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid, Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 811|2=This is the ruling of Allaah and His Messenger, as the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said: '''"Whoever changes his religion, kill him."''' (reported by al-Bukhaari, al-Fath, no. 3017).

(2) The one who has known the religion which Allaah revealed, entered it and practised it, then rejected it, despised it and left it, is a person who does not deserve to live on the earth of Allaah and eat from the provision of Allaah.

(3) By leaving Islaam, the apostate opens the way for everyone who wants to leave the faith, thus spreading apostasy and encouraging it.

(4) The apostate is not to be killed without warning. Even though his crime is so great, he is given a last chance, a respite of three days in which to repent. If he repents, he will be left alone; '''if he does not repent, then he will be killed'''.

(5) If the punishment for murder and espionage (also known as high treason) is death, then what should be the punishment for the one who disbelieves in the Lord of mankind and despises and rejects His religion? Is espionage or shedding blood worse than leaving the religion of the Lord of mankind and rejecting it?

(6) None of those who bleat about personal freedom and freedom of belief would put up with a neighbour’s child hitting their child or justify this as "personal freedom," so how can they justify leaving the true religion and rejecting the sharee’ah which Allaah revealed to teach mankind about His unity and bring justice and fairness to all?}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/14231/Crucify|2=2011-10-21}} Some of the rulings on apostasy and apostates] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 14231|2=The saheeh Sunnah indicates that it is essential to put the apostate to death.

''[Quotes Al-Bukhaari (6922), Al-Bukhaari (6484), and Muslim (1676)]''

'''The general meaning of these ahaadeeth indicates that it is essential to put the apostate to death whether he is waging war on Islam (muhaarib) or not.'''

The view that the apostate who is to be put to death is the one who is waging war on Islam (muhaarib) only is contrary to these ahaadeeth. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said that the reason why he should be put to death is his apostasy, not his waging war against Islam.

Undoubtedly some kinds of apostasy are more abhorrent than others, and the apostasy of one who wages war against Islam is more abhorrent than that of anyone else. Hence some of the scholars differentiated between them, and said that it is not essential to ask the muhaarib to repent or to accept his repentance; rather he should be put to death even if he repents, whereas the repentance of one who is not a muhaarib should be accepted and he should not be put to death. This is the view favoured by Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allaah have mercy on him).

He said:

'''Apostasy is of two types: ordinary apostasy and extreme apostasy, for which execution is prescribed. In both cases there is evidence that it is essential to execute the apostate''', but the evidence indicating that the sentence of death may be waived if the person repents does not apply to both types of apostasy. Rather the evidence indicates that that is allowed only in the first case – i.e., ordinary apostasy – as will be clear to anyone who studies the evidence that speaks about accepting the repentance of the apostate. In the second type – i.e., extreme apostasy – the obligation to put the apostate to death still stands, and there is no text or scholarly consensus to indicate that the death sentence may be waived. The two cases are quite different and there is no comparison between them. It does not say in the Qur’aan or Sunnah, or according to scholarly consensus, that everyone who apostatizes in word or deed may be spared the death sentence if he repents after he is a captured and tried. Rather the Qur’aan and Sunnah, and scholarly consensus, differentiate between the different kinds of apostates.

Al-Saarim al-Maslool, 3/696 . . . 

Based on this, it is clear that what the questioner says about the apostate not being killed unless he is waging war on Islam is mistaken, and the differentiation that we have quoted from Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah may dispel any confusion and make the matter clearer. }}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/696|2=2011-10-21}} Punishment of the one who leaves Islaam] Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid, Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 696|2=The person who knows the truth and believes in it, then turns his back on it, does not deserve to live. The punishment for apostasy is prescribed for the protection of the religion and as a deterrent to anyone who is thinking of leaving Islaam. There is no doubt that such a serious crime must be met with an equally weighty punishment. If the kuffaar do not give people the freedom to cross a red light, how can we give freedom to people to leave Islaam and disbelieve in Allaah when they want to?}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.e-cfr.org/ar/index.php?ArticleID=322|2=2011-03-21}} Is killing interpreted as restricting freedom of conscience?] European Council for Fatwa and Research, August 16, 2008|2=Q: One who converted to Islam from Poland, was asked by a wicked atheist about the penalty for one who apostatizes from the religion of Almighty Allah. What should he respond? He interprets killing as restricting freedom of conscience. A: The issue of killing the apostate is a function of the state. His judgment belongs with the Islamic government. This is not the concern of Islamic foundations, associations, or centers. A group of Salafis and Imams are of the opinion that not every apostate should be killed, but rather only '''those who openly commit apostasy''', or call for fitna, or voice harmful things against Allah and His Prophet (peace be upon him) and the believers. [The apostate] is killed in order to protect the religion and the community from his corruption, and not to restrict freedoms, as he by his action is infringing on the rights of others. The interests of the state and the society come before individual self-interest. In truth, this issue is similar to what is termed in contemporary law as “high treason” because of the harm to the public that it causes.}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://answering-islam.org/Hahn/statement.gif|2=2013-06-04}} What is the stand of the Islamic Law regarding the Muslim who has renounced Islam and embraced another religion?] Mufti of the Republic of Lebanon, Beirut, Fatwa issued November 13, 1989|2=The person who renounces his apostasy is not obliged to repeat the performance of everything he had accomplished prior to his apostasy (i.e., while he was still a practicing Muslim), such as the hajj (pilgrimage) and the prayers. His works will no longer be counted as having failed him, now that he has returned to Islam... Now, should the apostate (male or female) persist in his apostasy, he should be given the opportunity to repent, prior to his being put to death, out of respect for his Islam. A misunderstanding on his part may have taken place, and there would thus be an opportunity to rectify it. Often apostasy takes place on account of an offer (of inducement). So Islam must be presented to the apostate, things should be clarified, and his sin made manifest. '''He should be imprisoned for three days, so that he may have the opportunity to reflect upon his situation. This three-day period has been deemed adequate. But''' '''if the man or the woman has not repented of his or her raddah, but has continued to persist in it, then he or she should be put to death'''. (This is in harmony with) Muhammad's saying, may Allah's blessings and peace be upon him: `Kill him who changes his religion', as related by the Hadith authority, al-Bukhari, (in his Hadith collection).}}

==Shi'ites==

===Ja'fari fiqh===

Tahrir al-Wasilah by Ayatolla Khomeini:

{{Quote|[http://statics.ml.imam-khomeini.ir/en/File/NewsAttachment/2014/0000-tahrir%20j4-nA4.pdf imam-khomeini.ir] Imam Khomeini, Tahrir al-Wasilar Volumie IV (English translation), p.255-256|2=Conclusion Relating to Other Punishments

1-Chapter on Irtidad or Apostasy

'''Problem # 1.''' Under the section on inheritance, we have already mentioned the two categories of Apostate and some relevant laws. So Islam of a '''Murtad al-Fitri (an Apostate born of Muslim parents)''' shall apparently not be accepted [after he has first apostatized], '''and he shall be condemned to death if he is male''', but a woman shall not be condemned to death even if she is '''Murtadda al-Fitriya (a woman born of Muslim parents), but shall be kept in life imprisonment, and she shall be given beatings at the times of prayer, and she shall be subjected to tightening or scarcity of food.''' Her repentance shall be accepted. So if she repents, she shall be set free. '''A Murtad al-Milli (and Apostate born of non-Muslim parents) shall be asked to repent. On his refusal, he shall be condemned to death.'''

'''Problem # 2.''' It is a condition for the enforcement of law of apostasy that the apostate must be adult, sane, and having free will and intention. So the apostasy of a minor body has not legal value, even if he is an adolescent, nor of a lunatic, even if has periodical lunacy, nor of one under duress (mukreh), or one acting without intention as, one acting as a joke, by mistake, out of negligence and in a state of stupor. If a person becomes apostate in a state of anger in which he has lost control on himself, he shall not be governed by the law of apostasy.

'''Problem # 3.''' If some indications appear in a person that lead to apostasy, and he claims to be acting under duress with the existence of its likelihood, or lack of intention or slip of tongue with the existence of its likelihood, such excuses shall he accepted from him. If some evidence is produced about some utterance by him leading to apostasy, and he brings forth the excuses mentioned before, his claim shall be accepted.

'''Problem # 4.''' A child born to a Murtad al-Milli before his apostasy shall he treated as a Muslim. If he becomes an infidel after attaining adulthood, he shall be asked to repent. If he repents, (well and good), otherwise he shall be condemned to death. Likewise, the son of a Murtad al-Fitri born before his apostasy shall be treated as a Muslim. If he becomes an infidel after attaining adulthood, and similarly the son of a Muslim who becomes an intidel alter attaining adulthood before announcing their Islam, apparently both of them shall not be treated as a Martad al-Fitri, but shall be asked to repent, [if they repent, well and good, but if they refuse] they shall be condemned to death.

'''Problem # 5.''' If a Murtad al-Milli repeats apostasy (after once having repented], he shall be condemned to death after he apostatizes for a third time, and according to some jurists, for the fourth time, and this is a more cautious opinion.

'''Problem # 6.''' If a Murtad al-Milli becomes insane after apostasy but before he is asked to repent, he shall not be condemned to death. But if he becomes insane after having been asked to repent and after his refusal leading to the permissibility of shedding his blood, he shall be condemned to death, as a Murtad al-Fitri is condemned to death when he suffers insanity after apostasy.

'''Problem # 7.''' If a person kills a Murtad al-Milli subsequent to his repentance under the impression that he has still been apostate, some jurists are of the opinion that the killer shall be liable to undergo (Qisas). But according to the stronger opinion, he shall not be liable to Qisas. Of course, he shall be liable to pay Diyat from his property.

'''Problem # 8.''' If an apostate kills a muslim deliberately, his wali (or guardian shall be entitled to kill the murderer by way of Qisas. That will be precedent to his death sentence for apostasy. If the wali [of the Muslim killed by the apostate] pardons him or compromises on payment of money, the killer shall be condemned to death for apostasy.

'''Problem # 9.''' An apostasy is proved by the testimony of two witnesses of reputed integrity and by confession of the apostate. It is more cautious that the apostate must repent twice. But it is not established by the testimony of women alone or accompanied by men.}}

==See Also==

*[[Islam and Freedom of Speech#Punishment_for_Blasphemy|Punishment for Blasphemy]]
{{Hub4|Non-Muslims (Primary Sources)|Non-Muslims (Primary Sources)}}

{{Translation-links-english|[[Le_Coran_les_Ahadith_et_les_Savants_sur_lApostasie|French]]}}

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/Silas/apostasy.htm|2=2013-03-15}} The Punishment for Apostasy from Islam] ''- Answering Islam''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://formermuslimsunited.org/?page_id=2169|2=2011-10-04}} A Shiite Opinion on Apostasy] ''- Former Muslims United (originally from Kayhan International, March 1986)''

[[Category:QHS]]
[[Category:Apostasy]]
[[Category:Kafir (infidel)]]
[[ru:Коран хадисы и богословы: Вероотступничество]]
[[Category:Hudud (punishments)]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[ar:القرآن_والحديث_والعلماء:_الردة]]

Prophecies in the Hadith

2026-02-24T20:11:25Z

Lightyears:

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Muhammad's prophecies are predictions attributed to him and written hundreds of years after his [[Muhammad's Death|death]]. Many prophecies are considered "signs of the Hour" (Islamic eschatology). Some prophecies are general statements that may apply to times even before Islam, other prophecies predict early Islamic history (which happened before the predictions were written) and some prophecies make predictions about the the future to come after the hadiths were written.

Prophecies in this article are from the hadiths. Quranic prophecies have a [[Quranic Prophecies|separate article]].
==Signs of the Hour==
"The Hour" (الساعة) refers to a period of time on the Day of Judgement.
{{Quote|{{Quran|30|55}}|
And '''the Day the Hour''' appears the criminals will swear they had remained but an hour. Thus they were deluded."
}}

Signs of the Hour indicate that the Hour (and the end of the world) is coming. They were divided by scholars into minor and major. The major signs are contained in this hadith:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2901a|reference}}|
Hudhaifa b. Usaid al-Ghifari reported:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) came to us all of a sudden as we were (busy in a discussion). He said: What do you discuss about? They (the Companions) said. We are discussing about the Last Hour. Thereupon he said: It will not come until you see ten signs before and (in this connection) he made a mention of the smoke, Dajjal, the beast, the rising of the sun from the west, the descent of Jesus son of Mary (Allah be pleased with him), the Gog and Magog, and land-slides in three places, one in the east, one in the west and one in Arabia at the end of which fire would burn forth from the Yemen, and would drive people to the place of their assembly.
}}

The minor signs indicate that the Hour is "getting closer", while the major signs indicate that the Hour will happen immediately after them. The first major sign is coming of the Dajjal and Muhammad thought that it might happen during his life or during life of his companions:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4321|darussalam}}|"Al-nawwas b. Sim’an al-Kilabi said:
'''The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) mentioned the Dajjal (Antichrist) saying: If he comes forth while I am among you''' I shall be the one who will dispute with him on your behalf, but if he comes forth when I am not among you, a man must dispute on his own behalf, and Allah will take my place in looking after every Muslim. Those of you who live up to his time should recite over him the opening verses of Surat al – Kahf, for they are your protection from his trial. We asked: How long will he remain on the earth ? He replied : Forty days, one like a year, one like a month, one like a week, and rest of his days like yours. We asked : Messenger of Allah, will one day’s prayer suffice us in this day which will be like a year ? He replied : No, you must make an estimate of its extent. Then Jesus son of Marry will descend at the white minaret to the east of Damascus. He will then catch him up at the date of Ludd and kill him."}}
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2234}} (hasan)|"Abu 'Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah said:
"I heard the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w): 'There was never a Prophet after Nuh but that he warned his people about '''the Dajjal''', and indeed I shall warn you of him.' Then the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) described him for us, and he said: "Perhaps some of '''you who see me, or hear my words shall live to see him'''." They said: "O Messenger of Allah! How will our hearts be on that day?" He said: "The same – that is, as today – or better.”"}}

Some reject the hadiths of the signs of the Hour <ref>http://bayanelislam.net/Suspicion.aspx?id=03-02-0071</ref>, because a Quranic verse indicates that the Hour will come by surprise (not after seeing clear signs) and that only Allah has knowledge about the Hour (not Muhammad):
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|187}}|
They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ regarding the Hour, “When will it be?” Say, “That knowledge is only with my Lord. He alone will reveal it when the time comes. It is too tremendous for the heavens and the earth and will only take you by surprise.” They ask you as if you had full knowledge of it. Say, “That knowledge is only with Allah, but most people do not know.”
}}

*7th century Arabs didn't have the concept of "an hour" meaning 60 minutes. An hour (ساعة) just meant a period of time [shorter than a day]. <ref>AR: https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/140286/%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%87%D9%88-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB-%D9%88%D9%87%D9%84-%D9%87%D9%88-%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AF%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9</ref>
*Most prophecies are linked to the Hour
*The Hour is expected to happen on Friday <ref>{{Muslim|4 |1857|}}</ref>

==Retrodictions and Reiterating Biblical Prophecy==
The hadith collections were written, often by Persian authors, hundreds of years after the death of Muhammad. So when the hadiths contain a prophecy about early Islamic history, they are likely only being attributed to Muhammad after the fact, a phenomenon referred to in religious studies as "vaticinium ex eventu" or "prophecy after the fact." This category also includes things that always happened, even before Islam (earthquakes, wars, people being dishonest...) and prophecies copied from the Bible.

===Fabrication of hadiths===
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim, Introduction, Narration 15 https://sunnah.com/muslim:7|
يَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ الزَّمَانِ دَجَّالُونَ كَذَّابُونَ يَأْتُونَكُمْ مِنَ الأَحَادِيثِ بِمَا لَمْ تَسْمَعُوا أَنْتُمْ وَلاَ آبَاؤُكُمْ فَإِيَّاكُمْ وَإِيَّاهُمْ لاَ يُضِلُّونَكُمْ وَلاَ يَفْتِنُونَكُمْ

The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah upon him, said:
‘There will be in the end of time charlatan liars coming to you with narrations (hadiths) that you nor your fathers heard, so beware of them lest they misguide you and cause you tribulations’.
}}
This hadith must in fact be fabricated; there's no evidence that the words and deeds of the prophet were collected in hadith collections at all during his lifetime, since if his opinion was needed on a subject he could just be asked, and there's no evidence of any of these narrations before the dawn of the 8th century. That the author felt the need to fabricate a hadith to stop other people from fabricating hadiths is telling.

===The caliphate will last 30 years===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2226}}|
Sa'eed bin Jumhan narrated:
"Safinah narrated to me, he said: 'The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said: "'''Al-Khilafah will be in my Ummah for thirty years''', then there will be monarchy after that."' Then Safinah said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of Abu Bakr,' then he said: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Umar and the Khilafah of 'Uthman.' Then he said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Ali."' He said: "So we found that they add up to thirty years." Sa'eed said: "I said to him: 'Banu Umaiyyah claim that the Khilafah is among them.' He said: 'Banu Az-Zarqa' lie, rather they are a monarchy, among the worst of monarchies."'
}}

*Tirmidhi, author of this hadith collection, was born in 824, more than 100 years after the end of the caliphate
*The hadith in it's text is in the context of discussion about previous caliphates
*The political system after the first caliphate, was still called a caliphate. There was some form of caliphate until the 20th century

===Rulership of the foolish after Muhammad===
{{Quote|Mishkat al-Masabih 3700|
Ka'b b. ‘Ujra told that God's Messenger said to him, “I commend you to God to protect you from '''the rulership of the foolish''' (إمارةِ السُّفهاءِ).” He asked what that was, and God’s Messenger replied, “'''After my time''' governors will arise whose falsehood will be believed and who will be assisted in their oppression by those who enter their presence. They have nothing to do with me and I have nothing to do with them, and they will never come down to me at the Pond. But they who do not enter their presence, believe their falsehood and help them in their oppression, those belong to me and I belong to them, and those ones will come down to me at the Pond.”}}

===Vile men control affairs of the people===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|36|5|36|4036}} (hasan)|
..and the Ruwaibidah will decide matters.’ It was said: ‘Who are the Ruwaibidah?’ He said: ‘Vile and base men who control the affairs of the people.’”
}}
===Return of the caliphate===
The hadith was sent to a new caliph Umar II:
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 4/273, 18430 (hasan)|
حدثنا عبد الله حدثني أبي ثنا سليمان بن داود الطيالسي حدثني داود بن إبراهيم الواسطي حدثني حبيب بن سالم عن النعمان بن بشير قال : كنا قعودا في المسجد مع رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم وكان بشير رجلا يكف حديثه فجاء أبو ثعلبة الخشني فقال يا بشير بن سعد أتحفظ حديث رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم في الأمراء فقال حذيفة أنا أحفظ خطبته فجلس أبو ثعلبة فقال حذيفة قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم تكون النبوة فيكم ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء ان يرفعها ثم تكون خلافة على منهاج النبوة فتكون ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء الله أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا عاضا فيكون ما شاء الله ان يكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا جبرية فتكون ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء ان يرفعها ثم تكون خلافة على منهاج النبوة ثم سكت قال حبيب فلما قام عمر بن عبد العزيز وكان يزيد بن النعمان بن بشير في صحابته فكتبت إليه بهذا الحديث أذكره إياه فقلت له انى أرجو ان يكون أمير المؤمنين يعنى عمر بعد الملك العاض والجبرية فادخل كتابي على عمر بن عبد العزيز فسر به وأعجبه
تعليق شعيب الأرنؤوط : إسناده حسن

It was narrated by Ahmed in his Musnad, from Al-Nu’man b.Bashir, who said: “We were sitting in the mosque of the Messenger of Allah(saw), and Bashir was a man who did not speak much, so Abu Tha’labah Al-Khashnee came and said: ‘Oh, Bashir bin Sa’ad, have you memorized the words of the Messenger of Allah (saw) regarding the rulers?’ Huthayfah replied, ‘I have memorized his words’. So Abu Tha’labah sat down and Huthayfah said, ‘The Messenger of Allah (saw) said ‘'''Prophet-hood will be among you''' as long as Allah wishes, then He will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a Khilafah on the way of the Prophet''', and it will be as long as Allah wishes it to be, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be an inheritance rule''', and it will last as long as Allah wishes it to, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a coercive rule''', and it will last as long as Allah wishes it to be, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a Khilafah on the way of Prophet-hood'''.’ Then he (saw) was silent.” Habib said: “When '''Umar ibn AbdulAziz became caliph I wrote to him, mentioning this tradition to him''' and saying, “I hope '''you will be the commander of the faithful after the biting and the oppressive kingdoms'''. ”It pleased and charmed him, i.e. Umar ibn AbdulAziz.”
}}
Umar II died in 720 and he was expected to bring back the good old caliphate. Musnad Ahmad was written in the 9th century.

==="Prophet, siddiq and two martyrs"===
In this hadith the future caliphs are usually mentioned in the order in which they will be caliphs (strongly suggesting these were written later by someone who already knew the order):
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3686|darussalam}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:

The Prophet (ﷺ) ascended the mountain of Uhud and he was accompanied by '''Abu Bakr, `Umar and `Uthman'''. The mountain shook beneath them. The Prophet (ﷺ) hit it with his foot and said, "O Uhud ! Be firm, for on you there is none but a '''Prophet, a Siddiq and a martyr (i.e. and two martyrs)'''.
}}

The hadith was interpreted as a vague prediction that Abu Bakr will die naturally and Umar and Uthman will be killed. The 3 caliphs were in the 7th century. Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

===Khawarij===
According to Islamic scholars, this hadith is about the coming of the Khawarij:
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|37|4107}}|
It was narrated that 'Ali said:
"I heard the Messenger of Allah [SAW] say: 'At the end of time there will appear young people with foolish minds. Their faith will not pass through their throats, and they will go out of Islam as an arrow goes through the target. If you meet them, then kill them, for killing them will bring reward to the one who killed them on the Day of Resurrection.'"
}}

Khawarij ("The Leavers") left the army of the caliph Ali in the middle of the 7th century. The prediction was written in the middle of the 9th century, two hundred years later.

The prophecy says "at the end of time". The Khawarij appeared more than a thousand years ago.

===Places of killed people at the battle of Badr===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1779|reference}}|
..Then the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: This is the place where so and so would be killed. He placed his hand on the earth (saying) here and here; (and) none of them fell away from the place which the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) had indicated by placing his hand on the earth.
}}

According to the [[Sira]], the Battle of Badr was in the 7th century. This hadith collection was authored in the 9th century.

===Earthquakes will increase===
It's a part of a longer hadith as one of the signs of the end of the world:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7121|darussalam}}|
.. and earthquakes will increase in number..
}}

There were always earthquakes, increasing and decreasing. There is a report that earthquakes happened also during the life of Muhammad:
{{Quote|[https://sunnah.com/bulugh/2/441 Bulugh al-Maram 2:509]|
He [the Prophet (ﷺ)] prayed during an earthquake six bowings and four prostrations, and said, "This is the way the Prayer of the Signs (of Allah) is offered.
}}

Earthquakes were also predicted in the Bible:
{{Quote|Luke 21:9-11|
When you hear of wars and uprisings, do not be frightened. These things must happen first, but the end will not come right away.”

Then he said to them: “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. '''There will be great earthquakes''', famines and pestilences in various places, and fearful events and great signs from heaven.
}}

===Rain is hot===
This hadith is classified as mawdu (fabricated). <ref>https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/265083/%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9</ref> It's part of a long hadith about coming of the Hour:
{{Quote|al-Tabarani, Mu'jam al-Kabir 10/228 (mawdu')|
وَأَنْ يَكُونَ الْمَطَرُ قَيْظًا

and that rain will be hot

}}

It was also mentioned in Lane's lexicon:
{{Quote|Lane's lexicon on قَيْظٌ <ref>http://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/21_q/239_qyZ.html</ref>|
لَا تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَكُونَ الوَلَدُ غَيْظًا والمَطَرُ قَيْظًا, a saying of Moḥammad, meaning [The resurrection, or the time thereof, will not come to pass until the birth of a child be an occasion of wrath, or rage, and] rain be accompanied by air like the قيظ [or '''most vehement heat of summer''']. (TA.)
}}

The word قيظ (''qayz'') was also mentioned in a different hadith meaning "hot weather":{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad Vol. 1, Book 1, Hadith 6 (Hasan)|
Rifa'ah bin Rafi' said:
I heard Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq say on the minbar of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) : I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say, and Abu Bakr wept when he remembered the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) , then he recovered and said. I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say, in this '''hot weather''' (القيظ) last year: `Ask Allah for forgiveness, well-being and certainty of faith in the Hereafter and in this world.”
}}

Some insist that the word قيظ means "acidic".

===Strong wind===
Muhammad predicted a strong wind on the same day it happened, so there was probably already a wind getting stronger:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1481|darussalam}}|
..When we reached Tabuk, the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "There will be a strong wind tonight and so no one should stand and whoever has a camel, should fasten it." So we fastened our camels. A strong wind blew at night and a man stood up and he was blown away to a mountain called Taiy..
}}
The prophecy was written in the 9th century.

===Child is filled with rage===
This is a part of a fabricated (mawdu') hadith.
{{Quote|al-Tabarani, Mu'jam al-Kabir 10/228 (mawdu')|
وإن من أعلام الساعة وأشراطها: أن يكون الولد غيظاً، وأن يكون المطر قيظاً

And from the signs of the Hour is that '''a boy will be enraged''' and that water will be hot
}}
Angry children have been around since time immemorial.

===Muhammad's death===
Muhammad predicted that he will die. The prediction doesn't contain any specific information about his death:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "'''Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death''', the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}

The context is that it will be a sign that the Hour is coming. But Muhammad died more than a thousand years ago and the Hour didn't come.

===Muhammad's wife with the longest arm will die first===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1420|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Aisha:

Some of the wives of the Prophet asked him, "Who amongst us will be the first to follow you (i.e. die after you)?" He said, "Whoever has the longest hand." So they started measuring their hands with a stick and Sauda's hand turned out to be the longest. (When Zainab bint Jahsh died first of all in the caliphate of 'Umar), we came to know that the long hand was a symbol of practicing charity, so she was the first to follow the Prophet and she used to love to practice charity. (Sauda died later in the caliphate of Muawiya).
}}

It's questionable whether the prophecy was metaphorical and fulfilled or whether it was literal and hence re-interpreted. Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

===Muhammad's daughter Fatima will die first from his family===
During Muhammad's illness, Fatima was walking like Muhammad, so she also had signs of illness:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2450c|reference}}|
`A'isha reported that all the wives of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) had gathered (in her apartment) '''during the days of his (Prophet's) last illness ''' and no woman was left behind that '''Fatima, who walked after the style of Allah's Messenger''' (ﷺ), came there. He welcomed her by saying:

You are welcome, my daughter, and made her sit on his right side or on his left side, and then talked something secretly to her and Fatima wept. Then he talked something secretly to her and she laughed. I said to her: What makes you weep? She said: I am not going to divulge the secret of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). I (`A'isha) said: I have not seen (anything happening) like today, the happiness being more close to grief (as I see today) when she wept. I said to her: Has Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) singled you out for saying something leaving us aside? She then wept and I asked her what he said, and she said: I am not going to divulge the secrets of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). And when he died I again asked her and she said that he (the Holy Prophet) told her: Gabriel used to recite the Qur'an to me once a year and for this year it was twice and so I perceived that my death had drawn near, and that '''I (Fatima) would be the first amongst the members of his family who would meet him (in the Hereafter)'''. He shall be my good forerunner and it made me weep. He again talked to me secretly (saying): Aren't you pleased that you should be the sovereign amongst the believing women or the head of women of this Ummah? And this made me laugh.
}}

===A plague kills many Muslims===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, '''a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep''', the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}
It was interpreted as a prophecy about the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas Plague of Amwas] (638-639), which is considered a re-emergence of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian the Plague of Justinian] (541-549), so there was a precedent.

The prediction was written in the 9th century.

===Sexual immorality (abominations)===
{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: '''Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them'''. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

Sexual immorality (or "abomination") was nothing new in the 7th century. The Old Testament mentions such a story:
{{Quote|The Bible, Genesis 19:3-8|
He prepared a meal for them, baking bread without yeast, and they ate. Before they had gone to bed, all the men from every part of the city of Sodom—both young and old—surrounded the house. They called to Lot, “Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us so that we can have sex with them.” Lot went outside to meet them and shut the door behind him and said, “No, my friends. Don’t do this wicked thing. Look, I have two daughters who have never slept with a man. Let me bring them out to you, and you can do what you like with them.
}}

In the New Testament Jesus spoke to a woman who had many sexual partners:
{{Quote|The Bible, John 4:16-18|
“Go and get your husband,” Jesus told her.

“I don’t have a husband,” the woman replied.

Jesus said, “You’re right! You don’t have a husband— for you have had five husbands, and you aren’t even married to the man you’re living with now. You certainly spoke the truth!”
}}

There were also abominations happening in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5134|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Aisha:

that the Prophet (ﷺ) married her when '''she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old'''. Hisham said: I have been informed that `Aisha remained with the Prophet (ﷺ) for nine years (i.e. till his death).
}}

Plagues and diseases also happened throughout whole history. Plagues (pestilences) were also predicted in the Bible, hundreds of years before Muhammad:{{Quote|Luke 21:9-11|
When you hear of wars and uprisings, do not be frightened. These things must happen first, but the end will not come right away.”

Then he said to them: “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be great earthquakes, famines and '''pestilences''' in various places, and fearful events and great signs from heaven.
}}
===Homosexuality===
This is a fabricated (mawdu') hadith:
{{Quote|Tabarani, al-Mu'jim al-kabeer 10/228 (mawdu')|
يا ابن مسعود إن من أعلام الساعة وأشراطها أن يكتفي الرجال بالرجال والنساء بالنساء

..O Ibn Mas'ud, indeed from the signs of the Hour is that men are content with men and women with women..
}}

It typifies the predictions of increased sin and licentiousness before the apocalypse.
===Women naked, but dressed (wearing revealing clothes)===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2128|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) having said this:

Two are the types of the denizens of Hell whom I did not see: people having flogs like the tails of the ox with them and they would be beating people, and '''the women who would be dressed but appear to be naked, who would be inclined (to evil) and make their husbands incline towards it. Their heads would be like the humps of the bukht camel inclined to one side'''. They will not enter Paradise and they would not smell its odour whereas its odour would be smelt from such and such distance.
}}

Some apologists present it as something new that happens in the 21st century and Muhammad couldn't have guessed it.
{{Quote|islamqa.info: Commentary on the hadeeth; “two types of the people of Hell whom I have not seen…” <ref>https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47017/commentary-on-the-hadeeth-two-types-of-the-people-of-hell-whom-i-have-not-seen</ref>|
This hadeeth is one of the miracles of Prophethood, for these two types of people have appeared, and '''they exist now, as al-Nawawi (may Allaah have mercy on him) said.'''
}}
Al-Nawawi lived in the 13th century.

Islamic sources say that there were naked women circumambulating around the Kaba in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||3|24|2959}}|
It was narrated from Saeed bin Jubair that Ibn Abbas said:
"Women used to circumambulate the Kabah naked, saying: 'Today some, or all of it will appear And whatever appers I don't make is permissible.' Then the following was revealed: 'O Children of Adam! Take your adornment to every Masjid.'"
}}

There is also a hadith with the same terminology of dressed (كاسيات) and undressed (عاريات) but in a different context:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1126|darussalam}}|
Narrated Um Salama:

One night the Prophet (ﷺ) got up and said, "Subhan Allah! How many afflictions Allah has revealed tonight and how many treasures have been sent down (disclosed). Go and wake the sleeping lady occupants of these dwellings up (for prayers), perhaps a well '''dressed''' (كاسية) in this world may be '''naked''' (عارية) in the Hereafter."
}}

===Widespread adultery===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2671a|reference}}|
Anas b. Malik reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

It is from the conditions of the Last Hour that knowledge would be taken away and ignorance would prevail (upon the world), the liquor would be drunk, and '''adultery would become rampant'''.
}}

This is again a prediction of sin and licentiousness before the end of the world.
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1405d|reference}}|
Jabir b. 'Abdullah reported:

We contracted temporary marriage giving a handful of (tales or flour as a dower during the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and during the time of Abu Bakr until 'Umar forbade it in the case of 'Amr b. Huraith.
}}

There is also a fabricated (mawdu') prophecy about illegitimate children:
{{Quote|Tabarani, al-Mu'jim al-kabeer 10/228 (mawdu')|
يَا ابْنَ مَسْعُودٍ ، إِنَّ مِنْ أَعْلَامِ السَّاعَةِ وَأَشْرَاطِهَا أَنْ يَكْثُرَ أَوْلَادُ الزِّنَا

O Ibn Mas'ud, indeed from the signs of the Hour is that there are many children from adultery
}}

===Abundant wealth===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4047}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“The Hour will not begin until '''wealth becomes abundant''' and tribulations appear, and Harj increases.” They said: “What is Harj, O Messenger of Allah?” He said: '''“Killing, killing, killing,”''' three times.
}}

This hadith may go back to an earlier point in time or even to Muhammad himself; the Qur'an is full of expectations that "the Hour" id est the day of judgement, is imminent, and the background of the Qur'an in the ancient near east was the apacolyptic war between the Byzantine and Sassanid empire which was ravaging the near east at the time.

===Men obey their wives===
The hadith is daif:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}}|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, '''a man obeys his wife''' and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

It was mentioned among negative things, that indicates that a woman being dominant in marriage is an evil thing. But it appears that the patriarchy was not universal even in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2468|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas: ...We, the people of Quraish, used to have authority over women, but when we came to live with the Ansar, we noticed that '''the Ansari women had the upper hand over their men''', so our women started acquiring the habits of the Ansari women. Once I shouted at my wife and she paid me back in my coin and I disliked that she should answer me back....}}

===Fire in Hijaz illuminates necks of camels in Busra===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7118|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till a fire will come out of the land of Hijaz, and it will throw light on the necks of the camels at Busra."
}}
There was a lava eruption in Hijaz in the year 1256 ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrat_Rahat Harrat Rahat]) which is considered by Muslims as fulfillment. That's the last eruption, but the eruption before that was in 640 - 641 A.D. during the reign of Umar.<ref>
Volcanic history of the northernmost part of the Harrat Rahat volcanic field, Saudi Arabia
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/14/3/1253/529993/Volcanic-history-of-the-northernmost-part-of-the</ref> The unspecified date of occurrence makes this prediction one that might be referenced perennially

===Making halal what was haram===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5590|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu 'Amir or Abu Malik Al-Ash'ari:

He heard that the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "From among my followers there will be some '''people who will consider illegal sexual intercourse, the wearing of silk, the drinking of alcoholic drinks and the use of musical instruments, as lawful.''' And there will be some people who will stay near the side of a mountain and in the evening their shepherd will come to them with their sheep and ask them for something, but they will say to him, 'Return to us tomorrow.' Allah will destroy them during the night and will let the mountain fall on them, and He will transform the rest of them into monkeys and pigs and they will remain so till the Day of Resurrection."
}}

According to the Qur'an, Jews and Christians took their rabbis and monks as lords, because the rabbis and monks ''made lawful'' for them what Allah forbade. <ref>Quran 9:31, tafsir Ibn Kathir</ref>

===Slave woman gives birth to her master/mistress===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||50|darussalam}}|One day while the Prophet (ﷺ) was sitting in the company of some people, (The angel) Gabriel came and asked, "What is faith?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, 'Faith is to believe in Allah, His angels, (the) meeting with Him, His Apostles, and to believe in Resurrection." Then he further asked, "What is Islam?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "To worship Allah Alone and none else, to offer prayers perfectly to pay the compulsory charity (Zakat) and to observe fasts during the month of Ramadan." Then he further asked, "What is Ihsan (perfection)?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "To worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of devotion then you must consider that He is looking at you." Then he further asked, "When will the Hour be established?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "The answerer has no better knowledge than the questioner. But I will inform you about its portents.

1. When a slave (lady) gives birth to her master.

2. When the shepherds of black camels start boasting and competing with others in the construction of higher buildings. And the Hour is one of five things which nobody knows except Allah.

The Prophet (ﷺ) then recited: "Verily, with Allah (Alone) is the knowledge of the Hour--." (31. 34) Then that man (Gabriel) left and the Prophet (ﷺ) asked his companions to call him back, but they could not see him. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "That was Gabriel who came to teach the people their religion." Abu 'Abdullah said: He (the Prophet) considered all that as a part of faith.}}
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|63}} (sahih)|
"We were sitting with the Prophet (ﷺ) when a man came to him whose clothes were intensely white and whose hair was intensely black; no signs of travel could be seen upon him, and none of us recognized him. He sat down facing the Prophet (ﷺ), with his knees touching his, and he put his hands on his thighs, and said: 'O Muhammad, what is Islam?' He said: 'To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah, and that I am the Messenger of Allah, to establish regular prayer, to pay Zakat, to fast in Ramadan, and to perform Hajj to the House (the Ka'bah).' He said: 'You have spoken the truth.' We were amazed by him: He asked a question, then told him that he had spoken the truth. Then he said: 'O Muhammad, what is Iman faith? He said: 'To believe in Allah, His angels, His Messengers, His books, the Last day, and the Divine Decree (Qadar), both the good of it and the bad of it.' He said' You have spoken the truth.' We were amazed by him. He asked a question, then told him that he had spoken the truth. Then he said: 'O Muhammad, what is Ihsan (right action, goodness, sincerity)? He said: 'To worship Allah as if you see Him, for even though you do not see Him, He sees you.' He asked: "When will the Hour be?' He said: 'The one who is being asked about it does not know more than the one who is asking.' He asked: 'Then what are its signs?' he said: 'When the slave woman gives birth to her mistress' (Waki' said: This means when non-Arabs will give birth to Arabs") 'and when you see barefoot, naked, destitute shepherds competing in constructing tall buildings.' The Prophet (ﷺ) met me three days later and asked me: 'Do you know who that man was? I said" 'Allah and his Messenger know best.' He said: 'That was Jibril, who came to you to teach you your religion.'"}}

According to Nawawi, the opinion of the majority of scholars is that Muslims will enslave non-Muslim women and have kids with them and the kids will be masters of their mothers because the kids are Muslims. <ref>https://quranacademy.io/blog/an-nawawis-hadith-2-hadith-of-jibreel-3/</ref> Ibn Hajar (who lived later) didn't like this interpretation, because the enslavement was already happening during the time of Muhammad, so it wasn't really a prophecy of the future.

Ibn Hajar and others, as a result, like to interpret it as kids treating their mothers like slaves. This is not compatible with Waki's comment, and it would appear that children disrespecting their parents has been and will remain a universal phenomenon.

===Woman helps her husband in business===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
'Abdullah said, 'From the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, who said, "Before the Final Hour people will single out one individual for the greeting, commerce will increase until '''a woman helps her husband in business''', people will sever their links with their relatives, knowledge will spread, false testimony will appear and true testimony will be concealed."
}}

===Some people control trade===
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|44|4461}} (sahih)|
"The Messenger of Allah said: 'One of the portents of the Hour will be that wealth becomes widespread and abundant, and trade will become widespread, but knowledge will disappear. '''A man will try to sell something and will say: "No, not until I consult the merchant of banu so and so''' and People will look throughout a vast area for a scribe and will not find one."
}}
 

===Injustice===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 485 (sahih)|
Ibn 'Umar reported that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Injustice will appear as darkness on the Day of Rising."
}}Once again, sin and wrongdoing will multiply before the final hour.

===False testimony===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
وَظُهُورُ الشَّهَادَةِ بِالزُّورِ، وَكِتْمَانُ شَهَادَةِ الْحَقِّ

..false testimony will appear and true testimony will be concealed.
}}

Yet another predictions of licentiousness and sin before the end of times.

===Unfulfilled vows===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3650|darussalam}}|
..then the Prophet (ﷺ) added, 'There will come after you, people who will bear witness without being asked to do so, and will be treacherous and untrustworthy, and '''they will vow and never fulfill their vows''', and fatness will appear among them."
}}

===Cheating in weights (scales)===
{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. '''They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers'''. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

This is also mentioned in the Old Testament:
{{Quote|The Bible (NASB), Amos 8:2-6|
Then the Lord said to me, “The end has come for My people Israel. I will spare them no longer. The songs of the palace will turn to wailing in that day,” declares the Lord God. “Many will be the corpses; in every place they will cast them forth in silence.” '''Hear this, you who trample the needy''', to do away with the humble of the land, saying: “When will the new moon be over, So that we may sell grain, And the sabbath, that we may open the wheat market, '''To make the bushel smaller and the shekel bigger, And to cheat with dishonest scales'''
}}

This fits into a general eschatological scheme of disasters before the end times found in many end-of-times predictions.

===Making money unlawfully===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2083|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Hurairah (ra):
The Prophet (ﷺ) said "Certainly a time will come when people will not bother to know from where they earned the money, by lawful means or unlawful means."
}}
If raiding caravans can be called an "unlawful method" of acquiring money, then according to the sirah Muhammad himself engaged in dubious practices to acquire money:
{{Quote|Sirat Rasul Allah 428, Tabari VII:29|
Then the apostle heard that Abu Sufyan b. Harb was coming from Syria with a large caravan of Quraysh, containing their money and merchandise, accompanied by some thirty or forty men." Mohammad said, "This is the Quraysh caravan containing their property, Go out to attack it, perhaps God will give it as prey,
}}Most Muslims would argue that Muhammad was engaged in war against the Medinians, but his and his followers lust not for religious victory but for booty is noted again and again in the sirah.

===Usury (riba)===
{{Quote|Musnad Aḥmad 10191|
عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ أَنّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ يَأْتِي عَلَى النَّاسِ زَمَانٌ يَأْكُلُونَ فِيهِ الرِّبَا قِيلَ النَّاسُ كُلُّهُمْ قَالَ مَنْ لَمْ يَأْكُلْهُ مِنْهُمْ نَالَهُ مِنْ غُبَارِهِ

Abu Huraira reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “A time will come upon people in which they will consume usury.” It was said, “All of the people?” The Prophet said, “Whoever does not consume it will be affected by its dust.”
}}

Usury (riba) was already widespread in the period before Islam, which Muslims call "jahilya":
{{Quote|[https://ebrary.net/10536/business_finance/types_riba Types of Riba]|
Riba al-Jahiliyah means “the riba used during the age of ignorance and paganism.” It is also called riba al-nassee'aa (the riba that is constrained by a time limit and is time dependent). This type of '''riba was widely practiced by the pagan Arabs at the advent of Islam'''.
}}

In any interest-based economy, all goods will inevitably be "tainted" directly or indirectly with interest-based practices; this fits into a general pattern of predicting sin and degeneracy before the endtimes.

===Sudden deaths===
{{Quote|Al-Mu'jam al-Awsat al-Tabarani (9/147) No. 9376 (sahih)|
حدثنا الهيثم بن خالد المصيصي نا عبدالكبير بن المعافى بن عمران نا شريك عن العباس بن ذريح عن الشعبي عن أنس بن مالك رفعه إلى النبي صلى الله عليه و سلم قال من اقتراب الساعة أن يرى الهلال قبلا فيقال لليلتين وأن تتخذ المساجد طرقا وأن يظهر الموت الفجاء لم يرو هذا الحديث عن العباس بن زريح إلا شريك تفرد به عبد الكبير بن المعافى

Anas bin Malik (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Among the signs that the Last Hour is near, is that the crescent would appear larger than its actual size and people would say: ‘It appears as if it is only two days old.’ and the masajid will be taken as streets, and '''sudden death will spread'''.”
}}

In other hadiths Muhammad and Ubayd speak about sudden death as something already known:{{Quote| {{Abu Dawud||3110|darussalam}}(sahih)|
Narrated Ubayd ibn Khalid as-Sulami,:

A man from the Companions of the Prophet (ﷺ), said: The narrator Sa'd ibn Ubaydah narrated sometimes from the Prophet (ﷺ) and sometimes as a statement of Ubayd (ibn Khalid): The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Sudden death is a wrathful catching.
}}

===Islam will be unpleasant for Muslims (like burning ember/coal in hand)===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2260}} (hasan)|
Anas bin Malik narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"There shall come upon the people a time in which the one who is patient upon his religion will be like the one holding onto a burning ember."
}}

===Following Jews and Christians===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7320|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "You will follow the ways of those nations who were before you, span by span and cubit by cubit (i.e., inch by inch) so much so that even if they entered a hole of a mastigure, you would follow them." We said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! (Do you mean) the Jews and the Christians?" He said, "Whom else?"
}}
===Killing [pointless killing]===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7062|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah and Abu Musa:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days during which Religious ignorance will spread, knowledge will be taken away (vanish) and '''there will be much Al-Harj, and Al- Harj means killing'''."
}}

It is not very clear what this refers to, except for a general prediction of violence before the end of times; originally it may have been a reference to the apacolyptic war between the Romans and the Sassanids, but there's not alot of detail to infer that in this hadith as "killing" may describe many events in history.
===Two parties with the same message will fight===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157h|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) many ahadith and one of them was this:

The last Hour will not come until the two parties (of Muslims) confront each other and there is a large-scale massacre amongst them and the claim of both of them is the same.
}}

This prediction was interpreted by Islamic scholars as referring to the Battle of Siffin (year 657). Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.

===Issue between Ali and Aisha===
{{Quote|Fath al Bari 13/59 (sahih) and others|
إنَّهُ سيكونُ بينَكَ وبين عائشةَ أمرٌ قال فأنا أشقاهُم يا رسولَ اللهِ قال لا ولكنْ إذا كان ذلك فاردُدْها إلى مأمنِها

There will be an issue between you and ‘Aisha.” He said, “Me, O Messenger of Allah?!” He said, “Yes.” He said, “Me?!” He said, “Yes.” He said, “Then [in that case] I would be the worst of them (all people).” He said, “No, but when this occurs, return her to her safe quarters.”}}

The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel Battle of the Camel] happened in 656. The hadith (in Musnad Ahmad) was written in the 9th century.

===Ammar will be killed===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3800}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abu Hurairah:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "Rejoice, 'Ammar, the transgressing party shall kill you."
}}

He was killed in the 7th century. The collection of Tirmidhi was written in the 9th century.

==="I have been given Persia"===
{{Quote|Al-Nasa'i, Sunan al Kubra 8858|
أنبأ محمد بن عبد الأعلى قال حدثنا معتمر قال سمعت عوفا قال سمعت ميمونا يحدث عن البراء بن عازب قال : لما أمرنا رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم أن يحفر الخندق عرض لنا فيه حجر لا يأخذ فيه المعول فاشتكينا ذلك إلى رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم فجاء رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم فألقى ثوبه وأخذ المعول وقال بسم الله فضرب ضربة فكسر ثلث الصخرة قال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح الشام والله إني لأبصر قصورها الحمر الآن من مكاني هذا قال ثم ضرب أخرى وقال بسم الله وكسر ثلثا آخر وقال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح فارس والله إني لأبصر قصر المدائن الأبيض الآن ثم ضرب ثالثة وقال بسم الله فقطع الحجر قال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح اليمن والله إني لأبصر باب صنعاء

Al-Bara said: On the Day of Al-Khandaq (the trench) there stood out a rock too immune for our spades to break up. We therefore went to see God’s Messenger for advice. He took the spade, and said: “In the Name of God” Then he struck it saying: “God is Most Great, I have been given the keys of Ash-Sham (Greater Syria). By God, I can see its red palaces at the moment;” on the second strike he said: “God is Most Great, '''I have been given Persia'''. By God, I can now see the white palace of Madain;” and for the third time he struck the rock saying: “In the Name of God,” shattering the rest of the rock, and he said: “God is Most Great, I have been given the keys of Yemen. By God, I can see the gates of San’a while I am in my place.”
}}

The bloody conquest happened around the year 650. Earliest hadith collection Muwatta Imam Malik (which doesn't contain this hadith) was written around the year 750 and the hadith collection sunan al-Kubra which contains the hadith was written around the year 850. This hadith was written hundreds of years after the event it describes.

Furthermore, Persia was already conquered a thousand years before by Alexander the Great. And at the time of Muhammad Persia was exhausted by wars with Romans which lasted from 54 BC to 628 AD (681 years).

===Conquest of Jerusalem===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:

I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, '''the conquest of Jerusalem''', a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}

Some suggest that Muhammad predicted "The Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 AD." <ref>https://www.islamweb.net/en/article/135817/the-signs-of-the-hour</ref>: However, this was the second Islamic conquest of Jerusalem. Muslims first conquered Jerusalem in 636.

Furthermore, after the conquest, the Hour was expected to come. Both events occurred nearly a thousand years in the past. This was written by Bukhari two hundred years after the first conquest.

Hadith in Sunan Abu Dawud also stresses the coming of the Last Hour after the conquest of Jerusalem (holy land):{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2535|darussalam}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Hawalah al-Azdi:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) sent us on foot to get spoil, but we returned without getting any. When he saw the signs of distress on our faces, he stood up on our faces and said: O Allah, do not put them under my care, for I would be too weak to care for them; do not put them in care of themselves, for they would be incapable of that, and do not put them in the care of men, for they would choose the best things for themselves. '''He then placed his hand on my head and said: Ibn Hawalah, when you see the caliphate has settled in the holy land, earthquakes, sorrows and serious matters will have drawn near and on that day the Last Hour will be nearer to mankind than this hand of mine is to your head.'''
}}

===Conquest of Egypt===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2543b|reference}}|
Abu Dharr reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

'''You would soon conquer Egypt''' and that is a land which is known (as the land of al-qirat). So when you conquer it, treat its inhabitants well. For there lies upon you the responsibility because of blood-tie or relationship of marriage (with them). And when you see two persons falling into dispute amongst themselves for the space of a brick, than get out of that. He (Abu Dharr) said: I saw Abd al-Rahman b. Shurahbil b. Hasana and his brother Rabi'a disputing with one another for the space of a brick. So I left that (land).
}}
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt Muslim conquest of Egypt] happened in the 7th century. The hadith collection Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.

===Conquest of Yemen, Syria and Iraq===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1388b|reference}}|
Sufyan b. Abu Zuhair heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) say:

'''Yemen will be conquered''' and some people will go away (to that country) driving their camels and carrying their families on them and those who are under their authority, while Medina is better for them if they were to know it. Then '''Syria will be conquered''' and some people will go away driving their camels along with them and carrying their families with them and those who are under their authority, while Medina is better for them if they were to know it. Then '''lraq will be conquered''' and some people will go away (to that country) driving their camels and carrying their families with them and those who are under their authority. while Medina is better for them if they were to know it.
}}
All conquests happened in the 7th century. Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.
===Fighting Turks===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3587|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till you fight a nation wearing hairy shoes, and till you '''fight the Turks''', who will have small eyes, red faces and flat noses; and their faces will be like flat shields. And you will find that the best people are those who hate responsibility of ruling most of all till they are chosen to be the rulers. And the people are of different natures: The best in the pre-lslamic period are the best in Islam. A time will come when any of you will love to see me rather than to have his family and property doubled."
}}

Some suggest that "Turks" here means "Mongols" and that this thus predicts Gengis Khan. However, The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kharistan Battle of Kharistan] (737) which happened between the Umayyad caliphate and Turkic Türgesh, could equally fit the description provided here. This seems more plausible, especially as Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

One might also note that if Muhammad did in fact make these predictions, Islam's global imperial aspirations (proven as they were by the end of Muhammad's life) would make the conquest of any number of neighboring or nearby peoples a likelihood.

===Leave the Turks as long as they leave you===
This hadith is often referenced as evidence that Muhammad predicted the Ottoman empire, often ignoring the clause about the Abyssinians
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4302|darussalam}}|
Narrated from Abi Sukainah One of the Companions:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: '''Let the Abyssinians alone as long as they let you alone''', and let the Turks alone as long as they leave you alone.
}}

It is said that the Turks should be left alone because they were strong, and they were strong therefore they would eventually become dominant. This is an evidently generous reading of the hadith.

In other hadith, Muhammad is reported to have predicted that after a few wars, Muslims would exterminate the Turks:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar, Takhreej Mishkaat al-Masabih 5/110 (hasan) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%84%D9%8F%D9%83%D9%85+%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8C+%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%90+%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8F%D9%91%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8E</ref>|
يقاتِلُكم قومٌ صغارُ الأعينِ يعني التُّركَ قالَ تسوقونَهم ثلاثَ مرات حتَّى تُلحِقوهم بجزيرةِ العربِ فأمَّا في السِّاقةِ الأولى فينجو من هربَ منهم فأمَّا في الثَّانيةِ فينجو بعضٌ ويَهلِكُ بعضٌ وأمَّا في الثَّالثةِ فيصطَلِمونَ

People with small eyes, i.e. the Turks, will fight against you, the prophet (ﷺ) said: You will drive them off three times till you catch up with them in Arabia. On the first occasion when you drive them off those who fly will be safe, on the second occasion some will be safe and some will perish, but '''on the third occasion they will be extirpated'''.
}}
===Spoils of war distributed preferentially===
Hadith da'if:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2211}} (daif)|
إِذَا اتُّخِذَ الْفَىْءُ دُوَلاً

When Al-Fai' is distributed(preferentially)
}}
Al-Fai mean spoils of war.

===Fearless traveler (security)===
Probably refers to time after the conquest of Iraq in the 7th century:
{{Quote|al-Haythami 7/334 (sahih)|
لا تقومُ الساعَةُ حتى تعودَ أرْضُ العربِ مروجًا وأَنْهَارًا وحتى يسيرَ الراكِبُ بينَ العِرَاقِ ومَكَّةَ لَا يَخَافُ إلَّا ضَلَالَ الطريقِ [ وحتَّى يَكْثُرَ الْهَرْجُ قالوا وما الهَرْجُ يا رسولَ اللهِ قال القتلُ ]

The Hour will not come until the land of Arabs becomes meadows and rivers and until '''a rider goes between Iraq and Makka and doesn't fear anything except getting lost''' and until al-harj is widespread. They said: And what is al-Harj O messenger of God? He said: Killing.
}}

===Fat people===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3650|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Imran bin Husain:

"Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, 'The best of my followers are those living in my generation (i.e. my contemporaries). and then those who will follow the latter" `Imran added, "I do not remember whether he mentioned two or three generations after his generation, then the Prophet (ﷺ) added, 'There will come after you, people who will bear witness without being asked to do so, and will be treacherous and untrustworthy, and they will vow and never fulfill their vows, and '''fatness will appear among them'''."
}}

After the 7th century Islamic conquests, Muslims became rich and could have a lot of food, so this is again most likely a hadith about a later point in time being projected back into the time of the prophet.

===Special greeting===
It was interpreted as "greeting only people you know":
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
بَيْنَ يَدَيِ السَّاعَةِ‏:‏ تَسْلِيمُ الْخَاصَّةِ

Before the Hour there is special greeting
}}

According to this hadith, everyone should be greeted:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||13|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Amr:

A man asked the Prophet (ﷺ) , "What sort of deeds or (what qualities of) Islam are good?" The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, 'To feed (the poor) and '''greet those whom you know and those whom you do not know'''.
}}

In other hadiths however Muhammad was preventing Muslims from greeting certain people based on their religion:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2167a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

Do not greet the Jews and the Christians before they greet you and when you meet any one of them on the roads force him to go to the narrowest part of it.
}}

===Controversy over the Hadith===
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4604|darussalam}}|
Narrated Al-Miqdam ibn Ma'dikarib:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Beware! I have been given the Qur'an and something like it, yet the time is coming when a man replete on his couch will say: '''Keep to the Qur'an'''; what you find in it to be permissible treat as permissible, and what you find in it to be prohibited treat as prohibited. Beware! The domestic ass, beasts of prey with fangs, a find belonging to confederate, unless its owner does not want it, are not permissible to you. If anyone comes to some people, they must entertain him, but if they do not, he has a right to mulct them to an amount equivalent to his entertainment.
}}

This hadith, although rated sahih, is almost certainly a v''aticinum ex eventu'' about controversies which took place after the prophet died. It's unlikely that if the prophet himself had said in his lifetime that these things were haram that there would be people claiming that they were actually allowed by the shari'ah.
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3646|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As:

I used to write everything which I heard from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). I intended (by it) to memorise it. The Quraysh prohibited me saying: '''Do you write everything that you hear from him while the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) is a human being: he speaks in anger and pleasure?''' So I stopped writing, and mentioned it to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). He signalled with his finger to him mouth and said: Write, by Him in Whose hand my soul lies, only right comes out from it.
}}This hadith, though sahih and not technically a prophecy, probably is indicative of problems in the 8th century, when the idea that the words and deeds of the prophet should govern all aspects of life was still controversial. This hadith is backdating that later controversy into the prophet's own lifetime.

===Liars will be trusted and honest people will be regarded as liars===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4036}} (hasan)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“There will come to the people years of treachery, when the liar will be regarded as honest, and the honest man will be regarded as a liar; the traitor will be regarded as faithful, and the faithful man will be regarded as a traitor; and the Ruwaibidah will decide matters.’ It was said: ‘Who are the Ruwaibidah?’ He said: ‘Vile and base men who control the affairs of the people.’”
}}

This was already happening according to Islamic sources. According to the sira some Arabs trusted the false prophet Musaylimah.

==="The pen will spread"===
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 1035 (sahih)|
عَنْ ابْنِ مَسْعُودٍ عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ بَيْنَ يَدَيِ السَّاعَةِ تَسْلِيمُ الْخَاصَّةِ وَفُشُوُّ التِّجَارَةِ حَتَّى تُعِينَ الْمَرْأَةُ زَوْجَهَا عَلَى التِّجَارَةِ وَقَطْعُ الأَرْحَامِ وَفُشُوُّ الْقَلَمِ وَظُهُورُ الشَّهَادَةِ بِالزُّورِ وَكِتْمَانُ شَهَادَةِ الْحَقِّ

Ibn Mas’ud reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Just before the Hour, the greeting of peace will only be given to specific people, trade will proliferate to the point that a woman will help her husband in his business, family ties will be severed, '''the pen will spread''', false testimony will prevail and truthful testimony will be concealed.”
}}
There is the Pen that Allah created first and which writes the future:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|44|3319}} (sahih)|
“I arrived in Makkah and met Ata bin Abi Rabah. I said: ‘O Abu Muhammad! Some people with us speak about Al-Qadar.’ Ata said: ‘I met Al-Walid bin Ubadah bin As-Samit and he said: “My father narrated to me, he said: ‘I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: “Verily '''the first of what Allah created was the Pen (القلم). He said to it: “Write.” So it wrote what will be forever'''.’”
}}

There is also the Pen that writes deeds:
{{Quote|Bulugh al Maram: Book 8, Hadith 1096|
Narrated 'Aishah (RA):
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "There are three people whose actions are not recorded ( رُفِعَ اَلْقَلَمُ عَنْ ثَلَاثَةٍ, literally "is lifted the pen from three"), a sleeping person till he awakes, a child till he is a grown up, and an insane person till he is restored to reason or recovers his sense." [Reported by Ahmad and al-Arba'a, except at-Tirmidhi. al-Hakim graded it Sahih (authentic)].
}}
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|26|3217}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abu Salamah:
It was narrated from Abu Salamah that Abu Hurairah said: "I said: 'O Messenger of Allah, I am a young man and I fear hardship for myself, but I cannot afford to marry; should I castrate myself?'" The Prophet turned away from him until he said it three times. Then the Prophet said: "O Abu Hurairah, '''the pen is dried concerning what you are going to face''', so (it is up to you whether) you castrate yourself or not." Abu Abdur-Rahman (An-Nasai) said: Al-Awzai did not hear this narration from Az-Zuhri, and this hadith is sahih, Yunus reported it from Az-Zuhri.
}}

Literacy was increasing before Muhammad was born. Jews and Christians first used oral traditions, but then switched to writing. There was also the ongoing global transitions from oral cultures to written cultures more generally.

Notice also that the prophecy was written by people who were ''writing'' hadiths from oral traditions.

===Family ties will be severed===
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 1035 (sahih)|
Ibn Mas’ud reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Just before the Hour, the greeting of peace will only be given to specific people, trade will proliferate to the point that a woman will help her husband in his business, '''family ties will be severed''' (وَقَطْعُ الأَرْحَامِ), the pen will spread, false testimony will prevail and truthful testimony will be concealed.”
}}
Judeo-Christian mythology (later adopted by Islam) teaches that among the first people were brothers Cain and Abel and Cain killed Abel.

There is also hadith where Muhammad encourages people to keep the ties of kinship, which indicates they weren't doing it enough in his time:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|25|1979}} (hasan)|
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah said:
"Learn enough about your lineage to facilitate keeping your ties of kinship (تَصِلُونَ بِهِ أَرْحَامَكُمْ). For indeed keeping the ties of kinship encourages affection among the relatives, increases the wealth, and increases the lifespan."
}}

Killing of family members for the sake of Islam was also approved by Muhammad:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4361|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah Ibn Abbas: A blind man had a slave-mother who used to abuse the Prophet (peace be upon him) and disparage him. He forbade her but she did not stop. He rebuked her but she did not give up her habit. One night she began to slander the Prophet (peace be upon him) and abuse him. So he took a dagger, placed it on her belly, pressed it, and killed her. A child who came between her legs was smeared with the blood that was there. When the morning came, the Prophet (peace be upon him) was informed about it.

He assembled the people and said: I adjure by Allah the man who has done this action and I adjure him by my right to him that he should stand up. Jumping over the necks of the people and trembling the man stood up.

He sat before the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said: Apostle of Allah! I am her master; she used to abuse you and disparage you. I forbade her, but she did not stop, and I rebuked her, but she did not abandon her habit. I have two sons like pearls from her, and she was my companion. Last night she began to abuse and disparage you. So I took a dagger, put it on her belly and pressed it till I killed her.

Thereupon the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Oh be witness, no retaliation is payable for her blood.}}A similar prophecy exists in Tabrani, predicting "family ties will be severed", though this hadith is often mistranslated (also the hadith is weak):
{{Quote|Tabrani, al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr 10/228 and Mu'jan al-Awsat 4861 (da'eef)|
“From among the signs of Qiyamah is that people will maintain ties with '''distant relatives and strangers''' (الأطباق) but sever ties with close family.”
}}
The word الأطباق (''al-atbaaq'') is today sometimes translated as "dishes" (although the classical translation (understanding) fits better into the context) and then they interpret the "dishes" as "satellites", but this is clearly an anachronistic, inaccurate translation.

*[https://hadithanswers.com/is-satellite-communication-a-sign-of-qiyamah/ Fatwa against the modern interpretation]

===Automobiles (actually camels with lofty saddles)===
Muhammad forbade riding on ''mayathir'' (مياثر) (silk saddles), so mayathir were something already known:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6235|darussalam}}|
..He forbade us to drink from silver utensils, to wear gold rings, '''to ride on silken saddles (ركوب المياثر)''', to wear silk clothes..
}}

There is a prophecy about people riding on mayathir at the end of times:
{{Quote|al-Mustadrak 4 / 436 (hasan)|
سَيَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ هَذِهِ الْأُمَّةِ رِجَالٌ يَرْكَبُونَ عَلَى الْمَيَاثِرِ حَتَّى يَأْتُوا أَبْوَابَ مَسَاجِدِهِمْ

They will mount their mayaathir until they come to the doors of their mosques
}}
Albani explained:
{{Quote|Tafsir by Albani|
the word mayaathir is the plural of meetharah and Ibn al-Athir described it as, “… smooth and soft, made out of silk or a silk brocade [heavy silk] which the rider places beneath him on the saddle on top of the camel.
}}

And a re-iteration of the same prophecy:
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 654/11 (hasan)|
يكون في آخر أمتي رجال يركبون على سرج كأشباه الرحال ينزلون على أبواب المساجد نساؤهم كاسيات عاريات

In the last [part] of my nation there will be men who ride on '''saddles that resemble packsaddles''' (سرج كأشباه الرحال). They will alight at the doors of the mosques. Their women are clothed but naked. On their heads are [what appears to be] like the humps of [lean] camels. Curse them for they are cursed. If there were a nation from the nations to come after you, your women would serve them, just as the women of the nations that were before you served you.
}}
Some try to translate سرج كأشباه الرحال as "carriots" or "cars", but:

*سَرْج means "saddlebag; packsaddle; saddle; pigskin; pillion" <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AC/</ref>
*رَحْل means "Either of a pair of a bags laid over the back of a horse - saddlebag; packsaddle; saddle". <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%84/</ref>

===Ignorance [of Islamic teachings]===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7062|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah and Abu Musa:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days during which '''Religious ignorance will spread''', knowledge will be taken away (vanish) and there will be much Al-Harj, and Al- Harj means killing."}}

*In Islamic discourse, the period before Muhammad's career is called jahilya (ignorance).
*in context of Islamic jurisprudence, theology and scriptural analysis, when Muhammad says "knowledge" it means "knowledge of Muhamamd's claims and commands" and when Islam says "ignorance" it means "ignorance of Muhammad's claims and commands"

===Learning for something other than Islam===
{{Quote|Al-Shawkani, Nayl al-Awtar 8/262 (hasan li-ghayrihi)|
إذا اتُّخِذَ الفَيْءُ دُوَلًا والأمانةُ مَغْنَمًا والزكاةُ مَغْرَمًا وتُعُلِّمَ لغيرِ الدِّينِ وأطاع الرجلُ امرأتَه وعَقَّ أُمَّه وأَدْنَى صديقَه وأَقْصَى أباه وظَهَرَتِ الأصواتُ في المساجدِ وساد القبيلةَ فاسِقُهُم وكان زعيمُ القومِ أَرْذَلَهم وأُكْرِمَ الرجلُ مَخَافةَ شرِّه وظَهَرَتِ القِيَانُ والمعازفُ وشُرِبَتِ الخُمورُ ولَعَن آخِرُ هذه الأمةِ أولَها فلْيَرْتَقِبُوا عند ذلك رِيحًا حمراءَ وزَلْزَلَةً وخَسْفًا ومَسْخًا وقَذْفًا وآياتٍ تُتَابَعُ كنِظامٍ بالٍ قُطِعَ سِلْكُه فتتابع بعضُه بعضًا

When spoiles of war are distributed; and property given in trust will be considered as booty for oneself; Zakat will be looked upon as a fine; '''learning for other than the religion'''; a man will obey his wife and disobey his mother; a man will bring his friends nearer and drive his father far off; noises will be raised in the masjids; the most wicked of a tribe will become its ruler; the most worthless member of a people will become its leader; a man will be honoured for fear of the evil he may do; singing girls and musical instruments will come into vogue; drinking of wine will become common; and the later generations will begin to curse the previous generations; then wait, for red violent winds, earthquakes, swallowing up by the earth, defacement (of human faces), pelting of stones from the skies as rain, and a continuing chain of disasters followed one by another, like beads of a necklace falling one after the other rapidly when its string is cut.
}}
Secular knowledge for secular purposes was studied before Islam.

===Tall buildings===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|63}}|
وَأَنْ تَرَى الْحُفَاةَ الْعُرَاةَ الْعَالَةَ رِعَاءَ الشَّاءِ يَتَطَاوَلُونَ فِي الْبِنَاءِ

..and when '''you see barefoot, naked, destitute shepherds''' competing in constructing tall buildings
}}The Bible contained a story of the Tower of Babel, Egyptians built pyramids. The desire and ability to construct tall buildings appears to has been common in history.

Lane's Lexicon explains al binaa as "originally an inf. n.: (see 1, first sentence:) then applied to A building; a structure; an edifice;] a thing that is built, or constructed".<ref>Binaa الْبِنَاء - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000298.pdf Lane's Lexicon] p. 261</ref> The "compete in height" aspect of the translation comes from the word تطاول (tataawul)<ref>tay-waw-lam طول - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000180.pdf Lane's Lexicon] - p. 1895</ref> These words appear in some other narrations in the same or similar context in relation to the 7th century.

There were people in the 7th century building buildings that could be considered tall in that time. Ibn Hajar wrote in his famous commentary on Sahih Bukhari:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar: Fatḥ al-Bārī fī Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī|
يتطاول الناس في البنيان وهي من العلامات التي وقعت عن قرب في زمن النبوة

"The people are [competing in height] building buildings" - and that's from the signs which '''happened close at the time of the prophethood'''
}}

The caliph Uthman was accused of practicing tataawul at his time, though the meaning here may simply be that he built a lot of buildings.

{{Quote|[http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/3671_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A1/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_32 al-Imāma wal-Siyāsa, vol 1 page 35] by Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889 / 276)| ما أنكر الناس على عثمان رحمه الله قال: وذكروا أنه اجتمع ناس من أصحاب النبي عليه الصلاة والسلام، فكتبوا كتابا ذكروا فيه ما خالف فيه عثمان من سنة رسول الله وسنة صاحبيه، وما كان من هبته خمس أفريقية لمروان وفيه حق الله ورسوله، ومنهم ذوو القربى واليتامى والمساكين، وما كان من تطاوله في البنيان، حتى عدوا سبع دور بناها بالمدينة

And what people condemned of Uthman was that a group of the prophet's companions came together and wrote a book mentioning in it what Uthman has not followed of the sunnah of the prophet and his companions and of what he did when he gave 1/5th of Africa to Marwan and in it is the share of Allah and his prophet and that of relatives, orphans and poor people. And of his excesses in building ( تطاوله في البنيان ) that reached 7 houses in Medina.}}

Muslims could afford building tall buildings after they got rich from early Islamic conquests.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5672|darussalam}}|
Narrated Qais bin Abi Hazim:

We went to pay a visit to Khabbab (who was sick) and he had been branded (cauterized) at seven places in his body. He said, "Our companions who died (during the lifetime of the Prophet) left (this world) without having their rewards reduced through enjoying the pleasures of this life, but '''we have got (so much) wealth that we find no way to spend It except on the construction of buildings''' .Had the Prophet not forbidden us to wish for death, I would have wished for it.' We visited him for the second time while he was building a wall. '''He said: A Muslim is rewarded (in the Hereafter) for whatever he spends except for something that he spends on building'''."
}}

Some add that theses buildings were described as being "as high as mountains", but that hadith is mawqoof (not from Muhammad). It was a saying of ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr and it was after Muslims became rich from early Islamic conquests, so they could likely imagine themselves building tall in Mecca. Also the hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|Musannaf ibn Abi Shaybah, Hadith: 14306 (da'eef or hasan)|
Sayyiduna '''‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr''' (radiyallahu ‘anhuma) is reported to have said: “……When you see tunnels/canals being dug in Makkah Mukarramah and the buildings (of Makkah Mukarramah) higher than the peak of the mountains then know that Qiyamah is close.”
}}

*[https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/247118/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5-%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9 Fatwa] (Arabic) says that since it's not from Muhammad, it shouldn't even be called a hadith.

===Mosques full of hypocrites===
{{Quote|Ibn Abi Shaybah: Kitab al-Iman 101 (sahih)|
عن عبد اللهِ بنِ عَمرو قال : يأتي على الناس زمانٌ ، يجتمِعون ويُصلُّون في المساجدِ ، وليس فيهم مؤمنٌ

A time will come on people when they get together and pray in mosques and isn't among them a single believer
}}

Praying hypocrites were also mentioned in the Bible:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Matthew 6:5|
“And when you pray, do not be like the hypocrites, for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and on the street corners to be seen by others.
}}

The imperialistic nature of Islam's spread may have encouraged this type of hypocrisy, and the flood of opportunists joining the ranks of Islam after the conquest is likely the origin of these ahadith:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||21a|reference}}|
It is reported on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah said:

I have been commanded to fight against people so long as they do not declare that there is no god but Allah, and he who professed it was guaranteed the protection of his property and life on my behalf except for the right affairs rest with Allah.
}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3017|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Ikrima:

`Ali burnt some people and this news reached Ibn `Abbas, who said, "Had I been in his place I would not have burnt them, as the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'Don't punish (anybody) with Allah's Punishment.' No doubt, I would have killed them, for the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'If somebody (a Muslim) discards his religion, kill him.' "
}}

===Voices raised in mosques===
The hadith is daif:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2211}} (daif)|
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When Al-Fai' is distributed(preferentially), trust is a spoil of war, Zakat is a fine, knowledge is sought for other than the(sake of the) religion, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is close to his friend and far from his father, '''voices are raised in the Masajid''', tribes are led by their wicked, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, singing slave-girls and music spread, intoxicants are drunk, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning- then anticipate a red wind, earthquake, collapsing of the earth, transformation, Qadhf, and the signs follow in succession like gems of a necklace whose string is cut and so they fall in succession."
}}

People were raising voices even in the time of Muhammad in front of him. Muhammad rebuked them in the Quran:
{{Quote|{{Quran|49|2}} (Sahih International)|
O you who have believed, do not raise your voices above the voice of the Prophet or be loud to him in speech like the loudness of some of you to others, lest your deeds become worthless while you perceive not.

}}

===Decoration of mosques===
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||1|8|690}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Anas that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"One of the portents of the Hour will be that people will show off in building Masjids."
}}

There was a precedent. Christians and Jews were adorning their places of worship:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||448|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:

I was not commanded to build high mosques. Ibn Abbas said: You will certainly adorn them '''as the Jews and Christians did'''.
}}

===Markets will approach (taqaarub al-aswaaq)===
{{Quote|al-Haythami 7/330 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D8%AA%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%86+%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%AB%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B0%D8%A8+%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82+%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86</ref>|
لا تقومُ الساعةُ حتى تَظْهَرَ الفِتَنُ ويكثرَ الكذِبُ وتتقارَبَ الأسواقُ ويتقارَبَ الزمانُ ويكثُرَ الهرجُ قلْتُ وما الهرْجُ قال القتْلُ

The Hour won't come till tribulations show up, lies are widespread and '''taqaarub of markets''' and taqaarub of time and harj is widespread. I said: What is al-harj? He said: Killing.
}}
The hadith is vague in its entirety, but the situation on markets expectedly changed after Muslims got rich by the 7th century conquests.

===Breaking the convenant with god makes enemies overpower them===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
... '''They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands.''' Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

This is mentioned in the Old Testament:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Leviticus 26:14-17|
Punishment for Disobedience

“‘But if you will not listen to me and carry out all these commands, and if you reject my decrees and abhor my laws and fail to carry out all my commands and so violate my covenant, then I will do this to you: I will bring on you sudden terror, wasting diseases and fever that will destroy your sight and sap your strength. You will plant seed in vain, because your enemies will eat it. I will set my face against you so that you will be defeated by your enemies; those who hate you will rule over you, and you will flee even when no one is pursuing you.
}}

===A man passes by a grave and wants to be dead too===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7121|darussalam}}|
وَحَتَّى يَمُرَّ الرَّجُلُ بِقَبْرِ الرَّجُلِ فَيَقُولُ يَا لَيْتَنِي مَكَانَهُ

... till a man when passing by a grave of someone will say, 'Would that I were in his place...
}}

The Old Testament mentions this:
{{Quote|The Bible (NASB), Jonah 4:3|
"Therefore now, O LORD, please take my life from me, for death is better to me than life."
}}

===People will treat a man with respect because they fear the evil he could do===
The hadith is daif (weak).
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}} (daif)|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, '''the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of''', intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

Intimidation with violence was already used before Islam. It was also used by Muhammad.

===The leader of a people will be the worst of them===
This hadith is daif (weak).
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}} (daif)|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, '''the leader of the people is the most despicable among them''', the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

==Predictions of the future (after the hadiths)==
In this category are hadiths that don't appear to speak of events which already transpired before the prophecies were written.
====Mountains will move====
This hadith is da'eef (Ufayr bin Ma'daan is in the chain):
{{Quote|Mu'jam at-Tabaraani vol 7, n. 6857|
لا تقومُ الساعةُ حتى تزولَ الجبالُ عن أماكِنِها وتَرَوْنَ الأمورَ العظامَ التي لم تَكُونوا تَرَوْنَها

The Hour will not begin until the '''mountains are moved from their places''' and you see great calamities which you have never seen before.
}}
====Non-speaking objects will start speaking====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2181}} (sahih)|
Abu Sa'eed Al-Khudri narrated that the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w) said:
"By the One in Whose Hand is my soul! The Hour will not be established until predators speak to people and until the tip of a man's whip and the straps on his sandal speak to him, and his thigh informs him of what occurred with his family after him."
}}

Though this hadith is often metaphorically interpreted to refer to modern technology (mobile phones), the original wording of the hadith appears to be rather literal in its intention.

The Old Testament already has a story about a talking serpent:
{{Quote|The Bible, Genesis 3:1|
Now '''the serpent''' was more crafty than any of the wild animals the Lord God had made. '''He said''' to the woman, “Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?”
}}

According to the hadith, for Muhammad (unlike for most people), talking objects wouldn't even be much miraculous, since he was hearing voices regularly. For example he heard a stone saluting him:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2277|reference}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: I recognise '''the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations''' before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}

====The land of Arabia reverts to meadows and rivers====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157c|reference}}|
وَحَدَّثَنَا قُتَيْبَةُ بْنُ سَعِيدٍ، حَدَّثَنَا يَعْقُوبُ، - وَهُوَ ابْنُ عَبْدِ الرَّحْمَنِ الْقَارِيُّ - عَنْ سُهَيْلٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ، أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏ "‏ لاَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَكْثُرَ الْمَالُ وَيَفِيضَ حَتَّى يَخْرُجَ الرَّجُلُ بِزَكَاةِ مَالِهِ فَلاَ يَجِدُ أَحَدًا يَقْبَلُهَا مِنْهُ وَحَتَّى تَعُودَ أَرْضُ الْعَرَبِ مُرُوجًا وَأَنْهَارًا ‏"‏ ‏.‏

Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) as saying:

The Last Hour will not come before wealth becomes abundant and overflowing, so much so that a man takes Zakat out of his property and cannot find anyone to accept it from him and '''till the land of Arabia reverts (تعود) to meadows and rivers.'''
}}

Note that the Sunnah.com website have changed the translation of Sahih Muslim here. For Sahih Muslim they use the published translation by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui, but in 2020 after this miracle claim became popular they edited Siddiqui's translation by replacing ''becomes'' with ''reverts''.

The word تعود (''ta‘ūda'') could mean "become" or "revert" here.
{{Quote|مرقاة المفاتيح شرح مشكاة المصابيح|
وحتى تعود أرض العرب أي: تصير أو ترجع

"And until ''ta‘ūda'' the land of Arabs" - meaning "becomes" or "reverts"
}}

The correct meaning of تَعُودَ (ta‘ūda), from the root عَوْد (‘awd) in this context is controversial. This verb generally relates to returning or repetition. However, some Arabic speaking critics point out that it can also mean become (for the first time), and argue that this meaning is possible or even likely given grammatical features in this hadith. The typical argument is that generally, though not necessarily, there would be a preposition such as ila (to) or fee (in) after the verb if it meant return to a state.

More typically, a verb such as صَارَ (ṣāra) would be used for "becomes", though Lane's Lexicon states that عاد can be a synonym for صَارَ to mean become for the first time and gives as an example وَدِدْتُ أَنَّ هٰذَا اللَّبَنَ يَعُودُ قَطِرَانًا (I wish that this milk would become tar).<ref>‘awd عود - [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000473.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2188]</ref>

Other critics respond that even if the meaning here is "returns to meadows and rivers", Arabia throughout recorded history has had fertile valleys and productive land.<ref>See for example Strabo, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16D%2A.html ''The Geography'' Book XVI, Chapter 4], 1st Century BCE</ref> The hadith may represent an elaboration of pre-Islamic folk tales. Al-Tabari records a tradition that centuries earlier, the Yamāmah region of central Arabia "was a most fertile and highly cultivated land, a land most prosperous, with a variety of fruit, wondrous orchards, and tall castles."<ref>Al-Tabari (transl. Moshe Perlmann) ''The History of al-Tabari: Volume IV The Ancient Kingdoms'', Suny Press, p. 151</ref>

A few hadiths shed further light on this interpretation, implying that it would likely mean merely a return to the mythological state of the world at the time of Adam rather than any miraculous knowledge of prehistory.

A hadith collected by Abd al-Razzaq, one of the earliest hadith compilers uses the exact same verb, تَعُودَ in the phrase وتعود الأرض كهيئتها على عهد آدم ("The earth will return to its original state as it was in the time of Adam").<ref>[https://www.islamweb.net/ar/library/content/73/19884/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 Musannaf Abd al-Razzaq 20843] - islamweb.net</ref>

A hadith in the collection of Ibn Majah states a similar idea about vegetation growing as it did in the time of Adam:

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4077|}}|[...] War will cease and Quraish will no longer be in power. The earth will be like a silver platter, with its vegetation growing as it did at the time of Adam, until a group of people will gather around one bunch of grapes and it will suffice them, and a group will gather around a single pomegranate and it will suffice them. An ox will be sold for such and such amount of money, and a horse will be sold for a few Dirham. [...]}}

====Much rain, but little vegetation====
{{Quote|Shuaib Al Arna'ut, Takhreej al-Musnad 12429 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3+%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7+%D8%8C+%D9%88+%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A7</ref>|
لا تَقومُ السَّاعةُ حتى يُمطَرَ النَّاسُ مَطرًا عامًّا، ولا تُنبِتَ الأرضُ شيئًا.

The Hour would not come until there is too much rain, but the earth does not produce crops
}}

===Other Predictions About the Future===
====Coming of Muhammad and the Hour are close like the forefinger and middle finger joined together====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2951e|reference}}|
Anas reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

I and the Last Hour have been sent like this and (he while doing it) joined the forefinger with the middle finger.
}}

====A 7th century boy won't grow very old before the Hour comes====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2953b|reference}}|
وَحَدَّثَنِي حَجَّاجُ بْنُ الشَّاعِرِ، حَدَّثَنَا سُلَيْمَانُ بْنُ حَرْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا حَمَّادٌ، - يَعْنِي ابْنَ زَيْدٍ - حَدَّثَنَا مَعْبَدُ بْنُ هِلاَلٍ الْعَنَزِيُّ، عَنْ أَنَسِ بْنِ مَالِكٍ، أَنَّ رَجُلاً، سَأَلَ النَّبِيَّ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ مَتَى تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ قَالَ فَسَكَتَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم هُنَيْهَةً ثُمَّ نَظَرَ إِلَى غُلاَمٍ بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنْ أَزْدِ شَنُوءَةَ فَقَالَ ‏ "‏ إِنْ عُمِّرَ هَذَا لَمْ يُدْرِكْهُ الْهَرَمُ حَتَّى تَقُومَ السَّاعَةُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ قَالَ أَنَسٌ ذَاكَ الْغُلاَمُ مِنْ أَتْرَابِي يَوْمَئِذٍ ‏.‏

Anas b. Malik reported that a person asked Allah's Apostle (ﷺ):

When would the Last Hour come? Thereupon Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) kept quiet for a while. Then looked at a young boy in his presence belonging to the tribe of Azd Shanu'a and he said: If this boy lives he would not grow very old till the Last Hour would come ''to you''. Anas said that this young boy was of our age during those days.
}}

There are two versions of this hadith. In this version, the "to you" was added by the translators to indicate that it is the last hour (death) of the people who asked. However this qualification is entirely absent in the Arabic text. This version of the hadith reported by Anas just says "until the hour comes" (حَتَّى تَقُومَ السَّاعَةُ) (see also {{Bukhari|||6167|darussalam}} quoted below where Anas seems to be a witness, {{Muslim||2953a|reference}}, and {{Muslim||2953c|reference}}). Another version of the hadith is reported by Aisha and instead has the phrase "until your hour comes to you" (حَتَّى تَقُومَ عَلَيْكُمْ سَاعَتُكُمْ) {{Bukhari|||6511|darussalam}} and {{Muslim||2952|reference}}.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6167|darussalam}}|
...In the meantime, a slave of Al-Mughira passed by, and he was of the same age as I was. The Prophet (ﷺ) said. "If this (slave) should live long, he will not reach the geriatric old age, but the Hour will be established."
}}

====Nothing will live one hundred years from now====
The "tonight" in ''italic'' was added by translators to accommodate the later re-interpretation:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||116|darussalam}}|
أَرَأَيْتَكُمْ لَيْلَتَكُمْ هَذِهِ، فَإِنَّ رَأْسَ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ مِنْهَا لاَ يَبْقَى مِمَّنْ هُوَ عَلَى ظَهْرِ الأَرْضِ أَحَدٌ

Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

Once the Prophet (ﷺ) led us in the `Isha' prayer during the last days of his life and after finishing it (the prayer) (with Taslim) he said: "Do you realize (the importance of) this night?" Nobody present on the surface of the earth ''tonight'' will be living after the completion of one hundred years from this night."
}}

When the prophecy failed 100 years later, it was subject to retroactive re-interpretation in Bukhari:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||601|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

The Prophet (ﷺ) prayed one of the `Isha' prayer in his last days and after finishing it with Taslim, he stood up and said, "Do you realize (the importance of) this night? Nobody present on the surface of the earth tonight would be living after the completion of one hundred years from this night." '''The people made a mistake in grasping the meaning of this statement of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they indulged in those things which are said about these narrators (i.e. some said that the Day of Resurrection will be established after 100 years etc.)''' But the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Nobody present on the surface of earth tonight would be living after the completion of 100 years from this night"; he meant "When that century (people of that century) would pass away."
}}

====If 10 scholars of the Jews would follow me, no Jew would be left upon the surface of the earth====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2793|reference}} (Muhsin Khan translation)|
لَوْ تَابَعَنِي عَشْرَةٌ مِنَ الْيَهُودِ لَمْ يَبْقَ عَلَى ظَهْرِهَا يَهُودِيٌّ إِلاَّ أَسْلَمَ

Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

If ten ''scholars'' of the Jews would follow me, no Jew would be left upon the surface of the earth who would not embrace Islam.
}}

The Arabic original doesn't say "ten Jewish scholars", but only "ten Jews" (عشرة من اليهود).

====30 false prophets before the Hour====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157l|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would not come until there would arise about thirty impostors, liars, and each one of them would claim that he is a messenger of Allah.
}}
According to the sira, in Muhammad's time there were other (supposedly false) prophets like Saf ibn Sayyad and Maslamah bin Ḥabīb (called by Muslims "Musaylimah al-Kadhdhāb" (Musaylama the Liar)), Al-Aswad Al-Ansi and Tulayha.

False prophets were also likewise predicted in the Bible:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Matthew 24:10-11|
At that time many will turn away from the faith and will betray and hate each other, and many '''false prophets will appear and deceive many people'''.
}}

====Rising of the Sun from its setting place====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4311|darussalam}}|
We were sitting in the shade of the chamber of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) discussing (something) and when we mentioned the last hour, our voices rose high. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: The last hour will not come or happen until there appear ten signs before it : '''the rising of the sun in its place of setting''', the coming forth of the beast, the coming forth of Gog and Magog, the Dajjal (Antichrist), (the descent of) Jesus son of Mary, the smoke, and three collapses of the earth: one in the west, one in the east, and one in the Arabian Peninsula. The last of that will be the emergence of a fire from Yemen, from the lowest part of Aden, and drive mankind to their place of assembly.
}}
This seems to suggest that the sun revolves about the Earth and can reverse direction

There is also a related verse in the Quran:{{Quote|{{Quran|6|158}}|
Do they [then] wait for anything except that the angels should come to them or your Lord should come or that there come some of the signs of your Lord? The Day that '''some of the signs of your Lord will come no soul will benefit from its faith as long as it had not believed before''' or had earned through its faith some good. Say, "Wait. Indeed, we [also] are waiting."
}}
Tafsir:
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 6:158|
"On the day that one of your Lord’s signs comes" — and this is the rising of the sun from the west as reported in the hadīth of the two Sahīhs of Bukhārī and Muslim — it shall not benefit a soul to believe if it had not believed theretofore
}}
The hadith:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4635|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established until the sun rises from the West: and when the people see it, then whoever will be living on the surface of the earth will have faith, and that is (the time) when no good will it do to a soul to believe then, if it believed not before." (6.158)
}}

Note that this hadith and others which mention this event are commonly mistranslated as the sun rising "from the west". In every case, such hadiths actually say in the arabic, ''min maghribiha'' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِهَا), which is literally "from its setting place" with the possessive suffix and without the definite article. "From the west" would be rather, ''min al maghriba'' as in {{Quran|2|258}} quoted below. Furthermore, the verb "rises" in such hadiths, ''taṭluʿa'' (تَطْلُعَ) is the one which appears in {{Quran|18|90}} when Dhu'l Qarnayn reaches the rising place of the sun and finds it rising on a people without shelter.

Another hadith says that right after the rising, a beast will appear in the forenoon:{{Quote|Abu Dawud 4310 (sahih)|
Abu zur’ah said:
A group of people came to Marwan in Medina, and they heard him say that the first of the signs to appear would be the coming forth of the Dajjal (Antichirst). He said: I then went to Abd Allah b. ‘Amr and mentioned it to him. He did not say anything(reliable). I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: '''The first of the signs to appear will be the rising of the sun in its place of setting and the coming forth of the beast against mankind in the forenoon.''' Whichever of them comes first will soon be followed by the other. ’Abd Allah who used to read the scriptures (Torah, Gospel) said: I think the first of them will be the rising of the sun in its place of setting.
}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4069}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“The first signs to appear will be at '''the rising of the sun from the west and the emergence of the Beast to the people, at forenoon'''.’” 'Abdullah said: "Whichever of them appears first, the other will come soon after." 'Abdullah said: "I do not think it will be anything other than the sun rising from the west."
}}

Some today proffer a metaphorical interpretation that the "rising of the Sun from the west" refers to the rise of the Western civilization. As noted above, this stems from the common mistranslation of the phrase, and would also leave the segment regarding the beast unexplained.

The Quran seems to affirm the possibility that God could make the Sun "rise from the West":
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|258}}|
Have you not considered the one who argued with Abraham about his Lord [merely] because Allah had given him kingship? When Abraham said, "My Lord is the one who gives life and causes death," he said, "I give life and cause death." Abraham said, "Indeed, '''Allah brings up the sun from the east''', so bring it up from the west." So the disbeliever was overwhelmed [by astonishment], and Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.
}}
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn]]
See also the story of [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun setting in a muddy Spring]] in the Quran, where this possibility is further confirmed. The sun is there described as having a setting place in a muddy spring, and a rising place where people lack shelter. This story is known to derive from the mid-6th century [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac Alexander Legend]].

====Stones and trees say to Muslims: "here is a Jew behind me; come and kill him"====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2922|reference}}|
The last hour would not come unless the Muslims will fight against the Jews and the Muslims would kill them until the Jews would hide themselves behind a stone or a tree and '''a stone or a tree would say: Muslim, or the servant of Allah, there is a Jew behind me; come and kill him'''; but the tree Gharqad would not say, for it is the tree of the Jews.
}}

According to the hadith, Muhammad himself used to hear voices from stones as well:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2277|reference}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: I recognise '''the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations''' before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}

====Time will pass more quickly (taqaarub az-zamaan)====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 10560|
لا تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَتَقَارَبَ الزَّمَانُ ، فَتَكُونَ السَّنَةُ كَالشَّهْرِ ، وَيَكُونَ الشَّهْرُ كَالْجُمُعَةِ ، وَتَكُونَ الْجُمُعَةُ كَالْيَوْمِ ، وَيَكُونَ الْيَوْمُ كَالسَّاعَةِ ، وَتَكُونَ السَّاعَةُ كَاحْتِرَاقِ السَّعَفَةِ

The Hour will not begin until time passes quickly, so a year will be like a month, and a month will be like a week, and a week will be like a day, and a day will be like an hour, and an hour will be like the burning of a braid of palm leaves.
}}

Islamic scholars have interpreted this variously, without any agreement as to the possible meaning:
{{Quote|[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/34618/one-of-the-signs-of-the-hour-is-that-time-will-pass-more-quickly islamqa.info: One of the signs of the Hour is that time will pass more quickly]|
The scholars differed concerning the meaning of the phrase taqaarub al-zamaan (time passing more quickly). '''There are many views''', the strongest of which is:

That the phrase taqaarub al-zamaan (time passing quickly) may be interpreted literally or metaphorically.
}}

====A man from Qahtan appears, driving the people with his stick====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7117|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till a man from Qahtan appears, driving the people with his stick."
}}

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qahtan_(tribe) Qahtan] still exists, but the prophecy remains unfulfilled. <ref>https://www.islamweb.net/ar/fatwa/418273/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B9%D8%8C-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A5%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9</ref>

====A man called Jahjah will occupy the throne====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2911|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The day and the night would not come to an end before a man called al-Jahjah would occupy the throne.
}}

*[https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/118597/%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%87%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86 Fatwa] (AR) puts this prophecy among non-fulfilled prophecies

====Conquest of Constantinopole without fighting and the Hour come together====
This hadith is considered da'eef by Albani (but sahih by Dhahabi):
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 14:331|
لتفتحن القسطنطينية، فلنعم الأمير أميرها، ولنعم الجيش ذلك الجيش

Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will her
leader be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!
}}

The predictions historically played a huge role in the continued Muslim jihads against the Roman (Byzantine) Empire, and when the Muslims finally conquered it in 1453 it was seen as the fulfillment of an eschatological vision of an apocalypse which never happened.

Another hadith adds that the Hour was expected to come with this conquest:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2239}}|
Anas bin Malik said:
"Constantinople will be conquered with the coming of the Hour."
}}

The coming of the Dajjal was expected right after the conquest:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4294|darussalam}} (hasan)|
Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The flourishing state of Jerusalem will be when Yathrib is in ruins, the ruined state of Yathrib will be when the great war comes, the outbreak of the great war will be at the conquest of Constantinople and the conquest of Constantinople when the Dajjal (Antichrist) comes forth. He (the Prophet) struck his thigh or his shoulder with his hand and said: This is as true as you are here or as you are sitting (meaning Mu'adh ibn Jabal).
}}

Another hadith mentions Romans attacking Dabiq before the conquest of Constantinople. The mention of swords makes it hard to re-interpret as a prophecy about another conquest of Constantinople in the future:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2897|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would not come until '''the Romans would land at al-A'maq or in Dabiq'''. An army consisting of the best (soldiers) of the people of the earth at that time will come from Medina (to counteract them). When they will arrange themselves in ranks, the Romans would say: Do not stand between us and those (Muslims) who took prisoners from amongst us. Let us fight with them; and the Muslims would say: Nay, by Allah, we would never get aside from you and from our brethren that you may fight them. They will then fight and a third (part) of the army would run away, whom Allah will never forgive. A third (part of the army) which would be constituted of excellent martyrs in Allah's eye, would be killed and the third who would never be put to trial would win and they would be conquerors of Constantinople. And as they would be busy in distributing the spoils of war (amongst themselves) after hanging their '''swords''' by the olive trees, the Satan would cry: '''The Dajjal''' has taken your place among your family. They would then come out, but it would be of no avail. And when they would come to Syria, he would come out while they would be still preparing themselves for battle drawing up the ranks. Certainly, the time of prayer shall come and then Jesus (peace be upon him) son of Mary would descend and would lead them. When the enemy of Allah would see him, it would (disappear) just as the salt dissolves itself in water and if he (Jesus) were not to confront them at all, even then it would dissolve completely, but Allah would kill them by his hand and he would show them their blood on his lance (the lance of Jesus Christ).
}}

Also:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4294|darussalam}} (hasan)|
Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The flourishing state of Jerusalem will be when Yathrib is in ruins, the ruined state of Yathrib will be when the great war comes, the outbreak of the great war will be at the conquest of Constantinople and the conquest of Constantinople when the Dajjal (Antichrist) comes forth. He (the Prophet) struck his thigh or his shoulder with his hand and said: This is as true as you are here or as you are sitting (meaning Mu'adh ibn Jabal).
}}

The conquest of Constantinople was predicted to happen without fighting, whereas in fact a fierce siege preceded the final fall of the city:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2920a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Apostle (may peace he upon him) saying:

You have heard about a city, one side of which is on land and the other is in the sea ('''Constantinople'''). They said: Allah's Messenger, yes. Thereupon he said: The Last Hour would not come unless seventy thousand persons from Bani lshaq would attack it. When they would land there, '''they will neither fight with weapons nor would shower arrows but would only say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," ''' and one side of it would fall. Thaur (one of the narrators) said: I think that he said: The part by the side of the ocean. Then they would say for the second time: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest" and the second side would also fall, and they would say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," and the gates would be opened for them and they would enter therein and, they would be collecting spoils of war and distributing them amongst themselves when a noise would be heard saying: Verily, Dajjal has come. And thus they would leave everything there and go back.
}}

Constantinople was [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople conquered in 1453] by fighting, the Dajjal didn't appear and the city was renamed to Istanbul.

====Conquest of Rome====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2900|reference}}|
Nafi' b. Utba reported:

We were with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) in an expedition that there came a people to Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) from the direction of the west. They were dressed in woollen clothes and they stood near a hillock and they met him as Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) was sitting. I said to myself: Better go to them and stand between him and them that they may not attack him. Then I thought that perhaps there had been going on secret negotiation amongst them. I however, went to them and stood between them and him and I remember four of the words (on that occasion) which I repeat (on the fingers of my hand) that he (Allah's Messenger) said: You will attack Arabia and Allah will enable you to conquer it, then you would attack Persia and He would make you to conquer it. '''Then you would attack Rome and Allah will enable you to conquer it, then you would attack the Dajjal and Allah will enable you to conquer him. Nafi' said: Jabir, we thought that the Dajjal would appear after Rome (Syrian territory) would be conquered.'''
}}

The Roman empire was conquered by Mehmet the Conqueror of the Turkish Ottoman dynasty in the 15th century, but the Dajjal did not appear after this event though many in the Muslim world thought he would.

====Byzantines will make truce with Muslims, betray them and attack them====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:

I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, '''and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.'''
}}
The prophecy is considered unfulfilled:
{{Quote|[https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/83460/hadith-about-the-romans-attacking-us-under-eighty-flags Hadith about the Romans attacking us under eighty flags]|
Imam Ibn al-Muneer said: 'Till this time the incident of gathering and attacking Rome in this huge number of soldiers has not happened yet. This matter has not taken place yet.
}}

====Conquest of India and the second coming of Jesus come together====
Also known as [[Ghazwa-e-hind|ghazwa-e-hind]].
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|25|3177}} (hasan) from The Book of Jihad, chapter "Invading India"|
It was narrated that Thawban, the freed slave of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), said:
"The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: 'There are two groups of my Ummah whom Allah will free from the Fire: The group that invades India (تَغْزُو الْهِنْدَ, ''taghzoo al-hind''), and the group that will be with Isa bin Maryam, peace be upon him.'"
}}

Early conquests of India happened in the 7th century (for example [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rasil Battle of Rasil]), while author of the hadith collection [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nasa%27i al-Nasa'i] lived in the 9th century.

The conquest of India is linked to the second coming of Jesus (Isa). In other (although weak) hadiths it's even more explicit:
{{Quote|Na‘eem ibn Hammaad, al-Fitan, p. 409 (daeef)|
The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said – and he mentioned India – then he said: “An army of yours will invade India and Allah will grant its conquest to them, until they bring their kings in chains, and Allah will forgive them their sins. Then they will return and when they return, they will find the son of Maryam in ash-Shaam (Syria).” Abu Hurayrah said: If I live to see that campaign, I will sell everything I possess and join the campaign. Then if Allah grants us victory and we return, then I will be Abu Hurayrah the freed (protected from Hellfire). And when we return to Syria we will find there ‘Eesa ibn Maryam. Then I shall make sure that I draw close to him and tell him that I accompanied you, O Messenger of Allah. The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) smiled and said: “Unlikely, unlikely.” [very difficult?]
}}

However, the second coming did not follow either these events:
{{Quote|[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/145636/hadith-about-the-conquest-of-india islamqa.info: Hadith about the conquest of India]|
What is mentioned in the hadith of Abu Hurayrah (may Allah have mercy on him), which was narrated by Na‘eem ibn Hammaad, about '''the conquest of India has not happened up till now''', but it will happen when ‘Eesaa ibn Maryam (peace be upon him) descends, if the hadith that says that is saheeh.
}}

====No more Khosrau and Caesar====
In Muhammad's time, the ruler of Persia was called Khosrau and the ruler of the Byzantine empire Caesar.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3027|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Khosrau will be ruined, and there will be no Khosrau after him, and Caesar will surely be ruined and there will be no Caesar after him, and you will spend their treasures in Allah's Cause." He called, "War is deceit'.
}}
There are many examples of this prophecy failing for both [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow Kusrau] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title) Caesar]. For example:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_Shah Khusrau Shah] was the king of the Justanids in the 10th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_Khan Khusrau Khan] was the Sultan of Delhi in the 14th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doukas_(Caesar) John Doukas] was a Caesar of the Byzantine empire in the 11th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror Mehmed the Conqueror] - a 15h century Muslim conqueror, also called himself Caesar

The prophecy is probably referring to the 7th century Islamic conquests. The prediction in Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

====Nations will soon call each other to attack Muslims====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4297|darussalam}}|
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The people will soon summon one another to attack you as people when eating invite others to share their dish. Someone asked: Will that be because of our small numbers at that time? He replied: No, you will be numerous at that time: but you will be scum and rubbish like that carried down by a torrent, and Allah will take fear of you from the breasts of your enemy and last enervation into your hearts. Someone asked: What is wahn (enervation). Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): He replied: Love of the world and dislike of death.
}}

This hadith was invoked by ISIS to rationalize the international coalition that formed against them.

====Romans would form a majority amongst people====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2898b|reference}}|
Mustaurid Qurashi reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: '''The Last Hour would come when the Romans would form a majority amongst people'''. This reached 'Amr b. al-'As and he said: What are these ahadith which are being transmitted from you and which you claim to have heard from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)? Mustaurid said to him: I stated only that which I heard from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). Thereupon 'Amr said: If you state this (it is true), for they have the power of tolerance amongst people at the time of turmoil and restore themselves to sanity after trouble, and are good amongst people so far as the destitute and the weak are concerned.
}}

The Roman (Byzantine) empire dissolved without the realization of this prophecy.

====Western people will triumphally follow the truth until the Hour====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1925|reference}}|
It has been narrated by Sa'd b. Abu Waqqas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

The people of the West will continue to triumphantly follow the truth until the Hour is established.
}}

====Twelve caliphs====
Shi'ite Imamology rests heavily upon this hadith, though has been continuously troubled by it (as have been Sunni scholars), as there appears to be no clear group of "twelve Caliphs" to have appeared in history:{{Quote|{{Muslim||1821d|reference}}|
It has been narrated on the authority of Jabir b. Samura who said:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Islam will continue to be triumphant until there have been '''twelve Caliphs'''. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said something which I could not understand. I asked my father: What did he say? He said: He has said that all of them (twelve Caliphs) will be from the Quraish.
}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1822a|reference}}|
It has been narrated on the authority of Amir b. Sa'd b. Abu Waqqas who said:

I wrote (a letter) to Jabir b. Samura and sent it to him through my servant Nafi', asking him to inform me of something he had heard from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). He wrote to me (in reply): I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say on Friday evening, the day on which al-Aslami was stoned to death (for committing adultery): '''The Islamic religion will continue until the Hour has been established, or you have been ruled over by twelve Caliphs, all of them being from the Quraish'''. also heard him say: A small force of the Muslims will capture the white palace, the police of the Persian Emperor or his descendants. I also heard him say: Before the Day of Judgment there will appear (a number of) impostors. You are to guard against them. I also heard him say: When God grants wealth to any one of you, he should first spend it on himself and his family (and then give it in charity to the poor). I heard him (also) say: I will be your forerunner at the Cistern (expecting your arrival).
}}

Commentaries by (Sunni) Islamic scholars:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar, Fathul-Bari, vol. 13, p.211|
لم ألق أحدا يقطع في هذا الحديث يعني بشيء معين

I have not met anyone who could be certain about the meaning of this hadith!
}}
{{Quote|Ibn Jouzi, Kashful-Majhool, vol.1 p.449|
هذا الحديث قد أطلت البحث عنه، وتطلّبت مظانّه، وسألت عنه، فما رأيت أحدا وقع على المقصود به

I have researched for long to understand this hadith and referred to many references and made much enquiries about it, yet I did not meet anyone who could understand it.
}}

====Rain which will destroy all dwellings except tents====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 7554 (sahih)|
حدثنا عبد الله حدثني أبي ثنا أبو كامل وعفان قالا ثنا حماد عن سهيل قال عفان في حديثه قال أنا سهيل بن أبي صالح عن أبيه عن أبي هريرة قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم : لا تقوم الساعة حتى يمطر الناس مطرا لا تكن منه بيوت المدر ولا تكن منه الا بيوت الشعر
تعليق شعيب الأرنؤوط : إسناده صحيح على شرط مسلم

The Hour will not come until there has been rain which
will destroy all dwellings except tents
}}
====Not living according to the sharia causes infighting between Muslims====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. '''Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”'''
}}

As the Muslim community split into warring factions very quickly after the death of the prophet, this hadith is almost certainly another example of ''vaticinium ex eventu'' about events of the various Muslim civil war, fitnahs, revolts, and unrest from the 7th and 8th centuries.

====12 thousand from Aden Abyan will make Islam victorious====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 5/33 (sahih)|
يخرجُ من عدنِ أَبْيَنَ اثنا عشرَ ألفًا ينصرونَ اللهَ ورسولَهُ هم خيرُ مَن بيني وبينهم

Out of Aden-Abyan will come 12000, giving victory to the (religion of) Allah and His Messenger. They are the best between me and them.
}}

====Group of Muslims will remain victorious until Allah's order====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7311|darussalam}}|
Narrated Al-Mughira bin Shu`ba:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "A group of my follower swill remain predominant (victorious) till Allah's Order (the Hour) comes upon them while they are still predominant (victorious).
}}

====Ninety-nine dragons in infidel's grave until the Hour====
{{Quote|Mishkat al-Masabih 134 (Hasan according to Zubair Alizai, Daeef according to Albani)|
Abu Sa'id reported God’s messenger as saying, “Ninety-nine dragons will be given power over an infidel in his grave, and will bite and sting him till the last hour comes. If one of those dragons were to breathe over the earth, it would bring forth no green thing."

Darimi transmitted it, and Tirmidhi transmitted something similar, but he said seventy instead of ninety-nine.
}}

====Periods of fitnah====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4242|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Umar:

When we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), he talked about periods of trial (fitnahs), mentioning many of them.

When he mentioned the one when people should stay in their houses, some asked him: Messenger of Allah, what is the trial (fitnah) of staying at home?

He replied: It will be flight and plunder. Then will come a test which is pleasant. Its murkiness is due to the fact that it is produced by a man from the people of my house, who will assert that he belongs to me, whereas he does not, for my friends are only the God-fearing. Then the people will unite under a man who will be like a hip-bone on a rib. Then there will be the little black trial which will leave none of this community without giving him a slap, and when people say that it is finished, it will be extended. During it a man will be a believer in the morning and an infidel in the evening, so that the people will be in two camps: the camp of faith which will contain no hypocrisy, and the camp of hypocrisy which will contain no faith. When that happens, expect the Antichrist (Dajjal) that day or the next.
}}

====Inheritance is not distributed====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2899a|reference}}|
لاَ تَقُومُ حَتَّى لاَ يُقْسَمَ مِيرَاثٌ وَلاَ يُفْرَحَ بِغَنِيمَةٍ

..The Last Hour would not come until shares of '''inheritance are not distributed''' and there is no rejoicing over spoils of war...
}}
====People don't rejoice over spoils of war====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2899a|reference}}|
لاَ تَقُومُ حَتَّى لاَ يُقْسَمَ مِيرَاثٌ وَلاَ يُفْرَحَ بِغَنِيمَةٍ

..The Last Hour would not come until shares of inheritance are not distributed and '''there is no rejoicing over spoils of war'''...
}}

====Muslims will soon flee to mountains from persecution====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||20|darussalam}}|
عَنْ أَبِي سَعِيدٍ الْخُدْرِيِّ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ أَنَّهُ قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ يُوشِكُ أَنْ يَكُونَ خَيْرَ مَالِ الْمُسْلِمِ غَنَمٌ يَتْبَعُ بِهَا شَعَفَ الْجِبَالِ وَمَوَاقِعَ الْقَطْرِ يَفِرُّ بِدِينِهِ مِنْ الْفِتَنِ

“Soon the best property of a Muslim will be a flock of sheep he takes to the top of a mountain, or in the valleys of rainfall, fleeing with his religion from tribulations.”
}}

====All believers will go to Syria====
{{Quote|Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain 8461 (sahih)|
يأتي على الناس زمان لا يبقى فيه مؤمن إلا لحق بالشام

A time will come to people when no believer remains except that he came over to As-Sham
}}

====Extinction of the Quraysh tribe====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 16/186 (sahih)|
أسرعُ قبائلِ العربِ فناءً قريشٌ ويوشكُ أن تمرَّ المرأةُ بالنعلِ فتقول إن هذا نعلُ قرشيُّ

The fastest Arab tribe in extinction is Quraysh. Soon a woman will pass by a sandal, then she will say that this is a sandal of a Qurashi.
}}

====Arabs will be exterminated and go to hell====
Hadith da'eef:
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|3967}} (da'eef) and others|
It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“There will be a tribulation which will utterly destroy the Arabs, and those who are slain will be in Hell. At that time the tongue will be worse than a blow of the sword.”
}}

====Last of the ummah will curse the first====
Fabricated (mawdu') hadith:
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|263}} (mawdu)|
It was narrated that Jabir said:
"The Messenger of Allah said: 'When the last people of this Ummah curse the first, (at that time) whoever conceals a Hadith will be concealing what Allah has revealed.'" (Maudu')
}}

====Pilgrimage to Makka will be abandoned====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1593|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said "The people will continue performing the Hajj and `Umra to the Ka`ba even after the appearance of Gog and Magog." Narrated Shu`ba extra: The Hour (Day of Judgment) will not be established till the Hajj (to the Ka`ba) is abandoned.
}}

====Disappearance of faith====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||148b|reference}}, chapter The Disappearance of Faith at the End of Time|
It is narrated on the authority of Anas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

"The Hour (Resurrection) will not occur as long as anyone says: 'Allah, Allah.'"
}}

This follows the theme of religion decreasing while sin increases before the end of times.

====Islam will be widespread====
Although Muhammad predicted that Islam will disappear, he also predicted that Islam will succeed:
{{Quote|Musnad Aḥmad 16509 (sahih)|
Tamim al-Dari reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “This matter will certainly reach every place touched by the night and day. Allah will not leave a house or residence but that Allah will cause this religion to enter it, by which the honorable will be honored and the disgraceful will be disgraced. Allah will honor the honorable with Islam and he will disgrace the disgraceful with unbelief.”
}}
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2176}} (sahih)|
"Indeed Allah gathered the earth for me so that I saw its east and its west. And surely my Ummah's authority shall reach over all that was shown to me of it.
}}

If these traditions go back to Muhammad, the seem to indicate different ideas Muhammad had about the future;otherwise they may indicate the feelings of the groups of people who fabricated these hadiths at later points in Muslim history.

====The Quran will disappear overnight====
{{Quote|Sunan al-Dārimī 3343 (hasan)|
عَنْ زِرٍّ عَنْ ابْنِ مَسْعُودٍ رضي الله عنه قَالَ لَيُسْرَيَنَّ عَلَى الْقُرْآنِ ذَاتَ لَيْلَةٍ فَلَا يُتْرَكُ آيَةٌ فِي مُصْحَفٍ وَلَا فِي قَلْبِ أَحَدٍ إِلَّا رُفِعَتْ

The Quran will vanish in one night. No verse in the scripture or in the heart of anyone will be left behind.
}}

====Islam will wear out====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4049}} (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A7+%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%A8</ref>|
يدرُسُ الإسلامُ كما يدرُسُ وَشيُ الثَّوبِ حتَّى لا يُدرَى ما صيامٌ، ولا صلاةٌ، ولا نسُكٌ، ولا صدَقةٌ، ولَيُسرى على كتابِ اللَّهِ عزَّ وجلَّ في ليلَةٍ، فلا يبقى في الأرضِ منهُ آيةٌ، وتبقَى طوائفُ منَ النَّاسِ الشَّيخُ الكبيرُ والعجوزُ، يقولونَ: أدرَكْنا آباءَنا على هذِهِ الكلمةِ، لا إلَهَ إلَّا اللَّهُ، فنحنُ نقولُها فقالَ لَهُ صِلةُ: ما تُغني عنهم: لا إلَهَ إلَّا اللَّهُ، وَهُم لا يَدرونَ ما صلاةٌ، ولا صيامٌ، ولا نسُكٌ، ولا صدقةٌ؟ فأعرضَ عنهُ حُذَيْفةُ، ثمَّ ردَّها علَيهِ ثلاثًا، كلَّ ذلِكَ يعرضُ عنهُ حُذَيْفةُ، ثمَّ أقبلَ علَيهِ في الثَّالثةِ، فقالَ: يا صِلةُ، تُنجيهِم منَ النَّار ثلاثًا

“Islam will wear out as embroidery on a garment wears out, until no one will know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are. The Book of Allah will be taken away at night, and not one Verse of it will be left on earth. And there will be some people left, old men and old women, who will say: “We saw our fathers saying these words: ‘La ilaha illallah’ so we say them too.” Silah said to him: “What good will (saying): La ilaha illallah do them, when they do not know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are?” Hudhaifah turned away from his. He repeated his question three times, and Hudhaifah turned away from him each time. Then he turned to him on the third time and said: “O Silah! It will save them from Hell,” three times.
}}

====Islam will end up like a snake crawling back into its hole====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||146|reference}}|
It is narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Umar ('Abdullah b. 'Umar) that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) observed:

Verily Islam started as something strange and it would again revert (to its old position) of being strange just as it started, and it would recede between the two mosques just as the serpent crawls back into its hole.
}}

In other hadith, Muhammad described belief in Islam as a snake:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1876|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Verily, Belief returns and goes back to Medina as a snake returns and goes back to its hole (when in danger).
}}

====Countries colonized by Muslims will stop paying them and Muslims will be poor again====
The hadith is in the chapter called "Making Endowments Of The Lands Of As-Sawad, And The Lands That Were Conquered By Force":
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3035|darussalam}}|
Abu Hurairah reported the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) as saying “Iraq will prevent its measure (qafiz) and dirham. Syria will prevent its measure (mudi) and dinar. Egypt will prevent its measure (irdabb) and dinar. Then you will return to the position where you started. Zuhair said this three times. The flesh and blood of Abu Hurairah witnessed it.
}}

====Buttocks of women of Daus are moving around the Yemenite Kaba====

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7116|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till '''the buttocks of the women of the tribe of Daus move while going round Dhi-al-Khalasa'''." Dhi-al-Khalasa was the idol of the Daus tribe which they used to worship in the Pre Islamic Period of ignorance.
}}

It was interpreted metaphorically as a rise of polytheism because the idol was destroyed and the people were killed before it came true :
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2476a|reference}}|
Jabir reported that there was in pre-Islamic days a temple called '''Dhu'l- Khalasah and it was called the Yamanite Ka'ba''' or the northern Ka'ba. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said unto me:

Will you rid me of Dhu'l-Khalasah and so I went forth at the head of 350 horsemen of the tribe of Ahmas and '''we destroyed it and killed whomsoever we found there'''. Then we came back to him (to the Holy Prophet) and informed him and he blessed us and the tribe of Ahmas.
}}

====People commonly have sex in the streets, like donkeys====
{{Quote|Sahih Ibn Hibban 6/345 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D9%8E%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%8E%D9%82%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%A9%D9%8F+%D8%AD%D9%8E%D8%AA%D9%91%D9%8E%D9%89+%D9%8A%D9%8E%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8E%D8%AF%D9%8E+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8F+%D9%81%D9%90%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%91%D9%8F%D8%B1%D9%8F%D9%82%D9%90+%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8F%D8%AF%D9%8E+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%92%D8%AD%D9%8E%D9%85%D9%90%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%90</ref>|
لا تقومُ السَّاعةُ حتَّى يتسافدَ النَّاسُ في الطُّرقِ تسافُدَ الحميرِ

The Hour shall not commence until the people engage in sexual
intercourse in the streets just like donkeys.
}}

Public sex was already happening among ancient civilizations.<ref>[https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/all-about-sex/201809/orgies-through-the-ages Orgies Through the Ages]</ref>

====Rise of polytheism====
{{Quote|Sunan Abi Dawud 4252|
..the Last Hour will not come before the tribes of my people attach themselves to the polytheists and tribes of my people worship idols..
}}
Polytheism has become less popular with time.

====People will worship goddesses Lat and Uzza again====
The goddesses [[Lat]] and [[Uzza]] were worshiped by Arabs before the Islamic conquest of Arabia.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2907a|reference}}|
'A'isha reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: '''The (system) of night and day would not end until the people have taken to the worship of Lat and 'Uzza'''. I said: Allah's Messenger, I think when Allah has revealed this verse:" He it is Who has sent His Messenger with right guidance, and true religion, so that He may cause it to prevail upon all religions, though the polytheists are averse (to it)" (ix. 33), it implies that (this promise) is going to be fulfilled. Thereupon he (Allah's Apostle) said: It would happen as Allah would like. Then Allah would send the sweet fragrant air by which everyone who has even a mustard grain of faith in Him would die and those only would survive who would have no goodness in them. And they would revert to the religion of their forefathers.
}}

====All believers will be killed by a wind from Allah and only evil people (= non-Muslims) will survive====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2907a|reference}}|
'A'isha reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: The (system) of night and day would not end until the people have taken to the worship of Lat and 'Uzza'. I said: Allah's Messenger, I think when Allah has revealed this verse:" He it is Who has sent His Messenger with right guidance, and true religion, so that He may cause it to prevail upon all religions, though the polytheists are averse (to it)" (ix. 33), it implies that (this promise) is going to be fulfilled. Thereupon he (Allah's Apostle) said: It would happen as Allah would like. '''Then Allah would send the sweet fragrant air by which everyone who has even a mustard grain of faith in Him would die''' and those only would survive who would have no goodness in them. And they would revert to the religion of their forefathers.
}}

====Killing neighbors and family members====
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 118 (classified as "very good" by Albani)|
عَنْ أَبِي مُوسَى‏ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم‏ لاَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَقْتُلَ الرَّجُلُ جَارَهُ وَأَخَاهُ وَأَبَاهُ

The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “The Hour will not be established until a man kills his neighbor, his brother, and his father.”
}}

====Abundance of deaths by lightning====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad, vol. 3 pg. 64/65 (sahih)|
تَكثُرُ الصَّواعِقُ عِندَ اقْتِرابِ السَّاعةِ، حتَّى يَأتيَ الرَّجُلُ القَومَ، فيقولَ: مَن صَعِقَ قِبَلَكمُ الغَداةَ؟ فيَقولون: صَعِقَ فُلانٌ وفُلانٌ.

There will be an abundance of lightning with the coming of the Hour, until a man comes to a tribe asking: Who was struck today? Then they say: So and so
}}
John Jensenius (a lightning specialist) said that the number of injuries and deaths caused by lightning is actually going down. <ref>https://www.cbsnews.com/news/are-lightning-strikes-becoming-more-common/</ref>

====Luka bin Luka will be the happiest person====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2209}} (sahih)|
Hudhaifah bin Al-Yaman narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"The Hour will not be established until the happiest of people in the world is Luka' bin Luka'."
}}

Scholars interpreted the name "Luka bin Luka" (لكع بن لكع) to mean "the most despicable/wicked/evil"<ref>https://www.islamweb.net/ar/fatwa/18510/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%89-%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB</ref> and "wickedness", rather than a specific person

====Wine, musical instruments and singing girls will turn Muslims into monkeys and pigs====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4020}}|
لَيَشْرَبَنَّ نَاسٌ مِنْ أُمَّتِي الْخَمْرَ يُسَمُّونَهَا بِغَيْرِ اسْمِهَا يُعْزَفُ عَلَى رُءُوسِهِمْ بِالْمَعَازِفِ وَالْمُغَنِّيَاتِ يَخْسِفُ اللَّهُ بِهِمُ الأَرْضَ وَيَجْعَلُ مِنْهُمُ الْقِرَدَةَ وَالْخَنَازِيرَ

It was narrated from Abu Malik Ash’ari that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“People among my nation will drink wine, calling it by another name, and musical instruments will be played for them and singing girls (will sing for them). Allah will cause the earth to swallow them up, and will turn them into monkeys and pigs.”
}}

Since the hadith literally says "is played upon their heads with musical instruments" (يُعْزَفُ عَلَى رُءُوسِهِمْ بِالْمَعَازِفِ) some claim that it is a prediction of headphones. But it says "played", not "placed" upon their heads, the word "instruments" is in the plural form and the singing girls are obviously real singing girls, while with head phones the singing would be included in the headphones. The interpretation that the word "musical instruments" (معازف) refers to musical instruments fits much better into the context.

Muhammad himself listened to singing girls, perhaps he was in a better mood since it was the day of Eid:{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||952|darussalam}}|
Narrated Aisha:

Abu Bakr came to my house while two small Ansari girls were singing beside me the stories of the Ansar concerning the Day of Buath. And they were not singers. Abu Bakr said protestingly, "Musical instruments of Satan in the house of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) !" It happened on the `Id day and Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "O Abu Bakr! There is an `Id for every nation and this is our `Id."
}}

Wine and singing was already mentioned in pre-Islamic Arab poetry:
{{Quote|Dhu Jadan al-Himyari, Sirat Rasul Allah p. 19|
Peace, confound you! You can't turn me from my purpose

Thy scolding dries my spittle!

To '''the music of singers''' in times past 'twas fine

When we drank our fill of purest noblest wine.

'''Drinking freely of wine brings me no shame'''

If my behaviour no boon-companion would blame.

For death no man can hold back Though he drink the perfumed potions of the quack.
}}

====Milking, clothes and tank before the Hour====
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 41:7054|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would come (so sudden) that a person would be milking the she- camel and the (milk) would not reach the brim of the vessel that the Last Hour would come, and the two persons would be engaged in buying and selling of the clothes and their bargain would not be struck before the Last Hour would come. And someone would be setting his tank in order and he would have hardly set it right when the Last Hour would come.
}}

====Allah will put pieces of the world on his fingers====
Muhammad agreed with this prophecy presented by a Jewish Scholar
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim Book 39, Hadith 6699|
Abdullah b. Mas'ud reported that a Jewish scholar came to Allah's Apostle (may peace he upon him) and said:

Muhammad, or Abu al-Qasim, verily, Allah, the Exalted and Glorious would carry the Heavens on the Day of Judgment upon one finger and earths upon one finger and the mountains and trees upon one finger and the ocean and moist earth upon one finger, and in fact the whole of the creation upon one finger, and then He would stir them and say: I am your Lord, I am your Lord. Thereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) smiled testifying what that scholar had said. He then recited this verse:" And they honour not Allah with the honour due to Him; and the whole earth will be in His grip on the Day of Resurrection and the heaven rolled up in His right hand. Glory be to Him I and highly Exalted is He above what they associate (with Him)" (Az-Zumar:67).
}}

====Medina banishes its evils====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1381|reference}}|
Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him) reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

A time will come for the people (of Medina) when a man will invite his cousin and any other near relation: Come (and settle) at (a place) where living is cheap, come to where there is plenty, but Medina will be better for them; would they know it! By Him in Whose Hand is my life, none amongst them would go out (of the city) with a dislike for it, but Allah would make his successor in it someone better than be. Behold. Medina is like furnace which eliminates from it the impurities. And '''the Last Hour will not come until Medina banishes its evils''' just as a furnace eliminates the impurities of iron.
}}
====Nobody will accept charity====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1411|darussalam}}|
Narrated Haritha bin Wahab:

I heard the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "O people! Give in charity as a time will come upon you when a person will wander about with his object of charity and will not find anybody to accept it, and one (who will be requested to take it) will say, "If you had brought it yesterday, would have taken it, but today I am not in need of it."
}}

====Not paying zakat will cause a lack of rain====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. '''They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them'''. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

====Swelling of crescents [The Moon]====
{{Quote|Sahih Al-Jami' 5898 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%85%D9%90%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%90+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8E%D9%91%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%A9%D9%90+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%81%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%90%D9%84%D9%8E%D9%91%D8%A9%D9%90&order=color</ref>|
مِنَ اقترابِ الساعَةِ انتفاخُ الأهِلَّةِ

From approaching of the Hour is the swelling of crescents
}}

====An Abyssinian will destroy the Kaba====
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 7:6953/2909c|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ﷺ as saying: It would be an Abyssinian having two small shanks who would destroy the House ol Allah, the Exalted and Glorious.
}}

====Collapse, transformation and stoning from the sky====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2185}} sahih|حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو كُرَيْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا صَيْفِيُّ بْنُ رِبْعِيٍّ، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عُمَرَ، عَنْ عُبَيْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عُمَرَ، عَنِ الْقَاسِمِ بْنِ مُحَمَّدٍ، عَنْ عَائِشَةَ، قَالَتْ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏"‏ يَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ هَذِهِ الأُمَّةِ خَسْفٌ وَمَسْخٌ وَقَذْفٌ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَتْ قُلْتُ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ أَنَهْلِكُ وَفِينَا الصَّالِحُونَ قَالَ ‏"‏ نَعَمْ إِذَا ظَهَرَ الْخَبَثُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ أَبُو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ غَرِيبٌ مِنْ حَدِيثِ عَائِشَةَ لاَ نَعْرِفُهُ إِلاَّ مِنْ هَذَا الْوَجْهِ ‏.‏ وَعَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ عُمَرَ تَكَلَّمَ فِيهِ يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ مِنْ قِبَلِ حِفْظِهِ ‏.‏

'Aishah narrated "The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
'In the end of this Ummah there will be a collapse, transformation, and Qadhf."' She said :"I said: 'O Messenger of Allah! Will they be destroyed while they are righteous among them?' He said: 'Yes, when evil is dominant."'
}}

It's just three vague words خَسْفٌ وَمَسْخٌ وَقَذْفٌ (khasf and maskh and qadhf). Tafsir:
{{Quote|Al-Munawi - Fayd al-Qadir|
3176 - (بين يدي الساعة مسخ) قلب الخلقة من شيء إلى شيء أو تحويل الصورة إلى أقبح منها أو مسخ القلوب (وخسف) أي غور في الأرض (وقذف) أي رمي بالحجارة من جهة السماء

maskh - transformation of creation from its shape to an uglier one

khasf - a depression in the Earth

qadhf - pelting with stones from the sky

}}

====Euphrates will uncover a mountain of gold soon====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7119|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "'''Soon the river "Euphrates" will disclose the treasure (the mountain) of gold''', so whoever will be present at that time should not take anything of it." Al-A'raj narrated from Abii Huraira that the Prophet (ﷺ) said the same but he said, "It (Euphrates) will uncover a mountain of gold (under it).
}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2894a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ﷺ as saying: The Last Hour would not come before the Euphrates uncovers a mountain of gold, for which people would fight. Ninety-nine out of each one hundred would die but every man amongst them would say that perhaps he would be the one who would be saved (and thus possess this gold).
}}

No mountain of gold was found uncovered by the Euphrates soon thereafter, let alone an exceptionally deadly conflict over the ownership of such gold. There is a gold mine more than a kilometer from the Euphrates which is claimed to fulfil the prophecy (the Copler mine in Erzincan province, Turkey). This was neither uncovered by the Euphrates, nor is it a mountain, nor has there been a deadly scramble to possess it.

The hadith prophecy is simply one adapted from the well known Biblical apocalypse, [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2016&version=NIV Revelation 16:12], "The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates, and its water was dried up to prepare the way for the kings from the East." In Revelation, this occurs in the context of a series of bowls of wrath poured out in highly symbolic language. The meaning is very obviously not literal.

====Gender ratio will be 50 women to 1 men====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||81|darussalam}}|
I will narrate to you a Hadith and none other than I will tell you about after it. I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying: From among the portents of the Hour are (the following): -1. Religious knowledge will decrease (by the death of religious learned men). -2. Religious ignorance will prevail. -3. There will be prevalence of open illegal sexual intercourse. -4. '''Women will increase in number and men will decrease in number so much so that fifty women will be looked after by one man.'''
}}

====Knowledge will be sought from young people====
{{Quote|al-Mu’jam al-Kabīr 908 (sahih)|
عَنْ أَبِي أُمَيَّةَ اللَّخْمِيِّ أَنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ إِنَّ مِنْ أَشْرَاطِ السَّاعَةِ ثَ أَنْ يُلْتَمَسَ الْعِلْمَ عِنْدَ الْأَصَاغِرِ

The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Verily, among the signs of the Hour is that knowledge will be sought from the young.”
}}

====Seventy-three sects====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|38|2640}} (hasan)|
Narrated Abu Hurairah:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "The Jews split into seventy-one sects, or seventy-two sects, and the Christians similarly, and my Ummah will split into seventy-three sects."
}}

====Emergence of Sufyani====
This hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|al-Mustadrak 4/520 (da'eef)|
يخرج رجل يقال له السفياني في عمق دمشق ، وعامة من يتبعه من كلب ، فيقتل حتى يبقر بطون النساء ويقتل الصبيان ، فتجمع لهم قيس فيقتلها حتى لا يمنع ذنب تلعة ، ويخرج رجل من أهل بيتي في الحرة فيبلغ السفياني فيبعث إليه جنداً من جنده فيهزمهم ، فيسير إليه السفياني بمن معه ، حتى إذا صار ببيداء من الأرض خسف بهم ، فلا ينجو منهم إلا المخبر عنهم

There will emerge a man called as-Sufyaani from the depths of Damascus, and most of those who follow him will be from (the tribe of) Kalb. He will kill many people until he rips open the bellies of women and kill children. (The tribe of) Qays will gather against him and he will kill them. A man from my family will emerge in the harrah, and news of that will reach as-Sufyaani. He will send troops against him and he will defeat them. Then as-Sufyaani will march towards him accompanied by those who are with him, then when he is in a plain, they will be swallowed up by the earth and none of them will be saved except the one who will tell others about them.
}}

====Muslims in mosque won't find an imam to lead them in prayer====
This hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|Sunan Abu Dawud Book 2, Hadith 581, chapter It Is Disliked To Refuse The Position Of Imam|
Narrated Sulamah daughter of al-Hurr:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: One of the signs of the Last Hour will be that people in a mosque will refuse to act as imam and will not find an imam to lead them in prayer.
}}

 
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||1|10|783}} chapter "When people are together and are all of the same status"|
It was narrated from Abu Sa'eed that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"when there are three people let one of them lead the prayer, and the one who is most entitled to lead the prayer is the one who has most knowledge of the Qur'an."
}}

This prophecy was included in a chapter called "It Is Disliked To Refuse The Position Of Imam", and is perhaps best understood as a sort of moral exhortation to lead prayer when a prayer needs to be led.

====Dajjal nor plague will be able to enter Medina====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2242}} (sahih)|
Anas narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"The Dajjal will come to Al-Madinah to find the angels have surrounded it. Neither the plague nor the Dajjal will enter it, if Allah wills."
}}Medina, historically, has not proven to be especially or at all plague-proof. Moreover, during plagues, the Saudi government (and the caliphates, historically) had to close off access to Mecca and Medina to prevent the spread of disease.

====Jesus will break the cross, kill the pigs and abolish Jizyah====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4078}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"The Hour will not begin until 'Eisa bin Maryam comes down as a just judge and a just ruler. He will break the cross, kill the pigs and abolish the Jizyah, and wealth will become so abundant that no one will accept it."
}}

====Gog and Magog will drink out the lake of Tiberias====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2937a|reference}}|
And then Allah would send Gog and Magog and they would swarm down from every slope. The first of them would pass the lake of Tiberias and drink out of it. And when the last of them would pass, he would say: There was once water there.
}}

Gog and Magog are described in the hadith and Quran as tribes on Earth blocked by a big iron wall, erected by
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn]]
, that will be unlocked at the end of times. There are supposed to be so many of them that they will drink the entire lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) dry.

====Gog and Magog will successfully dig through the wall====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4080}}|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
"Gog and Magog people dig every day until, when they can almost see the rays of the sun, the one in charge of them says: "Go back and we will dig it tomorrow." Then Allah puts it back, stronger than it was before. (This will continue) until, when their time has come, and Allah wants to send them against the people, they will dig until they can almost see the rays of the sun, then the one who is in charge of them will say: "Go back, and we will dig it tomorrow if Allah wills.' So '''they will say: "If Allah wills." Then they will come back to it and it will be as they left it. So they will dig and will come out to the people''', and they will drink all the water. The people will fortify themselves against them in their fortresses. They will shoot their arrows towards the sky and they will come back with blood on them, and they will say: "We have defeated the people of earth and dominated the people of heaven." Then Allah will send a worm in the napes of their necks and will kill them thereby.'" The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "By the One in Whose Hand is my soul, the beasts of the earth will grow fat on their flesh."
}}

====Muslims will use bows, arrows and shields of Gog and Magog as firewood for 7 years====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4076}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Nawwas bin Sam'an that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
"The Muslims will use the bows, arrows and shields of Gog and Magog as firewood, for seven years.'"
}}

==See also==

*[[Quranic Prophecies]]

External:

*[https://www.marefa.org/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 List of Muhammad's prophecies] (Arabic)
*[https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Biblical_prophecies#Criteria_for_a_true_prophecy RationalWiki: Biblical prophecies, Criteria for a true prophecy] (could be analogically applied to Islamic prophecies)
*[https://detechter.com/15-ancient-hindu-predictions-that-have-come-true/#List_of_15_Ancient_Hindu_Prophecy_From_Bhagavata_Purana 15 Hindu predictions] - ''Comparing and contrasting Islamic prophecies with those of other religions' scriptures predictions is instructive''

==References==

[[Category:Prophecies]]
<references />
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Eschatology]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Qadr (fate)]]

Prophecies in the Hadith

2026-02-24T20:08:02Z

Lightyears: /* The land of Arabia reverts to meadows and rivers */

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Muhammad's prophecies are predictions attributed to him and written hundreds of years after his [[Muhammad's Death|death]]. Many prophecies are considered "signs of the Hour" (Islamic eschatology). Some prophecies are general statements that may apply to times even before Islam, other prophecies predict early Islamic history (which happened before the predictions were written) and some prophecies make predictions about the the future to come after the hadiths were written.

Prophecies in this article are from the hadiths. Quranic prophecies have a [[Quranic Prophecies|separate article]].
==Signs of the Hour==
"The Hour" (الساعة) refers to a period of time on the Day of Judgement.
{{Quote|{{Quran|30|55}}|
And '''the Day the Hour''' appears the criminals will swear they had remained but an hour. Thus they were deluded."
}}

Signs of the Hour indicate that the Hour (and the end of the world) is coming. They were divided by scholars into minor and major. The major signs are contained in this hadith:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2901a|reference}}|
Hudhaifa b. Usaid al-Ghifari reported:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) came to us all of a sudden as we were (busy in a discussion). He said: What do you discuss about? They (the Companions) said. We are discussing about the Last Hour. Thereupon he said: It will not come until you see ten signs before and (in this connection) he made a mention of the smoke, Dajjal, the beast, the rising of the sun from the west, the descent of Jesus son of Mary (Allah be pleased with him), the Gog and Magog, and land-slides in three places, one in the east, one in the west and one in Arabia at the end of which fire would burn forth from the Yemen, and would drive people to the place of their assembly.
}}

The minor signs indicate that the Hour is "getting closer", while the major signs indicate that the Hour will happen immediately after them. The first major sign is coming of the Dajjal and Muhammad thought that it might happen during his life or during life of his companions:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4321|darussalam}}|"Al-nawwas b. Sim’an al-Kilabi said:
'''The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) mentioned the Dajjal (Antichrist) saying: If he comes forth while I am among you''' I shall be the one who will dispute with him on your behalf, but if he comes forth when I am not among you, a man must dispute on his own behalf, and Allah will take my place in looking after every Muslim. Those of you who live up to his time should recite over him the opening verses of Surat al – Kahf, for they are your protection from his trial. We asked: How long will he remain on the earth ? He replied : Forty days, one like a year, one like a month, one like a week, and rest of his days like yours. We asked : Messenger of Allah, will one day’s prayer suffice us in this day which will be like a year ? He replied : No, you must make an estimate of its extent. Then Jesus son of Marry will descend at the white minaret to the east of Damascus. He will then catch him up at the date of Ludd and kill him."}}
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2234}} (hasan)|"Abu 'Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah said:
"I heard the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w): 'There was never a Prophet after Nuh but that he warned his people about '''the Dajjal''', and indeed I shall warn you of him.' Then the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) described him for us, and he said: "Perhaps some of '''you who see me, or hear my words shall live to see him'''." They said: "O Messenger of Allah! How will our hearts be on that day?" He said: "The same – that is, as today – or better.”"}}

Some reject the hadiths of the signs of the Hour <ref>http://bayanelislam.net/Suspicion.aspx?id=03-02-0071</ref>, because a Quranic verse indicates that the Hour will come by surprise (not after seeing clear signs) and that only Allah has knowledge about the Hour (not Muhammad):
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|187}}|
They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ regarding the Hour, “When will it be?” Say, “That knowledge is only with my Lord. He alone will reveal it when the time comes. It is too tremendous for the heavens and the earth and will only take you by surprise.” They ask you as if you had full knowledge of it. Say, “That knowledge is only with Allah, but most people do not know.”
}}

*7th century Arabs didn't have the concept of "an hour" meaning 60 minutes. An hour (ساعة) just meant a period of time [shorter than a day]. <ref>AR: https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/140286/%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%87%D9%88-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB-%D9%88%D9%87%D9%84-%D9%87%D9%88-%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AF%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9</ref>
*Most prophecies are linked to the Hour
*The Hour is expected to happen on Friday <ref>{{Muslim|4 |1857|}}</ref>

==Retrodictions and Reiterating Biblical Prophecy==
The hadith collections were written, often by Persian authors, hundreds of years after the death of Muhammad. So when the hadiths contain a prophecy about early Islamic history, they are likely only being attributed to Muhammad after the fact, a phenomenon referred to in religious studies as "vaticinium ex eventu" or "prophecy after the fact." This category also includes things that always happened, even before Islam (earthquakes, wars, people being dishonest...) and prophecies copied from the Bible.

===Fabrication of hadiths===
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim, Introduction, Narration 15 https://sunnah.com/muslim:7|
يَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ الزَّمَانِ دَجَّالُونَ كَذَّابُونَ يَأْتُونَكُمْ مِنَ الأَحَادِيثِ بِمَا لَمْ تَسْمَعُوا أَنْتُمْ وَلاَ آبَاؤُكُمْ فَإِيَّاكُمْ وَإِيَّاهُمْ لاَ يُضِلُّونَكُمْ وَلاَ يَفْتِنُونَكُمْ

The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah upon him, said:
‘There will be in the end of time charlatan liars coming to you with narrations (hadiths) that you nor your fathers heard, so beware of them lest they misguide you and cause you tribulations’.
}}
This hadith must in fact be fabricated; there's no evidence that the words and deeds of the prophet were collected in hadith collections at all during his lifetime, since if his opinion was needed on a subject he could just be asked, and there's no evidence of any of these narrations before the dawn of the 8th century. That the author felt the need to fabricate a hadith to stop other people from fabricating hadiths is telling.

===The caliphate will last 30 years===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2226}}|
Sa'eed bin Jumhan narrated:
"Safinah narrated to me, he said: 'The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said: "'''Al-Khilafah will be in my Ummah for thirty years''', then there will be monarchy after that."' Then Safinah said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of Abu Bakr,' then he said: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Umar and the Khilafah of 'Uthman.' Then he said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Ali."' He said: "So we found that they add up to thirty years." Sa'eed said: "I said to him: 'Banu Umaiyyah claim that the Khilafah is among them.' He said: 'Banu Az-Zarqa' lie, rather they are a monarchy, among the worst of monarchies."'
}}

*Tirmidhi, author of this hadith collection, was born in 824, more than 100 years after the end of the caliphate
*The hadith in it's text is in the context of discussion about previous caliphates
*The political system after the first caliphate, was still called a caliphate. There was some form of caliphate until the 20th century

===Rulership of the foolish after Muhammad===
{{Quote|Mishkat al-Masabih 3700|
Ka'b b. ‘Ujra told that God's Messenger said to him, “I commend you to God to protect you from '''the rulership of the foolish''' (إمارةِ السُّفهاءِ).” He asked what that was, and God’s Messenger replied, “'''After my time''' governors will arise whose falsehood will be believed and who will be assisted in their oppression by those who enter their presence. They have nothing to do with me and I have nothing to do with them, and they will never come down to me at the Pond. But they who do not enter their presence, believe their falsehood and help them in their oppression, those belong to me and I belong to them, and those ones will come down to me at the Pond.”}}

===Vile men control affairs of the people===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|36|5|36|4036}} (hasan)|
..and the Ruwaibidah will decide matters.’ It was said: ‘Who are the Ruwaibidah?’ He said: ‘Vile and base men who control the affairs of the people.’”
}}
===Return of the caliphate===
The hadith was sent to a new caliph Umar II:
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 4/273, 18430 (hasan)|
حدثنا عبد الله حدثني أبي ثنا سليمان بن داود الطيالسي حدثني داود بن إبراهيم الواسطي حدثني حبيب بن سالم عن النعمان بن بشير قال : كنا قعودا في المسجد مع رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم وكان بشير رجلا يكف حديثه فجاء أبو ثعلبة الخشني فقال يا بشير بن سعد أتحفظ حديث رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم في الأمراء فقال حذيفة أنا أحفظ خطبته فجلس أبو ثعلبة فقال حذيفة قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم تكون النبوة فيكم ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء ان يرفعها ثم تكون خلافة على منهاج النبوة فتكون ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء الله أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا عاضا فيكون ما شاء الله ان يكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا جبرية فتكون ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء ان يرفعها ثم تكون خلافة على منهاج النبوة ثم سكت قال حبيب فلما قام عمر بن عبد العزيز وكان يزيد بن النعمان بن بشير في صحابته فكتبت إليه بهذا الحديث أذكره إياه فقلت له انى أرجو ان يكون أمير المؤمنين يعنى عمر بعد الملك العاض والجبرية فادخل كتابي على عمر بن عبد العزيز فسر به وأعجبه
تعليق شعيب الأرنؤوط : إسناده حسن

It was narrated by Ahmed in his Musnad, from Al-Nu’man b.Bashir, who said: “We were sitting in the mosque of the Messenger of Allah(saw), and Bashir was a man who did not speak much, so Abu Tha’labah Al-Khashnee came and said: ‘Oh, Bashir bin Sa’ad, have you memorized the words of the Messenger of Allah (saw) regarding the rulers?’ Huthayfah replied, ‘I have memorized his words’. So Abu Tha’labah sat down and Huthayfah said, ‘The Messenger of Allah (saw) said ‘'''Prophet-hood will be among you''' as long as Allah wishes, then He will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a Khilafah on the way of the Prophet''', and it will be as long as Allah wishes it to be, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be an inheritance rule''', and it will last as long as Allah wishes it to, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a coercive rule''', and it will last as long as Allah wishes it to be, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a Khilafah on the way of Prophet-hood'''.’ Then he (saw) was silent.” Habib said: “When '''Umar ibn AbdulAziz became caliph I wrote to him, mentioning this tradition to him''' and saying, “I hope '''you will be the commander of the faithful after the biting and the oppressive kingdoms'''. ”It pleased and charmed him, i.e. Umar ibn AbdulAziz.”
}}
Umar II died in 720 and he was expected to bring back the good old caliphate. Musnad Ahmad was written in the 9th century.

==="Prophet, siddiq and two martyrs"===
In this hadith the future caliphs are usually mentioned in the order in which they will be caliphs (strongly suggesting these were written later by someone who already knew the order):
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3686|darussalam}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:

The Prophet (ﷺ) ascended the mountain of Uhud and he was accompanied by '''Abu Bakr, `Umar and `Uthman'''. The mountain shook beneath them. The Prophet (ﷺ) hit it with his foot and said, "O Uhud ! Be firm, for on you there is none but a '''Prophet, a Siddiq and a martyr (i.e. and two martyrs)'''.
}}

The hadith was interpreted as a vague prediction that Abu Bakr will die naturally and Umar and Uthman will be killed. The 3 caliphs were in the 7th century. Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

===Khawarij===
According to Islamic scholars, this hadith is about the coming of the Khawarij:
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|37|4107}}|
It was narrated that 'Ali said:
"I heard the Messenger of Allah [SAW] say: 'At the end of time there will appear young people with foolish minds. Their faith will not pass through their throats, and they will go out of Islam as an arrow goes through the target. If you meet them, then kill them, for killing them will bring reward to the one who killed them on the Day of Resurrection.'"
}}

Khawarij ("The Leavers") left the army of the caliph Ali in the middle of the 7th century. The prediction was written in the middle of the 9th century, two hundred years later.

The prophecy says "at the end of time". The Khawarij appeared more than a thousand years ago.

===Places of killed people at the battle of Badr===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1779|reference}}|
..Then the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: This is the place where so and so would be killed. He placed his hand on the earth (saying) here and here; (and) none of them fell away from the place which the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) had indicated by placing his hand on the earth.
}}

According to the [[Sira]], the Battle of Badr was in the 7th century. This hadith collection was authored in the 9th century.

===Earthquakes will increase===
It's a part of a longer hadith as one of the signs of the end of the world:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7121|darussalam}}|
.. and earthquakes will increase in number..
}}

There were always earthquakes, increasing and decreasing. There is a report that earthquakes happened also during the life of Muhammad:
{{Quote|[https://sunnah.com/bulugh/2/441 Bulugh al-Maram 2:509]|
He [the Prophet (ﷺ)] prayed during an earthquake six bowings and four prostrations, and said, "This is the way the Prayer of the Signs (of Allah) is offered.
}}

Earthquakes were also predicted in the Bible:
{{Quote|Luke 21:9-11|
When you hear of wars and uprisings, do not be frightened. These things must happen first, but the end will not come right away.”

Then he said to them: “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. '''There will be great earthquakes''', famines and pestilences in various places, and fearful events and great signs from heaven.
}}

===Rain is hot===
This hadith is classified as mawdu (fabricated). <ref>https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/265083/%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9</ref> It's part of a long hadith about coming of the Hour:
{{Quote|al-Tabarani, Mu'jam al-Kabir 10/228 (mawdu')|
وَأَنْ يَكُونَ الْمَطَرُ قَيْظًا

and that rain will be hot

}}

It was also mentioned in Lane's lexicon:
{{Quote|Lane's lexicon on قَيْظٌ <ref>http://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/21_q/239_qyZ.html</ref>|
لَا تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَكُونَ الوَلَدُ غَيْظًا والمَطَرُ قَيْظًا, a saying of Moḥammad, meaning [The resurrection, or the time thereof, will not come to pass until the birth of a child be an occasion of wrath, or rage, and] rain be accompanied by air like the قيظ [or '''most vehement heat of summer''']. (TA.)
}}

The word قيظ (''qayz'') was also mentioned in a different hadith meaning "hot weather":{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad Vol. 1, Book 1, Hadith 6 (Hasan)|
Rifa'ah bin Rafi' said:
I heard Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq say on the minbar of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) : I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say, and Abu Bakr wept when he remembered the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) , then he recovered and said. I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say, in this '''hot weather''' (القيظ) last year: `Ask Allah for forgiveness, well-being and certainty of faith in the Hereafter and in this world.”
}}

Some insist that the word قيظ means "acidic".

===Strong wind===
Muhammad predicted a strong wind on the same day it happened, so there was probably already a wind getting stronger:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1481|darussalam}}|
..When we reached Tabuk, the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "There will be a strong wind tonight and so no one should stand and whoever has a camel, should fasten it." So we fastened our camels. A strong wind blew at night and a man stood up and he was blown away to a mountain called Taiy..
}}
The prophecy was written in the 9th century.

===Child is filled with rage===
This is a part of a fabricated (mawdu') hadith.
{{Quote|al-Tabarani, Mu'jam al-Kabir 10/228 (mawdu')|
وإن من أعلام الساعة وأشراطها: أن يكون الولد غيظاً، وأن يكون المطر قيظاً

And from the signs of the Hour is that '''a boy will be enraged''' and that water will be hot
}}
Angry children have been around since time immemorial.

===Muhammad's death===
Muhammad predicted that he will die. The prediction doesn't contain any specific information about his death:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "'''Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death''', the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}

The context is that it will be a sign that the Hour is coming. But Muhammad died more than a thousand years ago and the Hour didn't come.

===Muhammad's wife with the longest arm will die first===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1420|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Aisha:

Some of the wives of the Prophet asked him, "Who amongst us will be the first to follow you (i.e. die after you)?" He said, "Whoever has the longest hand." So they started measuring their hands with a stick and Sauda's hand turned out to be the longest. (When Zainab bint Jahsh died first of all in the caliphate of 'Umar), we came to know that the long hand was a symbol of practicing charity, so she was the first to follow the Prophet and she used to love to practice charity. (Sauda died later in the caliphate of Muawiya).
}}

It's questionable whether the prophecy was metaphorical and fulfilled or whether it was literal and hence re-interpreted. Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

===Muhammad's daughter Fatima will die first from his family===
During Muhammad's illness, Fatima was walking like Muhammad, so she also had signs of illness:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2450c|reference}}|
`A'isha reported that all the wives of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) had gathered (in her apartment) '''during the days of his (Prophet's) last illness ''' and no woman was left behind that '''Fatima, who walked after the style of Allah's Messenger''' (ﷺ), came there. He welcomed her by saying:

You are welcome, my daughter, and made her sit on his right side or on his left side, and then talked something secretly to her and Fatima wept. Then he talked something secretly to her and she laughed. I said to her: What makes you weep? She said: I am not going to divulge the secret of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). I (`A'isha) said: I have not seen (anything happening) like today, the happiness being more close to grief (as I see today) when she wept. I said to her: Has Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) singled you out for saying something leaving us aside? She then wept and I asked her what he said, and she said: I am not going to divulge the secrets of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). And when he died I again asked her and she said that he (the Holy Prophet) told her: Gabriel used to recite the Qur'an to me once a year and for this year it was twice and so I perceived that my death had drawn near, and that '''I (Fatima) would be the first amongst the members of his family who would meet him (in the Hereafter)'''. He shall be my good forerunner and it made me weep. He again talked to me secretly (saying): Aren't you pleased that you should be the sovereign amongst the believing women or the head of women of this Ummah? And this made me laugh.
}}

===A plague kills many Muslims===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, '''a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep''', the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}
It was interpreted as a prophecy about the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas Plague of Amwas] (638-639), which is considered a re-emergence of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian the Plague of Justinian] (541-549), so there was a precedent.

The prediction was written in the 9th century.

===Sexual immorality (abominations)===
{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: '''Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them'''. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

Sexual immorality (or "abomination") was nothing new in the 7th century. The Old Testament mentions such a story:
{{Quote|The Bible, Genesis 19:3-8|
He prepared a meal for them, baking bread without yeast, and they ate. Before they had gone to bed, all the men from every part of the city of Sodom—both young and old—surrounded the house. They called to Lot, “Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us so that we can have sex with them.” Lot went outside to meet them and shut the door behind him and said, “No, my friends. Don’t do this wicked thing. Look, I have two daughters who have never slept with a man. Let me bring them out to you, and you can do what you like with them.
}}

In the New Testament Jesus spoke to a woman who had many sexual partners:
{{Quote|The Bible, John 4:16-18|
“Go and get your husband,” Jesus told her.

“I don’t have a husband,” the woman replied.

Jesus said, “You’re right! You don’t have a husband— for you have had five husbands, and you aren’t even married to the man you’re living with now. You certainly spoke the truth!”
}}

There were also abominations happening in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5134|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Aisha:

that the Prophet (ﷺ) married her when '''she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old'''. Hisham said: I have been informed that `Aisha remained with the Prophet (ﷺ) for nine years (i.e. till his death).
}}

Plagues and diseases also happened throughout whole history. Plagues (pestilences) were also predicted in the Bible, hundreds of years before Muhammad:{{Quote|Luke 21:9-11|
When you hear of wars and uprisings, do not be frightened. These things must happen first, but the end will not come right away.”

Then he said to them: “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be great earthquakes, famines and '''pestilences''' in various places, and fearful events and great signs from heaven.
}}
===Homosexuality===
This is a fabricated (mawdu') hadith:
{{Quote|Tabarani, al-Mu'jim al-kabeer 10/228 (mawdu')|
يا ابن مسعود إن من أعلام الساعة وأشراطها أن يكتفي الرجال بالرجال والنساء بالنساء

..O Ibn Mas'ud, indeed from the signs of the Hour is that men are content with men and women with women..
}}

It typifies the predictions of increased sin and licentiousness before the apocalypse.
===Women naked, but dressed (wearing revealing clothes)===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2128|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) having said this:

Two are the types of the denizens of Hell whom I did not see: people having flogs like the tails of the ox with them and they would be beating people, and '''the women who would be dressed but appear to be naked, who would be inclined (to evil) and make their husbands incline towards it. Their heads would be like the humps of the bukht camel inclined to one side'''. They will not enter Paradise and they would not smell its odour whereas its odour would be smelt from such and such distance.
}}

Some apologists present it as something new that happens in the 21st century and Muhammad couldn't have guessed it.
{{Quote|islamqa.info: Commentary on the hadeeth; “two types of the people of Hell whom I have not seen…” <ref>https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47017/commentary-on-the-hadeeth-two-types-of-the-people-of-hell-whom-i-have-not-seen</ref>|
This hadeeth is one of the miracles of Prophethood, for these two types of people have appeared, and '''they exist now, as al-Nawawi (may Allaah have mercy on him) said.'''
}}
Al-Nawawi lived in the 13th century.

Islamic sources say that there were naked women circumambulating around the Kaba in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||3|24|2959}}|
It was narrated from Saeed bin Jubair that Ibn Abbas said:
"Women used to circumambulate the Kabah naked, saying: 'Today some, or all of it will appear And whatever appers I don't make is permissible.' Then the following was revealed: 'O Children of Adam! Take your adornment to every Masjid.'"
}}

There is also a hadith with the same terminology of dressed (كاسيات) and undressed (عاريات) but in a different context:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1126|darussalam}}|
Narrated Um Salama:

One night the Prophet (ﷺ) got up and said, "Subhan Allah! How many afflictions Allah has revealed tonight and how many treasures have been sent down (disclosed). Go and wake the sleeping lady occupants of these dwellings up (for prayers), perhaps a well '''dressed''' (كاسية) in this world may be '''naked''' (عارية) in the Hereafter."
}}

===Widespread adultery===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2671a|reference}}|
Anas b. Malik reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

It is from the conditions of the Last Hour that knowledge would be taken away and ignorance would prevail (upon the world), the liquor would be drunk, and '''adultery would become rampant'''.
}}

This is again a prediction of sin and licentiousness before the end of the world.
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1405d|reference}}|
Jabir b. 'Abdullah reported:

We contracted temporary marriage giving a handful of (tales or flour as a dower during the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and during the time of Abu Bakr until 'Umar forbade it in the case of 'Amr b. Huraith.
}}

There is also a fabricated (mawdu') prophecy about illegitimate children:
{{Quote|Tabarani, al-Mu'jim al-kabeer 10/228 (mawdu')|
يَا ابْنَ مَسْعُودٍ ، إِنَّ مِنْ أَعْلَامِ السَّاعَةِ وَأَشْرَاطِهَا أَنْ يَكْثُرَ أَوْلَادُ الزِّنَا

O Ibn Mas'ud, indeed from the signs of the Hour is that there are many children from adultery
}}

===Abundant wealth===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4047}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“The Hour will not begin until '''wealth becomes abundant''' and tribulations appear, and Harj increases.” They said: “What is Harj, O Messenger of Allah?” He said: '''“Killing, killing, killing,”''' three times.
}}

This hadith may go back to an earlier point in time or even to Muhammad himself; the Qur'an is full of expectations that "the Hour" id est the day of judgement, is imminent, and the background of the Qur'an in the ancient near east was the apacolyptic war between the Byzantine and Sassanid empire which was ravaging the near east at the time.

===Men obey their wives===
The hadith is daif:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}}|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, '''a man obeys his wife''' and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

It was mentioned among negative things, that indicates that a woman being dominant in marriage is an evil thing. But it appears that the patriarchy was not universal even in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2468|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas: ...We, the people of Quraish, used to have authority over women, but when we came to live with the Ansar, we noticed that '''the Ansari women had the upper hand over their men''', so our women started acquiring the habits of the Ansari women. Once I shouted at my wife and she paid me back in my coin and I disliked that she should answer me back....}}

===Fire in Hijaz illuminates necks of camels in Busra===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7118|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till a fire will come out of the land of Hijaz, and it will throw light on the necks of the camels at Busra."
}}
There was a lava eruption in Hijaz in the year 1256 ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrat_Rahat Harrat Rahat]) which is considered by Muslims as fulfillment. That's the last eruption, but the eruption before that was in 640 - 641 A.D. during the reign of Umar.<ref>
Volcanic history of the northernmost part of the Harrat Rahat volcanic field, Saudi Arabia
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/14/3/1253/529993/Volcanic-history-of-the-northernmost-part-of-the</ref> The unspecified date of occurrence makes this prediction one that might be referenced perennially

===Making halal what was haram===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5590|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu 'Amir or Abu Malik Al-Ash'ari:

He heard that the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "From among my followers there will be some '''people who will consider illegal sexual intercourse, the wearing of silk, the drinking of alcoholic drinks and the use of musical instruments, as lawful.''' And there will be some people who will stay near the side of a mountain and in the evening their shepherd will come to them with their sheep and ask them for something, but they will say to him, 'Return to us tomorrow.' Allah will destroy them during the night and will let the mountain fall on them, and He will transform the rest of them into monkeys and pigs and they will remain so till the Day of Resurrection."
}}

According to the Qur'an, Jews and Christians took their rabbis and monks as lords, because the rabbis and monks ''made lawful'' for them what Allah forbade. <ref>Quran 9:31, tafsir Ibn Kathir</ref>

===Slave woman gives birth to her master/mistress===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||50|darussalam}}|One day while the Prophet (ﷺ) was sitting in the company of some people, (The angel) Gabriel came and asked, "What is faith?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, 'Faith is to believe in Allah, His angels, (the) meeting with Him, His Apostles, and to believe in Resurrection." Then he further asked, "What is Islam?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "To worship Allah Alone and none else, to offer prayers perfectly to pay the compulsory charity (Zakat) and to observe fasts during the month of Ramadan." Then he further asked, "What is Ihsan (perfection)?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "To worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of devotion then you must consider that He is looking at you." Then he further asked, "When will the Hour be established?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "The answerer has no better knowledge than the questioner. But I will inform you about its portents.

1. When a slave (lady) gives birth to her master.

2. When the shepherds of black camels start boasting and competing with others in the construction of higher buildings. And the Hour is one of five things which nobody knows except Allah.

The Prophet (ﷺ) then recited: "Verily, with Allah (Alone) is the knowledge of the Hour--." (31. 34) Then that man (Gabriel) left and the Prophet (ﷺ) asked his companions to call him back, but they could not see him. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "That was Gabriel who came to teach the people their religion." Abu 'Abdullah said: He (the Prophet) considered all that as a part of faith.}}
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|63}} (sahih)|
"We were sitting with the Prophet (ﷺ) when a man came to him whose clothes were intensely white and whose hair was intensely black; no signs of travel could be seen upon him, and none of us recognized him. He sat down facing the Prophet (ﷺ), with his knees touching his, and he put his hands on his thighs, and said: 'O Muhammad, what is Islam?' He said: 'To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah, and that I am the Messenger of Allah, to establish regular prayer, to pay Zakat, to fast in Ramadan, and to perform Hajj to the House (the Ka'bah).' He said: 'You have spoken the truth.' We were amazed by him: He asked a question, then told him that he had spoken the truth. Then he said: 'O Muhammad, what is Iman faith? He said: 'To believe in Allah, His angels, His Messengers, His books, the Last day, and the Divine Decree (Qadar), both the good of it and the bad of it.' He said' You have spoken the truth.' We were amazed by him. He asked a question, then told him that he had spoken the truth. Then he said: 'O Muhammad, what is Ihsan (right action, goodness, sincerity)? He said: 'To worship Allah as if you see Him, for even though you do not see Him, He sees you.' He asked: "When will the Hour be?' He said: 'The one who is being asked about it does not know more than the one who is asking.' He asked: 'Then what are its signs?' he said: 'When the slave woman gives birth to her mistress' (Waki' said: This means when non-Arabs will give birth to Arabs") 'and when you see barefoot, naked, destitute shepherds competing in constructing tall buildings.' The Prophet (ﷺ) met me three days later and asked me: 'Do you know who that man was? I said" 'Allah and his Messenger know best.' He said: 'That was Jibril, who came to you to teach you your religion.'"}}

According to Nawawi, the opinion of the majority of scholars is that Muslims will enslave non-Muslim women and have kids with them and the kids will be masters of their mothers because the kids are Muslims. <ref>https://quranacademy.io/blog/an-nawawis-hadith-2-hadith-of-jibreel-3/</ref> Ibn Hajar (who lived later) didn't like this interpretation, because the enslavement was already happening during the time of Muhammad, so it wasn't really a prophecy of the future.

Ibn Hajar and others, as a result, like to interpret it as kids treating their mothers like slaves. This is not compatible with Waki's comment, and it would appear that children disrespecting their parents has been and will remain a universal phenomenon.

===Woman helps her husband in business===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
'Abdullah said, 'From the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, who said, "Before the Final Hour people will single out one individual for the greeting, commerce will increase until '''a woman helps her husband in business''', people will sever their links with their relatives, knowledge will spread, false testimony will appear and true testimony will be concealed."
}}

===Some people control trade===
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|44|4461}} (sahih)|
"The Messenger of Allah said: 'One of the portents of the Hour will be that wealth becomes widespread and abundant, and trade will become widespread, but knowledge will disappear. '''A man will try to sell something and will say: "No, not until I consult the merchant of banu so and so''' and People will look throughout a vast area for a scribe and will not find one."
}}
 

===Injustice===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 485 (sahih)|
Ibn 'Umar reported that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Injustice will appear as darkness on the Day of Rising."
}}Once again, sin and wrongdoing will multiply before the final hour.

===False testimony===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
وَظُهُورُ الشَّهَادَةِ بِالزُّورِ، وَكِتْمَانُ شَهَادَةِ الْحَقِّ

..false testimony will appear and true testimony will be concealed.
}}

Yet another predictions of licentiousness and sin before the end of times.

===Unfulfilled vows===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3650|darussalam}}|
..then the Prophet (ﷺ) added, 'There will come after you, people who will bear witness without being asked to do so, and will be treacherous and untrustworthy, and '''they will vow and never fulfill their vows''', and fatness will appear among them."
}}

===Cheating in weights (scales)===
{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. '''They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers'''. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

This is also mentioned in the Old Testament:
{{Quote|The Bible (NASB), Amos 8:2-6|
Then the Lord said to me, “The end has come for My people Israel. I will spare them no longer. The songs of the palace will turn to wailing in that day,” declares the Lord God. “Many will be the corpses; in every place they will cast them forth in silence.” '''Hear this, you who trample the needy''', to do away with the humble of the land, saying: “When will the new moon be over, So that we may sell grain, And the sabbath, that we may open the wheat market, '''To make the bushel smaller and the shekel bigger, And to cheat with dishonest scales'''
}}

This fits into a general eschatological scheme of disasters before the end times found in many end-of-times predictions.

===Making money unlawfully===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2083|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Hurairah (ra):
The Prophet (ﷺ) said "Certainly a time will come when people will not bother to know from where they earned the money, by lawful means or unlawful means."
}}
If raiding caravans can be called an "unlawful method" of acquiring money, then according to the sirah Muhammad himself engaged in dubious practices to acquire money:
{{Quote|Sirat Rasul Allah 428, Tabari VII:29|
Then the apostle heard that Abu Sufyan b. Harb was coming from Syria with a large caravan of Quraysh, containing their money and merchandise, accompanied by some thirty or forty men." Mohammad said, "This is the Quraysh caravan containing their property, Go out to attack it, perhaps God will give it as prey,
}}Most Muslims would argue that Muhammad was engaged in war against the Medinians, but his and his followers lust not for religious victory but for booty is noted again and again in the sirah.

===Usury (riba)===
{{Quote|Musnad Aḥmad 10191|
عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ أَنّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ يَأْتِي عَلَى النَّاسِ زَمَانٌ يَأْكُلُونَ فِيهِ الرِّبَا قِيلَ النَّاسُ كُلُّهُمْ قَالَ مَنْ لَمْ يَأْكُلْهُ مِنْهُمْ نَالَهُ مِنْ غُبَارِهِ

Abu Huraira reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “A time will come upon people in which they will consume usury.” It was said, “All of the people?” The Prophet said, “Whoever does not consume it will be affected by its dust.”
}}

Usury (riba) was already widespread in the period before Islam, which Muslims call "jahilya":
{{Quote|[https://ebrary.net/10536/business_finance/types_riba Types of Riba]|
Riba al-Jahiliyah means “the riba used during the age of ignorance and paganism.” It is also called riba al-nassee'aa (the riba that is constrained by a time limit and is time dependent). This type of '''riba was widely practiced by the pagan Arabs at the advent of Islam'''.
}}

In any interest-based economy, all goods will inevitably be "tainted" directly or indirectly with interest-based practices; this fits into a general pattern of predicting sin and degeneracy before the endtimes.

===Sudden deaths===
{{Quote|Al-Mu'jam al-Awsat al-Tabarani (9/147) No. 9376 (sahih)|
حدثنا الهيثم بن خالد المصيصي نا عبدالكبير بن المعافى بن عمران نا شريك عن العباس بن ذريح عن الشعبي عن أنس بن مالك رفعه إلى النبي صلى الله عليه و سلم قال من اقتراب الساعة أن يرى الهلال قبلا فيقال لليلتين وأن تتخذ المساجد طرقا وأن يظهر الموت الفجاء لم يرو هذا الحديث عن العباس بن زريح إلا شريك تفرد به عبد الكبير بن المعافى

Anas bin Malik (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Among the signs that the Last Hour is near, is that the crescent would appear larger than its actual size and people would say: ‘It appears as if it is only two days old.’ and the masajid will be taken as streets, and '''sudden death will spread'''.”
}}

In other hadiths Muhammad and Ubayd speak about sudden death as something already known:{{Quote| {{Abu Dawud||3110|darussalam}}(sahih)|
Narrated Ubayd ibn Khalid as-Sulami,:

A man from the Companions of the Prophet (ﷺ), said: The narrator Sa'd ibn Ubaydah narrated sometimes from the Prophet (ﷺ) and sometimes as a statement of Ubayd (ibn Khalid): The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Sudden death is a wrathful catching.
}}

===Islam will be unpleasant for Muslims (like burning ember/coal in hand)===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2260}} (hasan)|
Anas bin Malik narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"There shall come upon the people a time in which the one who is patient upon his religion will be like the one holding onto a burning ember."
}}

===Following Jews and Christians===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7320|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "You will follow the ways of those nations who were before you, span by span and cubit by cubit (i.e., inch by inch) so much so that even if they entered a hole of a mastigure, you would follow them." We said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! (Do you mean) the Jews and the Christians?" He said, "Whom else?"
}}
===Killing [pointless killing]===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7062|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah and Abu Musa:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days during which Religious ignorance will spread, knowledge will be taken away (vanish) and '''there will be much Al-Harj, and Al- Harj means killing'''."
}}

It is not very clear what this refers to, except for a general prediction of violence before the end of times; originally it may have been a reference to the apacolyptic war between the Romans and the Sassanids, but there's not alot of detail to infer that in this hadith as "killing" may describe many events in history.
===Two parties with the same message will fight===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157h|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) many ahadith and one of them was this:

The last Hour will not come until the two parties (of Muslims) confront each other and there is a large-scale massacre amongst them and the claim of both of them is the same.
}}

This prediction was interpreted by Islamic scholars as referring to the Battle of Siffin (year 657). Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.

===Issue between Ali and Aisha===
{{Quote|Fath al Bari 13/59 (sahih) and others|
إنَّهُ سيكونُ بينَكَ وبين عائشةَ أمرٌ قال فأنا أشقاهُم يا رسولَ اللهِ قال لا ولكنْ إذا كان ذلك فاردُدْها إلى مأمنِها

There will be an issue between you and ‘Aisha.” He said, “Me, O Messenger of Allah?!” He said, “Yes.” He said, “Me?!” He said, “Yes.” He said, “Then [in that case] I would be the worst of them (all people).” He said, “No, but when this occurs, return her to her safe quarters.”}}

The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel Battle of the Camel] happened in 656. The hadith (in Musnad Ahmad) was written in the 9th century.

===Ammar will be killed===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3800}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abu Hurairah:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "Rejoice, 'Ammar, the transgressing party shall kill you."
}}

He was killed in the 7th century. The collection of Tirmidhi was written in the 9th century.

==="I have been given Persia"===
{{Quote|Al-Nasa'i, Sunan al Kubra 8858|
أنبأ محمد بن عبد الأعلى قال حدثنا معتمر قال سمعت عوفا قال سمعت ميمونا يحدث عن البراء بن عازب قال : لما أمرنا رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم أن يحفر الخندق عرض لنا فيه حجر لا يأخذ فيه المعول فاشتكينا ذلك إلى رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم فجاء رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم فألقى ثوبه وأخذ المعول وقال بسم الله فضرب ضربة فكسر ثلث الصخرة قال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح الشام والله إني لأبصر قصورها الحمر الآن من مكاني هذا قال ثم ضرب أخرى وقال بسم الله وكسر ثلثا آخر وقال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح فارس والله إني لأبصر قصر المدائن الأبيض الآن ثم ضرب ثالثة وقال بسم الله فقطع الحجر قال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح اليمن والله إني لأبصر باب صنعاء

Al-Bara said: On the Day of Al-Khandaq (the trench) there stood out a rock too immune for our spades to break up. We therefore went to see God’s Messenger for advice. He took the spade, and said: “In the Name of God” Then he struck it saying: “God is Most Great, I have been given the keys of Ash-Sham (Greater Syria). By God, I can see its red palaces at the moment;” on the second strike he said: “God is Most Great, '''I have been given Persia'''. By God, I can now see the white palace of Madain;” and for the third time he struck the rock saying: “In the Name of God,” shattering the rest of the rock, and he said: “God is Most Great, I have been given the keys of Yemen. By God, I can see the gates of San’a while I am in my place.”
}}

The bloody conquest happened around the year 650. Earliest hadith collection Muwatta Imam Malik (which doesn't contain this hadith) was written around the year 750 and the hadith collection sunan al-Kubra which contains the hadith was written around the year 850. This hadith was written hundreds of years after the event it describes.

Furthermore, Persia was already conquered a thousand years before by Alexander the Great. And at the time of Muhammad Persia was exhausted by wars with Romans which lasted from 54 BC to 628 AD (681 years).

===Conquest of Jerusalem===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:

I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, '''the conquest of Jerusalem''', a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}

Some suggest that Muhammad predicted "The Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 AD." <ref>https://www.islamweb.net/en/article/135817/the-signs-of-the-hour</ref>: However, this was the second Islamic conquest of Jerusalem. Muslims first conquered Jerusalem in 636.

Furthermore, after the conquest, the Hour was expected to come. Both events occurred nearly a thousand years in the past. This was written by Bukhari two hundred years after the first conquest.

Hadith in Sunan Abu Dawud also stresses the coming of the Last Hour after the conquest of Jerusalem (holy land):{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2535|darussalam}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Hawalah al-Azdi:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) sent us on foot to get spoil, but we returned without getting any. When he saw the signs of distress on our faces, he stood up on our faces and said: O Allah, do not put them under my care, for I would be too weak to care for them; do not put them in care of themselves, for they would be incapable of that, and do not put them in the care of men, for they would choose the best things for themselves. '''He then placed his hand on my head and said: Ibn Hawalah, when you see the caliphate has settled in the holy land, earthquakes, sorrows and serious matters will have drawn near and on that day the Last Hour will be nearer to mankind than this hand of mine is to your head.'''
}}

===Conquest of Egypt===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2543b|reference}}|
Abu Dharr reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

'''You would soon conquer Egypt''' and that is a land which is known (as the land of al-qirat). So when you conquer it, treat its inhabitants well. For there lies upon you the responsibility because of blood-tie or relationship of marriage (with them). And when you see two persons falling into dispute amongst themselves for the space of a brick, than get out of that. He (Abu Dharr) said: I saw Abd al-Rahman b. Shurahbil b. Hasana and his brother Rabi'a disputing with one another for the space of a brick. So I left that (land).
}}
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt Muslim conquest of Egypt] happened in the 7th century. The hadith collection Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.

===Conquest of Yemen, Syria and Iraq===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1388b|reference}}|
Sufyan b. Abu Zuhair heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) say:

'''Yemen will be conquered''' and some people will go away (to that country) driving their camels and carrying their families on them and those who are under their authority, while Medina is better for them if they were to know it. Then '''Syria will be conquered''' and some people will go away driving their camels along with them and carrying their families with them and those who are under their authority, while Medina is better for them if they were to know it. Then '''lraq will be conquered''' and some people will go away (to that country) driving their camels and carrying their families with them and those who are under their authority. while Medina is better for them if they were to know it.
}}
All conquests happened in the 7th century. Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.
===Fighting Turks===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3587|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till you fight a nation wearing hairy shoes, and till you '''fight the Turks''', who will have small eyes, red faces and flat noses; and their faces will be like flat shields. And you will find that the best people are those who hate responsibility of ruling most of all till they are chosen to be the rulers. And the people are of different natures: The best in the pre-lslamic period are the best in Islam. A time will come when any of you will love to see me rather than to have his family and property doubled."
}}

Some suggest that "Turks" here means "Mongols" and that this thus predicts Gengis Khan. However, The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kharistan Battle of Kharistan] (737) which happened between the Umayyad caliphate and Turkic Türgesh, could equally fit the description provided here. This seems more plausible, especially as Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

One might also note that if Muhammad did in fact make these predictions, Islam's global imperial aspirations (proven as they were by the end of Muhammad's life) would make the conquest of any number of neighboring or nearby peoples a likelihood.

===Leave the Turks as long as they leave you===
This hadith is often referenced as evidence that Muhammad predicted the Ottoman empire, often ignoring the clause about the Abyssinians
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4302|darussalam}}|
Narrated from Abi Sukainah One of the Companions:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: '''Let the Abyssinians alone as long as they let you alone''', and let the Turks alone as long as they leave you alone.
}}

It is said that the Turks should be left alone because they were strong, and they were strong therefore they would eventually become dominant. This is an evidently generous reading of the hadith.

In other hadith, Muhammad is reported to have predicted that after a few wars, Muslims would exterminate the Turks:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar, Takhreej Mishkaat al-Masabih 5/110 (hasan) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%84%D9%8F%D9%83%D9%85+%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8C+%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%90+%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8F%D9%91%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8E</ref>|
يقاتِلُكم قومٌ صغارُ الأعينِ يعني التُّركَ قالَ تسوقونَهم ثلاثَ مرات حتَّى تُلحِقوهم بجزيرةِ العربِ فأمَّا في السِّاقةِ الأولى فينجو من هربَ منهم فأمَّا في الثَّانيةِ فينجو بعضٌ ويَهلِكُ بعضٌ وأمَّا في الثَّالثةِ فيصطَلِمونَ

People with small eyes, i.e. the Turks, will fight against you, the prophet (ﷺ) said: You will drive them off three times till you catch up with them in Arabia. On the first occasion when you drive them off those who fly will be safe, on the second occasion some will be safe and some will perish, but '''on the third occasion they will be extirpated'''.
}}
===Spoils of war distributed preferentially===
Hadith da'if:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2211}} (daif)|
إِذَا اتُّخِذَ الْفَىْءُ دُوَلاً

When Al-Fai' is distributed(preferentially)
}}
Al-Fai mean spoils of war.

===Fearless traveler (security)===
Probably refers to time after the conquest of Iraq in the 7th century:
{{Quote|al-Haythami 7/334 (sahih)|
لا تقومُ الساعَةُ حتى تعودَ أرْضُ العربِ مروجًا وأَنْهَارًا وحتى يسيرَ الراكِبُ بينَ العِرَاقِ ومَكَّةَ لَا يَخَافُ إلَّا ضَلَالَ الطريقِ [ وحتَّى يَكْثُرَ الْهَرْجُ قالوا وما الهَرْجُ يا رسولَ اللهِ قال القتلُ ]

The Hour will not come until the land of Arabs becomes meadows and rivers and until '''a rider goes between Iraq and Makka and doesn't fear anything except getting lost''' and until al-harj is widespread. They said: And what is al-Harj O messenger of God? He said: Killing.
}}

===Fat people===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3650|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Imran bin Husain:

"Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, 'The best of my followers are those living in my generation (i.e. my contemporaries). and then those who will follow the latter" `Imran added, "I do not remember whether he mentioned two or three generations after his generation, then the Prophet (ﷺ) added, 'There will come after you, people who will bear witness without being asked to do so, and will be treacherous and untrustworthy, and they will vow and never fulfill their vows, and '''fatness will appear among them'''."
}}

After the 7th century Islamic conquests, Muslims became rich and could have a lot of food, so this is again most likely a hadith about a later point in time being projected back into the time of the prophet.

===Special greeting===
It was interpreted as "greeting only people you know":
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
بَيْنَ يَدَيِ السَّاعَةِ‏:‏ تَسْلِيمُ الْخَاصَّةِ

Before the Hour there is special greeting
}}

According to this hadith, everyone should be greeted:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||13|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Amr:

A man asked the Prophet (ﷺ) , "What sort of deeds or (what qualities of) Islam are good?" The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, 'To feed (the poor) and '''greet those whom you know and those whom you do not know'''.
}}

In other hadiths however Muhammad was preventing Muslims from greeting certain people based on their religion:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2167a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

Do not greet the Jews and the Christians before they greet you and when you meet any one of them on the roads force him to go to the narrowest part of it.
}}

===Controversy over the Hadith===
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4604|darussalam}}|
Narrated Al-Miqdam ibn Ma'dikarib:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Beware! I have been given the Qur'an and something like it, yet the time is coming when a man replete on his couch will say: '''Keep to the Qur'an'''; what you find in it to be permissible treat as permissible, and what you find in it to be prohibited treat as prohibited. Beware! The domestic ass, beasts of prey with fangs, a find belonging to confederate, unless its owner does not want it, are not permissible to you. If anyone comes to some people, they must entertain him, but if they do not, he has a right to mulct them to an amount equivalent to his entertainment.
}}

This hadith, although rated sahih, is almost certainly a v''aticinum ex eventu'' about controversies which took place after the prophet died. It's unlikely that if the prophet himself had said in his lifetime that these things were haram that there would be people claiming that they were actually allowed by the shari'ah.
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3646|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As:

I used to write everything which I heard from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). I intended (by it) to memorise it. The Quraysh prohibited me saying: '''Do you write everything that you hear from him while the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) is a human being: he speaks in anger and pleasure?''' So I stopped writing, and mentioned it to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). He signalled with his finger to him mouth and said: Write, by Him in Whose hand my soul lies, only right comes out from it.
}}This hadith, though sahih and not technically a prophecy, probably is indicative of problems in the 8th century, when the idea that the words and deeds of the prophet should govern all aspects of life was still controversial. This hadith is backdating that later controversy into the prophet's own lifetime.

===Liars will be trusted and honest people will be regarded as liars===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4036}} (hasan)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“There will come to the people years of treachery, when the liar will be regarded as honest, and the honest man will be regarded as a liar; the traitor will be regarded as faithful, and the faithful man will be regarded as a traitor; and the Ruwaibidah will decide matters.’ It was said: ‘Who are the Ruwaibidah?’ He said: ‘Vile and base men who control the affairs of the people.’”
}}

This was already happening according to Islamic sources. According to the sira some Arabs trusted the false prophet Musaylimah.

==="The pen will spread"===
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 1035 (sahih)|
عَنْ ابْنِ مَسْعُودٍ عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ بَيْنَ يَدَيِ السَّاعَةِ تَسْلِيمُ الْخَاصَّةِ وَفُشُوُّ التِّجَارَةِ حَتَّى تُعِينَ الْمَرْأَةُ زَوْجَهَا عَلَى التِّجَارَةِ وَقَطْعُ الأَرْحَامِ وَفُشُوُّ الْقَلَمِ وَظُهُورُ الشَّهَادَةِ بِالزُّورِ وَكِتْمَانُ شَهَادَةِ الْحَقِّ

Ibn Mas’ud reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Just before the Hour, the greeting of peace will only be given to specific people, trade will proliferate to the point that a woman will help her husband in his business, family ties will be severed, '''the pen will spread''', false testimony will prevail and truthful testimony will be concealed.”
}}
There is the Pen that Allah created first and which writes the future:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|44|3319}} (sahih)|
“I arrived in Makkah and met Ata bin Abi Rabah. I said: ‘O Abu Muhammad! Some people with us speak about Al-Qadar.’ Ata said: ‘I met Al-Walid bin Ubadah bin As-Samit and he said: “My father narrated to me, he said: ‘I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: “Verily '''the first of what Allah created was the Pen (القلم). He said to it: “Write.” So it wrote what will be forever'''.’”
}}

There is also the Pen that writes deeds:
{{Quote|Bulugh al Maram: Book 8, Hadith 1096|
Narrated 'Aishah (RA):
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "There are three people whose actions are not recorded ( رُفِعَ اَلْقَلَمُ عَنْ ثَلَاثَةٍ, literally "is lifted the pen from three"), a sleeping person till he awakes, a child till he is a grown up, and an insane person till he is restored to reason or recovers his sense." [Reported by Ahmad and al-Arba'a, except at-Tirmidhi. al-Hakim graded it Sahih (authentic)].
}}
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|26|3217}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abu Salamah:
It was narrated from Abu Salamah that Abu Hurairah said: "I said: 'O Messenger of Allah, I am a young man and I fear hardship for myself, but I cannot afford to marry; should I castrate myself?'" The Prophet turned away from him until he said it three times. Then the Prophet said: "O Abu Hurairah, '''the pen is dried concerning what you are going to face''', so (it is up to you whether) you castrate yourself or not." Abu Abdur-Rahman (An-Nasai) said: Al-Awzai did not hear this narration from Az-Zuhri, and this hadith is sahih, Yunus reported it from Az-Zuhri.
}}

Literacy was increasing before Muhammad was born. Jews and Christians first used oral traditions, but then switched to writing. There was also the ongoing global transitions from oral cultures to written cultures more generally.

Notice also that the prophecy was written by people who were ''writing'' hadiths from oral traditions.

===Family ties will be severed===
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 1035 (sahih)|
Ibn Mas’ud reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Just before the Hour, the greeting of peace will only be given to specific people, trade will proliferate to the point that a woman will help her husband in his business, '''family ties will be severed''' (وَقَطْعُ الأَرْحَامِ), the pen will spread, false testimony will prevail and truthful testimony will be concealed.”
}}
Judeo-Christian mythology (later adopted by Islam) teaches that among the first people were brothers Cain and Abel and Cain killed Abel.

There is also hadith where Muhammad encourages people to keep the ties of kinship, which indicates they weren't doing it enough in his time:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|25|1979}} (hasan)|
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah said:
"Learn enough about your lineage to facilitate keeping your ties of kinship (تَصِلُونَ بِهِ أَرْحَامَكُمْ). For indeed keeping the ties of kinship encourages affection among the relatives, increases the wealth, and increases the lifespan."
}}

Killing of family members for the sake of Islam was also approved by Muhammad:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4361|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah Ibn Abbas: A blind man had a slave-mother who used to abuse the Prophet (peace be upon him) and disparage him. He forbade her but she did not stop. He rebuked her but she did not give up her habit. One night she began to slander the Prophet (peace be upon him) and abuse him. So he took a dagger, placed it on her belly, pressed it, and killed her. A child who came between her legs was smeared with the blood that was there. When the morning came, the Prophet (peace be upon him) was informed about it.

He assembled the people and said: I adjure by Allah the man who has done this action and I adjure him by my right to him that he should stand up. Jumping over the necks of the people and trembling the man stood up.

He sat before the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said: Apostle of Allah! I am her master; she used to abuse you and disparage you. I forbade her, but she did not stop, and I rebuked her, but she did not abandon her habit. I have two sons like pearls from her, and she was my companion. Last night she began to abuse and disparage you. So I took a dagger, put it on her belly and pressed it till I killed her.

Thereupon the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Oh be witness, no retaliation is payable for her blood.}}A similar prophecy exists in Tabrani, predicting "family ties will be severed", though this hadith is often mistranslated (also the hadith is weak):
{{Quote|Tabrani, al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr 10/228 and Mu'jan al-Awsat 4861 (da'eef)|
“From among the signs of Qiyamah is that people will maintain ties with '''distant relatives and strangers''' (الأطباق) but sever ties with close family.”
}}
The word الأطباق (''al-atbaaq'') is today sometimes translated as "dishes" (although the classical translation (understanding) fits better into the context) and then they interpret the "dishes" as "satellites", but this is clearly an anachronistic, inaccurate translation.

*[https://hadithanswers.com/is-satellite-communication-a-sign-of-qiyamah/ Fatwa against the modern interpretation]

===Automobiles (actually camels with lofty saddles)===
Muhammad forbade riding on ''mayathir'' (مياثر) (silk saddles), so mayathir were something already known:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6235|darussalam}}|
..He forbade us to drink from silver utensils, to wear gold rings, '''to ride on silken saddles (ركوب المياثر)''', to wear silk clothes..
}}

There is a prophecy about people riding on mayathir at the end of times:
{{Quote|al-Mustadrak 4 / 436 (hasan)|
سَيَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ هَذِهِ الْأُمَّةِ رِجَالٌ يَرْكَبُونَ عَلَى الْمَيَاثِرِ حَتَّى يَأْتُوا أَبْوَابَ مَسَاجِدِهِمْ

They will mount their mayaathir until they come to the doors of their mosques
}}
Albani explained:
{{Quote|Tafsir by Albani|
the word mayaathir is the plural of meetharah and Ibn al-Athir described it as, “… smooth and soft, made out of silk or a silk brocade [heavy silk] which the rider places beneath him on the saddle on top of the camel.
}}

And a re-iteration of the same prophecy:
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 654/11 (hasan)|
يكون في آخر أمتي رجال يركبون على سرج كأشباه الرحال ينزلون على أبواب المساجد نساؤهم كاسيات عاريات

In the last [part] of my nation there will be men who ride on '''saddles that resemble packsaddles''' (سرج كأشباه الرحال). They will alight at the doors of the mosques. Their women are clothed but naked. On their heads are [what appears to be] like the humps of [lean] camels. Curse them for they are cursed. If there were a nation from the nations to come after you, your women would serve them, just as the women of the nations that were before you served you.
}}
Some try to translate سرج كأشباه الرحال as "carriots" or "cars", but:

*سَرْج means "saddlebag; packsaddle; saddle; pigskin; pillion" <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AC/</ref>
*رَحْل means "Either of a pair of a bags laid over the back of a horse - saddlebag; packsaddle; saddle". <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%84/</ref>

===Ignorance [of Islamic teachings]===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7062|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah and Abu Musa:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days during which '''Religious ignorance will spread''', knowledge will be taken away (vanish) and there will be much Al-Harj, and Al- Harj means killing."}}

*In Islamic discourse, the period before Muhammad's career is called jahilya (ignorance).
*in context of Islamic jurisprudence, theology and scriptural analysis, when Muhammad says "knowledge" it means "knowledge of Muhamamd's claims and commands" and when Islam says "ignorance" it means "ignorance of Muhammad's claims and commands"

===Learning for something other than Islam===
{{Quote|Al-Shawkani, Nayl al-Awtar 8/262 (hasan li-ghayrihi)|
إذا اتُّخِذَ الفَيْءُ دُوَلًا والأمانةُ مَغْنَمًا والزكاةُ مَغْرَمًا وتُعُلِّمَ لغيرِ الدِّينِ وأطاع الرجلُ امرأتَه وعَقَّ أُمَّه وأَدْنَى صديقَه وأَقْصَى أباه وظَهَرَتِ الأصواتُ في المساجدِ وساد القبيلةَ فاسِقُهُم وكان زعيمُ القومِ أَرْذَلَهم وأُكْرِمَ الرجلُ مَخَافةَ شرِّه وظَهَرَتِ القِيَانُ والمعازفُ وشُرِبَتِ الخُمورُ ولَعَن آخِرُ هذه الأمةِ أولَها فلْيَرْتَقِبُوا عند ذلك رِيحًا حمراءَ وزَلْزَلَةً وخَسْفًا ومَسْخًا وقَذْفًا وآياتٍ تُتَابَعُ كنِظامٍ بالٍ قُطِعَ سِلْكُه فتتابع بعضُه بعضًا

When spoiles of war are distributed; and property given in trust will be considered as booty for oneself; Zakat will be looked upon as a fine; '''learning for other than the religion'''; a man will obey his wife and disobey his mother; a man will bring his friends nearer and drive his father far off; noises will be raised in the masjids; the most wicked of a tribe will become its ruler; the most worthless member of a people will become its leader; a man will be honoured for fear of the evil he may do; singing girls and musical instruments will come into vogue; drinking of wine will become common; and the later generations will begin to curse the previous generations; then wait, for red violent winds, earthquakes, swallowing up by the earth, defacement (of human faces), pelting of stones from the skies as rain, and a continuing chain of disasters followed one by another, like beads of a necklace falling one after the other rapidly when its string is cut.
}}
Secular knowledge for secular purposes was studied before Islam.

===Tall buildings===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|63}}|
وَأَنْ تَرَى الْحُفَاةَ الْعُرَاةَ الْعَالَةَ رِعَاءَ الشَّاءِ يَتَطَاوَلُونَ فِي الْبِنَاءِ

..and when '''you see barefoot, naked, destitute shepherds''' competing in constructing tall buildings
}}The Bible contained a story of the Tower of Babel, Egyptians built pyramids. The desire and ability to construct tall buildings appears to has been common in history.

Lane's Lexicon explains al binaa as "originally an inf. n.: (see 1, first sentence:) then applied to A building; a structure; an edifice;] a thing that is built, or constructed".<ref>Binaa الْبِنَاء - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000298.pdf Lane's Lexicon] p. 261</ref> The "compete in height" aspect of the translation comes from the word تطاول (tataawul)<ref>tay-waw-lam طول - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000180.pdf Lane's Lexicon] - p. 1895</ref> These words appear in some other narrations in the same or similar context in relation to the 7th century.

There were people in the 7th century building buildings that could be considered tall in that time. Ibn Hajar wrote in his famous commentary on Sahih Bukhari:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar: Fatḥ al-Bārī fī Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī|
يتطاول الناس في البنيان وهي من العلامات التي وقعت عن قرب في زمن النبوة

"The people are [competing in height] building buildings" - and that's from the signs which '''happened close at the time of the prophethood'''
}}

The caliph Uthman was accused of practicing tataawul at his time, though the meaning here may simply be that he built a lot of buildings.

{{Quote|[http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/3671_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A1/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_32 al-Imāma wal-Siyāsa, vol 1 page 35] by Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889 / 276)| ما أنكر الناس على عثمان رحمه الله قال: وذكروا أنه اجتمع ناس من أصحاب النبي عليه الصلاة والسلام، فكتبوا كتابا ذكروا فيه ما خالف فيه عثمان من سنة رسول الله وسنة صاحبيه، وما كان من هبته خمس أفريقية لمروان وفيه حق الله ورسوله، ومنهم ذوو القربى واليتامى والمساكين، وما كان من تطاوله في البنيان، حتى عدوا سبع دور بناها بالمدينة

And what people condemned of Uthman was that a group of the prophet's companions came together and wrote a book mentioning in it what Uthman has not followed of the sunnah of the prophet and his companions and of what he did when he gave 1/5th of Africa to Marwan and in it is the share of Allah and his prophet and that of relatives, orphans and poor people. And of his excesses in building ( تطاوله في البنيان ) that reached 7 houses in Medina.}}

Muslims could afford building tall buildings after they got rich from early Islamic conquests.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5672|darussalam}}|
Narrated Qais bin Abi Hazim:

We went to pay a visit to Khabbab (who was sick) and he had been branded (cauterized) at seven places in his body. He said, "Our companions who died (during the lifetime of the Prophet) left (this world) without having their rewards reduced through enjoying the pleasures of this life, but '''we have got (so much) wealth that we find no way to spend It except on the construction of buildings''' .Had the Prophet not forbidden us to wish for death, I would have wished for it.' We visited him for the second time while he was building a wall. '''He said: A Muslim is rewarded (in the Hereafter) for whatever he spends except for something that he spends on building'''."
}}

Some add that theses buildings were described as being "as high as mountains", but that hadith is mawqoof (not from Muhammad). It was a saying of ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr and it was after Muslims became rich from early Islamic conquests, so they could likely imagine themselves building tall in Mecca. Also the hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|Musannaf ibn Abi Shaybah, Hadith: 14306 (da'eef or hasan)|
Sayyiduna '''‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr''' (radiyallahu ‘anhuma) is reported to have said: “……When you see tunnels/canals being dug in Makkah Mukarramah and the buildings (of Makkah Mukarramah) higher than the peak of the mountains then know that Qiyamah is close.”
}}

*[https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/247118/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5-%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9 Fatwa] (Arabic) says that since it's not from Muhammad, it shouldn't even be called a hadith.

===Mosques full of hypocrites===
{{Quote|Ibn Abi Shaybah: Kitab al-Iman 101 (sahih)|
عن عبد اللهِ بنِ عَمرو قال : يأتي على الناس زمانٌ ، يجتمِعون ويُصلُّون في المساجدِ ، وليس فيهم مؤمنٌ

A time will come on people when they get together and pray in mosques and isn't among them a single believer
}}

Praying hypocrites were also mentioned in the Bible:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Matthew 6:5|
“And when you pray, do not be like the hypocrites, for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and on the street corners to be seen by others.
}}

The imperialistic nature of Islam's spread may have encouraged this type of hypocrisy, and the flood of opportunists joining the ranks of Islam after the conquest is likely the origin of these ahadith:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||21a|reference}}|
It is reported on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah said:

I have been commanded to fight against people so long as they do not declare that there is no god but Allah, and he who professed it was guaranteed the protection of his property and life on my behalf except for the right affairs rest with Allah.
}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3017|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Ikrima:

`Ali burnt some people and this news reached Ibn `Abbas, who said, "Had I been in his place I would not have burnt them, as the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'Don't punish (anybody) with Allah's Punishment.' No doubt, I would have killed them, for the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'If somebody (a Muslim) discards his religion, kill him.' "
}}

===Voices raised in mosques===
The hadith is daif:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2211}} (daif)|
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When Al-Fai' is distributed(preferentially), trust is a spoil of war, Zakat is a fine, knowledge is sought for other than the(sake of the) religion, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is close to his friend and far from his father, '''voices are raised in the Masajid''', tribes are led by their wicked, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, singing slave-girls and music spread, intoxicants are drunk, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning- then anticipate a red wind, earthquake, collapsing of the earth, transformation, Qadhf, and the signs follow in succession like gems of a necklace whose string is cut and so they fall in succession."
}}

People were raising voices even in the time of Muhammad in front of him. Muhammad rebuked them in the Quran:
{{Quote|{{Quran|49|2}} (Sahih International)|
O you who have believed, do not raise your voices above the voice of the Prophet or be loud to him in speech like the loudness of some of you to others, lest your deeds become worthless while you perceive not.

}}

===Decoration of mosques===
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||1|8|690}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Anas that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"One of the portents of the Hour will be that people will show off in building Masjids."
}}

There was a precedent. Christians and Jews were adorning their places of worship:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||448|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:

I was not commanded to build high mosques. Ibn Abbas said: You will certainly adorn them '''as the Jews and Christians did'''.
}}

===Markets will approach (taqaarub al-aswaaq)===
{{Quote|al-Haythami 7/330 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D8%AA%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%86+%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%AB%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B0%D8%A8+%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82+%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86</ref>|
لا تقومُ الساعةُ حتى تَظْهَرَ الفِتَنُ ويكثرَ الكذِبُ وتتقارَبَ الأسواقُ ويتقارَبَ الزمانُ ويكثُرَ الهرجُ قلْتُ وما الهرْجُ قال القتْلُ

The Hour won't come till tribulations show up, lies are widespread and '''taqaarub of markets''' and taqaarub of time and harj is widespread. I said: What is al-harj? He said: Killing.
}}
The hadith is vague in its entirety, but the situation on markets expectedly changed after Muslims got rich by the 7th century conquests.

===Breaking the convenant with god makes enemies overpower them===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
... '''They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands.''' Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

This is mentioned in the Old Testament:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Leviticus 26:14-17|
Punishment for Disobedience

“‘But if you will not listen to me and carry out all these commands, and if you reject my decrees and abhor my laws and fail to carry out all my commands and so violate my covenant, then I will do this to you: I will bring on you sudden terror, wasting diseases and fever that will destroy your sight and sap your strength. You will plant seed in vain, because your enemies will eat it. I will set my face against you so that you will be defeated by your enemies; those who hate you will rule over you, and you will flee even when no one is pursuing you.
}}

===A man passes by a grave and wants to be dead too===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7121|darussalam}}|
وَحَتَّى يَمُرَّ الرَّجُلُ بِقَبْرِ الرَّجُلِ فَيَقُولُ يَا لَيْتَنِي مَكَانَهُ

... till a man when passing by a grave of someone will say, 'Would that I were in his place...
}}

The Old Testament mentions this:
{{Quote|The Bible (NASB), Jonah 4:3|
"Therefore now, O LORD, please take my life from me, for death is better to me than life."
}}

===People will treat a man with respect because they fear the evil he could do===
The hadith is daif (weak).
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}} (daif)|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, '''the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of''', intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

Intimidation with violence was already used before Islam. It was also used by Muhammad.

===The leader of a people will be the worst of them===
This hadith is daif (weak).
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}} (daif)|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, '''the leader of the people is the most despicable among them''', the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

==Predictions of the future (after the hadiths)==
In this category are hadiths that don't appear to speak of events which already transpired before the prophecies were written.
====Mountains will move====
This hadith is da'eef (Ufayr bin Ma'daan is in the chain):
{{Quote|Mu'jam at-Tabaraani vol 7, n. 6857|
لا تقومُ الساعةُ حتى تزولَ الجبالُ عن أماكِنِها وتَرَوْنَ الأمورَ العظامَ التي لم تَكُونوا تَرَوْنَها

The Hour will not begin until the '''mountains are moved from their places''' and you see great calamities which you have never seen before.
}}
====Non-speaking objects will start speaking====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2181}} (sahih)|
Abu Sa'eed Al-Khudri narrated that the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w) said:
"By the One in Whose Hand is my soul! The Hour will not be established until predators speak to people and until the tip of a man's whip and the straps on his sandal speak to him, and his thigh informs him of what occurred with his family after him."
}}

Though this hadith is often metaphorically interpreted to refer to modern technology (mobile phones), the original wording of the hadith appears to be rather literal in its intention.

The Old Testament already has a story about a talking serpent:
{{Quote|The Bible, Genesis 3:1|
Now '''the serpent''' was more crafty than any of the wild animals the Lord God had made. '''He said''' to the woman, “Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?”
}}

According to the hadith, for Muhammad (unlike for most people), talking objects wouldn't even be much miraculous, since he was hearing voices regularly. For example he heard a stone saluting him:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2277|reference}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: I recognise '''the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations''' before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}

====The land of Arabia reverts to meadows and rivers====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157c|reference}}|
وَحَدَّثَنَا قُتَيْبَةُ بْنُ سَعِيدٍ، حَدَّثَنَا يَعْقُوبُ، - وَهُوَ ابْنُ عَبْدِ الرَّحْمَنِ الْقَارِيُّ - عَنْ سُهَيْلٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ، أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏ "‏ لاَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَكْثُرَ الْمَالُ وَيَفِيضَ حَتَّى يَخْرُجَ الرَّجُلُ بِزَكَاةِ مَالِهِ فَلاَ يَجِدُ أَحَدًا يَقْبَلُهَا مِنْهُ وَحَتَّى تَعُودَ أَرْضُ الْعَرَبِ مُرُوجًا وَأَنْهَارًا ‏"‏ ‏.‏

Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) as saying:

The Last Hour will not come before wealth becomes abundant and overflowing, so much so that a man takes Zakat out of his property and cannot find anyone to accept it from him and '''till the land of Arabia reverts (تعود) to meadows and rivers.'''
}}

Note that the Sunnah.com website have changed the translation of Sahih Muslim here. For Sahih Muslim they use the published translation by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui, but in 2020 after this miracle claim became popular they edited Siddiqui's translation by replacing ''becomes'' with ''reverts''.

The word تعود (''ta'ooda'') could mean "become" or "revert" here.
{{Quote|مرقاة المفاتيح شرح مشكاة المصابيح|
وحتى تعود أرض العرب أي: تصير أو ترجع

"And until ''ta‘ūda'' the land of Arabs" - meaning "becomes" or "reverts"
}}

The correct meaning of تَعُودَ (ta‘ūda), from the root عَوْد (‘awd) in this context is controversial. This verb generally relates to returning or repetition. However, some Arabic speaking critics point out that it can also mean become (for the first time), and argue that this meaning is possible or even likely given grammatical features in this hadith. The typical argument is that generally, though not necessarily, there would be a preposition such as ila (to) or fee (in) after the verb if it meant return to a state.

More typically, a verb such as صَارَ (ṣāra) would be used for "becomes", though Lane's Lexicon states that عاد can be a synonym for صَارَ to mean become for the first time and gives as an example وَدِدْتُ أَنَّ هٰذَا اللَّبَنَ يَعُودُ قَطِرَانًا (I wish that this milk would become tar).<ref>‘awd عود - [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000473.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2188]</ref>

Other critics respond that even if the meaning here is "returns to meadows and rivers", Arabia throughout recorded history has had fertile valleys and productive land.<ref>See for example Strabo, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16D%2A.html ''The Geography'' Book XVI, Chapter 4], 1st Century BCE</ref> The hadith may represent an elaboration of pre-Islamic folk tales. Al-Tabari records a tradition that centuries earlier, the Yamāmah region of central Arabia "was a most fertile and highly cultivated land, a land most prosperous, with a variety of fruit, wondrous orchards, and tall castles."<ref>Al-Tabari (transl. Moshe Perlmann) ''The History of al-Tabari: Volume IV The Ancient Kingdoms'', Suny Press, p. 151</ref>

A few hadiths shed further light on this interpretation, implying that it would likely mean merely a return to the mythological state of the world at the time of Adam rather than any miraculous knowledge of prehistory.

A hadith collected by Abd al-Razzaq, one of the earliest hadith compilers uses the exact same verb, تَعُودَ in the phrase وتعود الأرض كهيئتها على عهد آدم ("The earth will return to its original state as it was in the time of Adam").<ref>[https://www.islamweb.net/ar/library/content/73/19884/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 Musannaf Abd al-Razzaq 20843] - islamweb.net</ref>

A hadith in the collection of Ibn Majah states a similar idea about vegetation growing as it did in the time of Adam:

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4077|}}|[...] War will cease and Quraish will no longer be in power. The earth will be like a silver platter, with its vegetation growing as it did at the time of Adam, until a group of people will gather around one bunch of grapes and it will suffice them, and a group will gather around a single pomegranate and it will suffice them. An ox will be sold for such and such amount of money, and a horse will be sold for a few Dirham. [...]}}

====Much rain, but little vegetation====
{{Quote|Shuaib Al Arna'ut, Takhreej al-Musnad 12429 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3+%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7+%D8%8C+%D9%88+%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A7</ref>|
لا تَقومُ السَّاعةُ حتى يُمطَرَ النَّاسُ مَطرًا عامًّا، ولا تُنبِتَ الأرضُ شيئًا.

The Hour would not come until there is too much rain, but the earth does not produce crops
}}

===Other Predictions About the Future===
====Coming of Muhammad and the Hour are close like the forefinger and middle finger joined together====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2951e|reference}}|
Anas reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

I and the Last Hour have been sent like this and (he while doing it) joined the forefinger with the middle finger.
}}

====A 7th century boy won't grow very old before the Hour comes====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2953b|reference}}|
وَحَدَّثَنِي حَجَّاجُ بْنُ الشَّاعِرِ، حَدَّثَنَا سُلَيْمَانُ بْنُ حَرْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا حَمَّادٌ، - يَعْنِي ابْنَ زَيْدٍ - حَدَّثَنَا مَعْبَدُ بْنُ هِلاَلٍ الْعَنَزِيُّ، عَنْ أَنَسِ بْنِ مَالِكٍ، أَنَّ رَجُلاً، سَأَلَ النَّبِيَّ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ مَتَى تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ قَالَ فَسَكَتَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم هُنَيْهَةً ثُمَّ نَظَرَ إِلَى غُلاَمٍ بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنْ أَزْدِ شَنُوءَةَ فَقَالَ ‏ "‏ إِنْ عُمِّرَ هَذَا لَمْ يُدْرِكْهُ الْهَرَمُ حَتَّى تَقُومَ السَّاعَةُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ قَالَ أَنَسٌ ذَاكَ الْغُلاَمُ مِنْ أَتْرَابِي يَوْمَئِذٍ ‏.‏

Anas b. Malik reported that a person asked Allah's Apostle (ﷺ):

When would the Last Hour come? Thereupon Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) kept quiet for a while. Then looked at a young boy in his presence belonging to the tribe of Azd Shanu'a and he said: If this boy lives he would not grow very old till the Last Hour would come ''to you''. Anas said that this young boy was of our age during those days.
}}

There are two versions of this hadith. In this version, the "to you" was added by the translators to indicate that it is the last hour (death) of the people who asked. However this qualification is entirely absent in the Arabic text. This version of the hadith reported by Anas just says "until the hour comes" (حَتَّى تَقُومَ السَّاعَةُ) (see also {{Bukhari|||6167|darussalam}} quoted below where Anas seems to be a witness, {{Muslim||2953a|reference}}, and {{Muslim||2953c|reference}}). Another version of the hadith is reported by Aisha and instead has the phrase "until your hour comes to you" (حَتَّى تَقُومَ عَلَيْكُمْ سَاعَتُكُمْ) {{Bukhari|||6511|darussalam}} and {{Muslim||2952|reference}}.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6167|darussalam}}|
...In the meantime, a slave of Al-Mughira passed by, and he was of the same age as I was. The Prophet (ﷺ) said. "If this (slave) should live long, he will not reach the geriatric old age, but the Hour will be established."
}}

====Nothing will live one hundred years from now====
The "tonight" in ''italic'' was added by translators to accommodate the later re-interpretation:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||116|darussalam}}|
أَرَأَيْتَكُمْ لَيْلَتَكُمْ هَذِهِ، فَإِنَّ رَأْسَ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ مِنْهَا لاَ يَبْقَى مِمَّنْ هُوَ عَلَى ظَهْرِ الأَرْضِ أَحَدٌ

Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

Once the Prophet (ﷺ) led us in the `Isha' prayer during the last days of his life and after finishing it (the prayer) (with Taslim) he said: "Do you realize (the importance of) this night?" Nobody present on the surface of the earth ''tonight'' will be living after the completion of one hundred years from this night."
}}

When the prophecy failed 100 years later, it was subject to retroactive re-interpretation in Bukhari:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||601|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

The Prophet (ﷺ) prayed one of the `Isha' prayer in his last days and after finishing it with Taslim, he stood up and said, "Do you realize (the importance of) this night? Nobody present on the surface of the earth tonight would be living after the completion of one hundred years from this night." '''The people made a mistake in grasping the meaning of this statement of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they indulged in those things which are said about these narrators (i.e. some said that the Day of Resurrection will be established after 100 years etc.)''' But the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Nobody present on the surface of earth tonight would be living after the completion of 100 years from this night"; he meant "When that century (people of that century) would pass away."
}}

====If 10 scholars of the Jews would follow me, no Jew would be left upon the surface of the earth====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2793|reference}} (Muhsin Khan translation)|
لَوْ تَابَعَنِي عَشْرَةٌ مِنَ الْيَهُودِ لَمْ يَبْقَ عَلَى ظَهْرِهَا يَهُودِيٌّ إِلاَّ أَسْلَمَ

Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

If ten ''scholars'' of the Jews would follow me, no Jew would be left upon the surface of the earth who would not embrace Islam.
}}

The Arabic original doesn't say "ten Jewish scholars", but only "ten Jews" (عشرة من اليهود).

====30 false prophets before the Hour====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157l|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would not come until there would arise about thirty impostors, liars, and each one of them would claim that he is a messenger of Allah.
}}
According to the sira, in Muhammad's time there were other (supposedly false) prophets like Saf ibn Sayyad and Maslamah bin Ḥabīb (called by Muslims "Musaylimah al-Kadhdhāb" (Musaylama the Liar)), Al-Aswad Al-Ansi and Tulayha.

False prophets were also likewise predicted in the Bible:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Matthew 24:10-11|
At that time many will turn away from the faith and will betray and hate each other, and many '''false prophets will appear and deceive many people'''.
}}

====Rising of the Sun from its setting place====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4311|darussalam}}|
We were sitting in the shade of the chamber of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) discussing (something) and when we mentioned the last hour, our voices rose high. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: The last hour will not come or happen until there appear ten signs before it : '''the rising of the sun in its place of setting''', the coming forth of the beast, the coming forth of Gog and Magog, the Dajjal (Antichrist), (the descent of) Jesus son of Mary, the smoke, and three collapses of the earth: one in the west, one in the east, and one in the Arabian Peninsula. The last of that will be the emergence of a fire from Yemen, from the lowest part of Aden, and drive mankind to their place of assembly.
}}
This seems to suggest that the sun revolves about the Earth and can reverse direction

There is also a related verse in the Quran:{{Quote|{{Quran|6|158}}|
Do they [then] wait for anything except that the angels should come to them or your Lord should come or that there come some of the signs of your Lord? The Day that '''some of the signs of your Lord will come no soul will benefit from its faith as long as it had not believed before''' or had earned through its faith some good. Say, "Wait. Indeed, we [also] are waiting."
}}
Tafsir:
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 6:158|
"On the day that one of your Lord’s signs comes" — and this is the rising of the sun from the west as reported in the hadīth of the two Sahīhs of Bukhārī and Muslim — it shall not benefit a soul to believe if it had not believed theretofore
}}
The hadith:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4635|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established until the sun rises from the West: and when the people see it, then whoever will be living on the surface of the earth will have faith, and that is (the time) when no good will it do to a soul to believe then, if it believed not before." (6.158)
}}

Note that this hadith and others which mention this event are commonly mistranslated as the sun rising "from the west". In every case, such hadiths actually say in the arabic, ''min maghribiha'' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِهَا), which is literally "from its setting place" with the possessive suffix and without the definite article. "From the west" would be rather, ''min al maghriba'' as in {{Quran|2|258}} quoted below. Furthermore, the verb "rises" in such hadiths, ''taṭluʿa'' (تَطْلُعَ) is the one which appears in {{Quran|18|90}} when Dhu'l Qarnayn reaches the rising place of the sun and finds it rising on a people without shelter.

Another hadith says that right after the rising, a beast will appear in the forenoon:{{Quote|Abu Dawud 4310 (sahih)|
Abu zur’ah said:
A group of people came to Marwan in Medina, and they heard him say that the first of the signs to appear would be the coming forth of the Dajjal (Antichirst). He said: I then went to Abd Allah b. ‘Amr and mentioned it to him. He did not say anything(reliable). I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: '''The first of the signs to appear will be the rising of the sun in its place of setting and the coming forth of the beast against mankind in the forenoon.''' Whichever of them comes first will soon be followed by the other. ’Abd Allah who used to read the scriptures (Torah, Gospel) said: I think the first of them will be the rising of the sun in its place of setting.
}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4069}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“The first signs to appear will be at '''the rising of the sun from the west and the emergence of the Beast to the people, at forenoon'''.’” 'Abdullah said: "Whichever of them appears first, the other will come soon after." 'Abdullah said: "I do not think it will be anything other than the sun rising from the west."
}}

Some today proffer a metaphorical interpretation that the "rising of the Sun from the west" refers to the rise of the Western civilization. As noted above, this stems from the common mistranslation of the phrase, and would also leave the segment regarding the beast unexplained.

The Quran seems to affirm the possibility that God could make the Sun "rise from the West":
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|258}}|
Have you not considered the one who argued with Abraham about his Lord [merely] because Allah had given him kingship? When Abraham said, "My Lord is the one who gives life and causes death," he said, "I give life and cause death." Abraham said, "Indeed, '''Allah brings up the sun from the east''', so bring it up from the west." So the disbeliever was overwhelmed [by astonishment], and Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.
}}
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn]]
See also the story of [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun setting in a muddy Spring]] in the Quran, where this possibility is further confirmed. The sun is there described as having a setting place in a muddy spring, and a rising place where people lack shelter. This story is known to derive from the mid-6th century [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac Alexander Legend]].

====Stones and trees say to Muslims: "here is a Jew behind me; come and kill him"====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2922|reference}}|
The last hour would not come unless the Muslims will fight against the Jews and the Muslims would kill them until the Jews would hide themselves behind a stone or a tree and '''a stone or a tree would say: Muslim, or the servant of Allah, there is a Jew behind me; come and kill him'''; but the tree Gharqad would not say, for it is the tree of the Jews.
}}

According to the hadith, Muhammad himself used to hear voices from stones as well:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2277|reference}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: I recognise '''the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations''' before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}

====Time will pass more quickly (taqaarub az-zamaan)====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 10560|
لا تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَتَقَارَبَ الزَّمَانُ ، فَتَكُونَ السَّنَةُ كَالشَّهْرِ ، وَيَكُونَ الشَّهْرُ كَالْجُمُعَةِ ، وَتَكُونَ الْجُمُعَةُ كَالْيَوْمِ ، وَيَكُونَ الْيَوْمُ كَالسَّاعَةِ ، وَتَكُونَ السَّاعَةُ كَاحْتِرَاقِ السَّعَفَةِ

The Hour will not begin until time passes quickly, so a year will be like a month, and a month will be like a week, and a week will be like a day, and a day will be like an hour, and an hour will be like the burning of a braid of palm leaves.
}}

Islamic scholars have interpreted this variously, without any agreement as to the possible meaning:
{{Quote|[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/34618/one-of-the-signs-of-the-hour-is-that-time-will-pass-more-quickly islamqa.info: One of the signs of the Hour is that time will pass more quickly]|
The scholars differed concerning the meaning of the phrase taqaarub al-zamaan (time passing more quickly). '''There are many views''', the strongest of which is:

That the phrase taqaarub al-zamaan (time passing quickly) may be interpreted literally or metaphorically.
}}

====A man from Qahtan appears, driving the people with his stick====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7117|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till a man from Qahtan appears, driving the people with his stick."
}}

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qahtan_(tribe) Qahtan] still exists, but the prophecy remains unfulfilled. <ref>https://www.islamweb.net/ar/fatwa/418273/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B9%D8%8C-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A5%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9</ref>

====A man called Jahjah will occupy the throne====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2911|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The day and the night would not come to an end before a man called al-Jahjah would occupy the throne.
}}

*[https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/118597/%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%87%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86 Fatwa] (AR) puts this prophecy among non-fulfilled prophecies

====Conquest of Constantinopole without fighting and the Hour come together====
This hadith is considered da'eef by Albani (but sahih by Dhahabi):
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 14:331|
لتفتحن القسطنطينية، فلنعم الأمير أميرها، ولنعم الجيش ذلك الجيش

Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will her
leader be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!
}}

The predictions historically played a huge role in the continued Muslim jihads against the Roman (Byzantine) Empire, and when the Muslims finally conquered it in 1453 it was seen as the fulfillment of an eschatological vision of an apocalypse which never happened.

Another hadith adds that the Hour was expected to come with this conquest:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2239}}|
Anas bin Malik said:
"Constantinople will be conquered with the coming of the Hour."
}}

The coming of the Dajjal was expected right after the conquest:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4294|darussalam}} (hasan)|
Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The flourishing state of Jerusalem will be when Yathrib is in ruins, the ruined state of Yathrib will be when the great war comes, the outbreak of the great war will be at the conquest of Constantinople and the conquest of Constantinople when the Dajjal (Antichrist) comes forth. He (the Prophet) struck his thigh or his shoulder with his hand and said: This is as true as you are here or as you are sitting (meaning Mu'adh ibn Jabal).
}}

Another hadith mentions Romans attacking Dabiq before the conquest of Constantinople. The mention of swords makes it hard to re-interpret as a prophecy about another conquest of Constantinople in the future:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2897|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would not come until '''the Romans would land at al-A'maq or in Dabiq'''. An army consisting of the best (soldiers) of the people of the earth at that time will come from Medina (to counteract them). When they will arrange themselves in ranks, the Romans would say: Do not stand between us and those (Muslims) who took prisoners from amongst us. Let us fight with them; and the Muslims would say: Nay, by Allah, we would never get aside from you and from our brethren that you may fight them. They will then fight and a third (part) of the army would run away, whom Allah will never forgive. A third (part of the army) which would be constituted of excellent martyrs in Allah's eye, would be killed and the third who would never be put to trial would win and they would be conquerors of Constantinople. And as they would be busy in distributing the spoils of war (amongst themselves) after hanging their '''swords''' by the olive trees, the Satan would cry: '''The Dajjal''' has taken your place among your family. They would then come out, but it would be of no avail. And when they would come to Syria, he would come out while they would be still preparing themselves for battle drawing up the ranks. Certainly, the time of prayer shall come and then Jesus (peace be upon him) son of Mary would descend and would lead them. When the enemy of Allah would see him, it would (disappear) just as the salt dissolves itself in water and if he (Jesus) were not to confront them at all, even then it would dissolve completely, but Allah would kill them by his hand and he would show them their blood on his lance (the lance of Jesus Christ).
}}

Also:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4294|darussalam}} (hasan)|
Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The flourishing state of Jerusalem will be when Yathrib is in ruins, the ruined state of Yathrib will be when the great war comes, the outbreak of the great war will be at the conquest of Constantinople and the conquest of Constantinople when the Dajjal (Antichrist) comes forth. He (the Prophet) struck his thigh or his shoulder with his hand and said: This is as true as you are here or as you are sitting (meaning Mu'adh ibn Jabal).
}}

The conquest of Constantinople was predicted to happen without fighting, whereas in fact a fierce siege preceded the final fall of the city:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2920a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Apostle (may peace he upon him) saying:

You have heard about a city, one side of which is on land and the other is in the sea ('''Constantinople'''). They said: Allah's Messenger, yes. Thereupon he said: The Last Hour would not come unless seventy thousand persons from Bani lshaq would attack it. When they would land there, '''they will neither fight with weapons nor would shower arrows but would only say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," ''' and one side of it would fall. Thaur (one of the narrators) said: I think that he said: The part by the side of the ocean. Then they would say for the second time: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest" and the second side would also fall, and they would say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," and the gates would be opened for them and they would enter therein and, they would be collecting spoils of war and distributing them amongst themselves when a noise would be heard saying: Verily, Dajjal has come. And thus they would leave everything there and go back.
}}

Constantinople was [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople conquered in 1453] by fighting, the Dajjal didn't appear and the city was renamed to Istanbul.

====Conquest of Rome====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2900|reference}}|
Nafi' b. Utba reported:

We were with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) in an expedition that there came a people to Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) from the direction of the west. They were dressed in woollen clothes and they stood near a hillock and they met him as Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) was sitting. I said to myself: Better go to them and stand between him and them that they may not attack him. Then I thought that perhaps there had been going on secret negotiation amongst them. I however, went to them and stood between them and him and I remember four of the words (on that occasion) which I repeat (on the fingers of my hand) that he (Allah's Messenger) said: You will attack Arabia and Allah will enable you to conquer it, then you would attack Persia and He would make you to conquer it. '''Then you would attack Rome and Allah will enable you to conquer it, then you would attack the Dajjal and Allah will enable you to conquer him. Nafi' said: Jabir, we thought that the Dajjal would appear after Rome (Syrian territory) would be conquered.'''
}}

The Roman empire was conquered by Mehmet the Conqueror of the Turkish Ottoman dynasty in the 15th century, but the Dajjal did not appear after this event though many in the Muslim world thought he would.

====Byzantines will make truce with Muslims, betray them and attack them====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:

I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, '''and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.'''
}}
The prophecy is considered unfulfilled:
{{Quote|[https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/83460/hadith-about-the-romans-attacking-us-under-eighty-flags Hadith about the Romans attacking us under eighty flags]|
Imam Ibn al-Muneer said: 'Till this time the incident of gathering and attacking Rome in this huge number of soldiers has not happened yet. This matter has not taken place yet.
}}

====Conquest of India and the second coming of Jesus come together====
Also known as [[Ghazwa-e-hind|ghazwa-e-hind]].
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|25|3177}} (hasan) from The Book of Jihad, chapter "Invading India"|
It was narrated that Thawban, the freed slave of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), said:
"The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: 'There are two groups of my Ummah whom Allah will free from the Fire: The group that invades India (تَغْزُو الْهِنْدَ, ''taghzoo al-hind''), and the group that will be with Isa bin Maryam, peace be upon him.'"
}}

Early conquests of India happened in the 7th century (for example [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rasil Battle of Rasil]), while author of the hadith collection [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nasa%27i al-Nasa'i] lived in the 9th century.

The conquest of India is linked to the second coming of Jesus (Isa). In other (although weak) hadiths it's even more explicit:
{{Quote|Na‘eem ibn Hammaad, al-Fitan, p. 409 (daeef)|
The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said – and he mentioned India – then he said: “An army of yours will invade India and Allah will grant its conquest to them, until they bring their kings in chains, and Allah will forgive them their sins. Then they will return and when they return, they will find the son of Maryam in ash-Shaam (Syria).” Abu Hurayrah said: If I live to see that campaign, I will sell everything I possess and join the campaign. Then if Allah grants us victory and we return, then I will be Abu Hurayrah the freed (protected from Hellfire). And when we return to Syria we will find there ‘Eesa ibn Maryam. Then I shall make sure that I draw close to him and tell him that I accompanied you, O Messenger of Allah. The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) smiled and said: “Unlikely, unlikely.” [very difficult?]
}}

However, the second coming did not follow either these events:
{{Quote|[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/145636/hadith-about-the-conquest-of-india islamqa.info: Hadith about the conquest of India]|
What is mentioned in the hadith of Abu Hurayrah (may Allah have mercy on him), which was narrated by Na‘eem ibn Hammaad, about '''the conquest of India has not happened up till now''', but it will happen when ‘Eesaa ibn Maryam (peace be upon him) descends, if the hadith that says that is saheeh.
}}

====No more Khosrau and Caesar====
In Muhammad's time, the ruler of Persia was called Khosrau and the ruler of the Byzantine empire Caesar.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3027|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Khosrau will be ruined, and there will be no Khosrau after him, and Caesar will surely be ruined and there will be no Caesar after him, and you will spend their treasures in Allah's Cause." He called, "War is deceit'.
}}
There are many examples of this prophecy failing for both [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow Kusrau] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title) Caesar]. For example:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_Shah Khusrau Shah] was the king of the Justanids in the 10th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_Khan Khusrau Khan] was the Sultan of Delhi in the 14th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doukas_(Caesar) John Doukas] was a Caesar of the Byzantine empire in the 11th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror Mehmed the Conqueror] - a 15h century Muslim conqueror, also called himself Caesar

The prophecy is probably referring to the 7th century Islamic conquests. The prediction in Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

====Nations will soon call each other to attack Muslims====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4297|darussalam}}|
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The people will soon summon one another to attack you as people when eating invite others to share their dish. Someone asked: Will that be because of our small numbers at that time? He replied: No, you will be numerous at that time: but you will be scum and rubbish like that carried down by a torrent, and Allah will take fear of you from the breasts of your enemy and last enervation into your hearts. Someone asked: What is wahn (enervation). Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): He replied: Love of the world and dislike of death.
}}

This hadith was invoked by ISIS to rationalize the international coalition that formed against them.

====Romans would form a majority amongst people====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2898b|reference}}|
Mustaurid Qurashi reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: '''The Last Hour would come when the Romans would form a majority amongst people'''. This reached 'Amr b. al-'As and he said: What are these ahadith which are being transmitted from you and which you claim to have heard from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)? Mustaurid said to him: I stated only that which I heard from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). Thereupon 'Amr said: If you state this (it is true), for they have the power of tolerance amongst people at the time of turmoil and restore themselves to sanity after trouble, and are good amongst people so far as the destitute and the weak are concerned.
}}

The Roman (Byzantine) empire dissolved without the realization of this prophecy.

====Western people will triumphally follow the truth until the Hour====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1925|reference}}|
It has been narrated by Sa'd b. Abu Waqqas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

The people of the West will continue to triumphantly follow the truth until the Hour is established.
}}

====Twelve caliphs====
Shi'ite Imamology rests heavily upon this hadith, though has been continuously troubled by it (as have been Sunni scholars), as there appears to be no clear group of "twelve Caliphs" to have appeared in history:{{Quote|{{Muslim||1821d|reference}}|
It has been narrated on the authority of Jabir b. Samura who said:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Islam will continue to be triumphant until there have been '''twelve Caliphs'''. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said something which I could not understand. I asked my father: What did he say? He said: He has said that all of them (twelve Caliphs) will be from the Quraish.
}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1822a|reference}}|
It has been narrated on the authority of Amir b. Sa'd b. Abu Waqqas who said:

I wrote (a letter) to Jabir b. Samura and sent it to him through my servant Nafi', asking him to inform me of something he had heard from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). He wrote to me (in reply): I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say on Friday evening, the day on which al-Aslami was stoned to death (for committing adultery): '''The Islamic religion will continue until the Hour has been established, or you have been ruled over by twelve Caliphs, all of them being from the Quraish'''. also heard him say: A small force of the Muslims will capture the white palace, the police of the Persian Emperor or his descendants. I also heard him say: Before the Day of Judgment there will appear (a number of) impostors. You are to guard against them. I also heard him say: When God grants wealth to any one of you, he should first spend it on himself and his family (and then give it in charity to the poor). I heard him (also) say: I will be your forerunner at the Cistern (expecting your arrival).
}}

Commentaries by (Sunni) Islamic scholars:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar, Fathul-Bari, vol. 13, p.211|
لم ألق أحدا يقطع في هذا الحديث يعني بشيء معين

I have not met anyone who could be certain about the meaning of this hadith!
}}
{{Quote|Ibn Jouzi, Kashful-Majhool, vol.1 p.449|
هذا الحديث قد أطلت البحث عنه، وتطلّبت مظانّه، وسألت عنه، فما رأيت أحدا وقع على المقصود به

I have researched for long to understand this hadith and referred to many references and made much enquiries about it, yet I did not meet anyone who could understand it.
}}

====Rain which will destroy all dwellings except tents====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 7554 (sahih)|
حدثنا عبد الله حدثني أبي ثنا أبو كامل وعفان قالا ثنا حماد عن سهيل قال عفان في حديثه قال أنا سهيل بن أبي صالح عن أبيه عن أبي هريرة قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم : لا تقوم الساعة حتى يمطر الناس مطرا لا تكن منه بيوت المدر ولا تكن منه الا بيوت الشعر
تعليق شعيب الأرنؤوط : إسناده صحيح على شرط مسلم

The Hour will not come until there has been rain which
will destroy all dwellings except tents
}}
====Not living according to the sharia causes infighting between Muslims====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. '''Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”'''
}}

As the Muslim community split into warring factions very quickly after the death of the prophet, this hadith is almost certainly another example of ''vaticinium ex eventu'' about events of the various Muslim civil war, fitnahs, revolts, and unrest from the 7th and 8th centuries.

====12 thousand from Aden Abyan will make Islam victorious====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 5/33 (sahih)|
يخرجُ من عدنِ أَبْيَنَ اثنا عشرَ ألفًا ينصرونَ اللهَ ورسولَهُ هم خيرُ مَن بيني وبينهم

Out of Aden-Abyan will come 12000, giving victory to the (religion of) Allah and His Messenger. They are the best between me and them.
}}

====Group of Muslims will remain victorious until Allah's order====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7311|darussalam}}|
Narrated Al-Mughira bin Shu`ba:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "A group of my follower swill remain predominant (victorious) till Allah's Order (the Hour) comes upon them while they are still predominant (victorious).
}}

====Ninety-nine dragons in infidel's grave until the Hour====
{{Quote|Mishkat al-Masabih 134 (Hasan according to Zubair Alizai, Daeef according to Albani)|
Abu Sa'id reported God’s messenger as saying, “Ninety-nine dragons will be given power over an infidel in his grave, and will bite and sting him till the last hour comes. If one of those dragons were to breathe over the earth, it would bring forth no green thing."

Darimi transmitted it, and Tirmidhi transmitted something similar, but he said seventy instead of ninety-nine.
}}

====Periods of fitnah====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4242|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Umar:

When we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), he talked about periods of trial (fitnahs), mentioning many of them.

When he mentioned the one when people should stay in their houses, some asked him: Messenger of Allah, what is the trial (fitnah) of staying at home?

He replied: It will be flight and plunder. Then will come a test which is pleasant. Its murkiness is due to the fact that it is produced by a man from the people of my house, who will assert that he belongs to me, whereas he does not, for my friends are only the God-fearing. Then the people will unite under a man who will be like a hip-bone on a rib. Then there will be the little black trial which will leave none of this community without giving him a slap, and when people say that it is finished, it will be extended. During it a man will be a believer in the morning and an infidel in the evening, so that the people will be in two camps: the camp of faith which will contain no hypocrisy, and the camp of hypocrisy which will contain no faith. When that happens, expect the Antichrist (Dajjal) that day or the next.
}}

====Inheritance is not distributed====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2899a|reference}}|
لاَ تَقُومُ حَتَّى لاَ يُقْسَمَ مِيرَاثٌ وَلاَ يُفْرَحَ بِغَنِيمَةٍ

..The Last Hour would not come until shares of '''inheritance are not distributed''' and there is no rejoicing over spoils of war...
}}
====People don't rejoice over spoils of war====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2899a|reference}}|
لاَ تَقُومُ حَتَّى لاَ يُقْسَمَ مِيرَاثٌ وَلاَ يُفْرَحَ بِغَنِيمَةٍ

..The Last Hour would not come until shares of inheritance are not distributed and '''there is no rejoicing over spoils of war'''...
}}

====Muslims will soon flee to mountains from persecution====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||20|darussalam}}|
عَنْ أَبِي سَعِيدٍ الْخُدْرِيِّ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ أَنَّهُ قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ يُوشِكُ أَنْ يَكُونَ خَيْرَ مَالِ الْمُسْلِمِ غَنَمٌ يَتْبَعُ بِهَا شَعَفَ الْجِبَالِ وَمَوَاقِعَ الْقَطْرِ يَفِرُّ بِدِينِهِ مِنْ الْفِتَنِ

“Soon the best property of a Muslim will be a flock of sheep he takes to the top of a mountain, or in the valleys of rainfall, fleeing with his religion from tribulations.”
}}

====All believers will go to Syria====
{{Quote|Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain 8461 (sahih)|
يأتي على الناس زمان لا يبقى فيه مؤمن إلا لحق بالشام

A time will come to people when no believer remains except that he came over to As-Sham
}}

====Extinction of the Quraysh tribe====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 16/186 (sahih)|
أسرعُ قبائلِ العربِ فناءً قريشٌ ويوشكُ أن تمرَّ المرأةُ بالنعلِ فتقول إن هذا نعلُ قرشيُّ

The fastest Arab tribe in extinction is Quraysh. Soon a woman will pass by a sandal, then she will say that this is a sandal of a Qurashi.
}}

====Arabs will be exterminated and go to hell====
Hadith da'eef:
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|3967}} (da'eef) and others|
It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“There will be a tribulation which will utterly destroy the Arabs, and those who are slain will be in Hell. At that time the tongue will be worse than a blow of the sword.”
}}

====Last of the ummah will curse the first====
Fabricated (mawdu') hadith:
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|263}} (mawdu)|
It was narrated that Jabir said:
"The Messenger of Allah said: 'When the last people of this Ummah curse the first, (at that time) whoever conceals a Hadith will be concealing what Allah has revealed.'" (Maudu')
}}

====Pilgrimage to Makka will be abandoned====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1593|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said "The people will continue performing the Hajj and `Umra to the Ka`ba even after the appearance of Gog and Magog." Narrated Shu`ba extra: The Hour (Day of Judgment) will not be established till the Hajj (to the Ka`ba) is abandoned.
}}

====Disappearance of faith====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||148b|reference}}, chapter The Disappearance of Faith at the End of Time|
It is narrated on the authority of Anas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

"The Hour (Resurrection) will not occur as long as anyone says: 'Allah, Allah.'"
}}

This follows the theme of religion decreasing while sin increases before the end of times.

====Islam will be widespread====
Although Muhammad predicted that Islam will disappear, he also predicted that Islam will succeed:
{{Quote|Musnad Aḥmad 16509 (sahih)|
Tamim al-Dari reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “This matter will certainly reach every place touched by the night and day. Allah will not leave a house or residence but that Allah will cause this religion to enter it, by which the honorable will be honored and the disgraceful will be disgraced. Allah will honor the honorable with Islam and he will disgrace the disgraceful with unbelief.”
}}
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2176}} (sahih)|
"Indeed Allah gathered the earth for me so that I saw its east and its west. And surely my Ummah's authority shall reach over all that was shown to me of it.
}}

If these traditions go back to Muhammad, the seem to indicate different ideas Muhammad had about the future;otherwise they may indicate the feelings of the groups of people who fabricated these hadiths at later points in Muslim history.

====The Quran will disappear overnight====
{{Quote|Sunan al-Dārimī 3343 (hasan)|
عَنْ زِرٍّ عَنْ ابْنِ مَسْعُودٍ رضي الله عنه قَالَ لَيُسْرَيَنَّ عَلَى الْقُرْآنِ ذَاتَ لَيْلَةٍ فَلَا يُتْرَكُ آيَةٌ فِي مُصْحَفٍ وَلَا فِي قَلْبِ أَحَدٍ إِلَّا رُفِعَتْ

The Quran will vanish in one night. No verse in the scripture or in the heart of anyone will be left behind.
}}

====Islam will wear out====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4049}} (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A7+%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%A8</ref>|
يدرُسُ الإسلامُ كما يدرُسُ وَشيُ الثَّوبِ حتَّى لا يُدرَى ما صيامٌ، ولا صلاةٌ، ولا نسُكٌ، ولا صدَقةٌ، ولَيُسرى على كتابِ اللَّهِ عزَّ وجلَّ في ليلَةٍ، فلا يبقى في الأرضِ منهُ آيةٌ، وتبقَى طوائفُ منَ النَّاسِ الشَّيخُ الكبيرُ والعجوزُ، يقولونَ: أدرَكْنا آباءَنا على هذِهِ الكلمةِ، لا إلَهَ إلَّا اللَّهُ، فنحنُ نقولُها فقالَ لَهُ صِلةُ: ما تُغني عنهم: لا إلَهَ إلَّا اللَّهُ، وَهُم لا يَدرونَ ما صلاةٌ، ولا صيامٌ، ولا نسُكٌ، ولا صدقةٌ؟ فأعرضَ عنهُ حُذَيْفةُ، ثمَّ ردَّها علَيهِ ثلاثًا، كلَّ ذلِكَ يعرضُ عنهُ حُذَيْفةُ، ثمَّ أقبلَ علَيهِ في الثَّالثةِ، فقالَ: يا صِلةُ، تُنجيهِم منَ النَّار ثلاثًا

“Islam will wear out as embroidery on a garment wears out, until no one will know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are. The Book of Allah will be taken away at night, and not one Verse of it will be left on earth. And there will be some people left, old men and old women, who will say: “We saw our fathers saying these words: ‘La ilaha illallah’ so we say them too.” Silah said to him: “What good will (saying): La ilaha illallah do them, when they do not know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are?” Hudhaifah turned away from his. He repeated his question three times, and Hudhaifah turned away from him each time. Then he turned to him on the third time and said: “O Silah! It will save them from Hell,” three times.
}}

====Islam will end up like a snake crawling back into its hole====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||146|reference}}|
It is narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Umar ('Abdullah b. 'Umar) that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) observed:

Verily Islam started as something strange and it would again revert (to its old position) of being strange just as it started, and it would recede between the two mosques just as the serpent crawls back into its hole.
}}

In other hadith, Muhammad described belief in Islam as a snake:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1876|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Verily, Belief returns and goes back to Medina as a snake returns and goes back to its hole (when in danger).
}}

====Countries colonized by Muslims will stop paying them and Muslims will be poor again====
The hadith is in the chapter called "Making Endowments Of The Lands Of As-Sawad, And The Lands That Were Conquered By Force":
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3035|darussalam}}|
Abu Hurairah reported the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) as saying “Iraq will prevent its measure (qafiz) and dirham. Syria will prevent its measure (mudi) and dinar. Egypt will prevent its measure (irdabb) and dinar. Then you will return to the position where you started. Zuhair said this three times. The flesh and blood of Abu Hurairah witnessed it.
}}

====Buttocks of women of Daus are moving around the Yemenite Kaba====

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7116|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till '''the buttocks of the women of the tribe of Daus move while going round Dhi-al-Khalasa'''." Dhi-al-Khalasa was the idol of the Daus tribe which they used to worship in the Pre Islamic Period of ignorance.
}}

It was interpreted metaphorically as a rise of polytheism because the idol was destroyed and the people were killed before it came true :
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2476a|reference}}|
Jabir reported that there was in pre-Islamic days a temple called '''Dhu'l- Khalasah and it was called the Yamanite Ka'ba''' or the northern Ka'ba. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said unto me:

Will you rid me of Dhu'l-Khalasah and so I went forth at the head of 350 horsemen of the tribe of Ahmas and '''we destroyed it and killed whomsoever we found there'''. Then we came back to him (to the Holy Prophet) and informed him and he blessed us and the tribe of Ahmas.
}}

====People commonly have sex in the streets, like donkeys====
{{Quote|Sahih Ibn Hibban 6/345 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D9%8E%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%8E%D9%82%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%A9%D9%8F+%D8%AD%D9%8E%D8%AA%D9%91%D9%8E%D9%89+%D9%8A%D9%8E%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8E%D8%AF%D9%8E+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8F+%D9%81%D9%90%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%91%D9%8F%D8%B1%D9%8F%D9%82%D9%90+%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8F%D8%AF%D9%8E+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%92%D8%AD%D9%8E%D9%85%D9%90%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%90</ref>|
لا تقومُ السَّاعةُ حتَّى يتسافدَ النَّاسُ في الطُّرقِ تسافُدَ الحميرِ

The Hour shall not commence until the people engage in sexual
intercourse in the streets just like donkeys.
}}

Public sex was already happening among ancient civilizations.<ref>[https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/all-about-sex/201809/orgies-through-the-ages Orgies Through the Ages]</ref>

====Rise of polytheism====
{{Quote|Sunan Abi Dawud 4252|
..the Last Hour will not come before the tribes of my people attach themselves to the polytheists and tribes of my people worship idols..
}}
Polytheism has become less popular with time.

====People will worship goddesses Lat and Uzza again====
The goddesses [[Lat]] and [[Uzza]] were worshiped by Arabs before the Islamic conquest of Arabia.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2907a|reference}}|
'A'isha reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: '''The (system) of night and day would not end until the people have taken to the worship of Lat and 'Uzza'''. I said: Allah's Messenger, I think when Allah has revealed this verse:" He it is Who has sent His Messenger with right guidance, and true religion, so that He may cause it to prevail upon all religions, though the polytheists are averse (to it)" (ix. 33), it implies that (this promise) is going to be fulfilled. Thereupon he (Allah's Apostle) said: It would happen as Allah would like. Then Allah would send the sweet fragrant air by which everyone who has even a mustard grain of faith in Him would die and those only would survive who would have no goodness in them. And they would revert to the religion of their forefathers.
}}

====All believers will be killed by a wind from Allah and only evil people (= non-Muslims) will survive====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2907a|reference}}|
'A'isha reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: The (system) of night and day would not end until the people have taken to the worship of Lat and 'Uzza'. I said: Allah's Messenger, I think when Allah has revealed this verse:" He it is Who has sent His Messenger with right guidance, and true religion, so that He may cause it to prevail upon all religions, though the polytheists are averse (to it)" (ix. 33), it implies that (this promise) is going to be fulfilled. Thereupon he (Allah's Apostle) said: It would happen as Allah would like. '''Then Allah would send the sweet fragrant air by which everyone who has even a mustard grain of faith in Him would die''' and those only would survive who would have no goodness in them. And they would revert to the religion of their forefathers.
}}

====Killing neighbors and family members====
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 118 (classified as "very good" by Albani)|
عَنْ أَبِي مُوسَى‏ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم‏ لاَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَقْتُلَ الرَّجُلُ جَارَهُ وَأَخَاهُ وَأَبَاهُ

The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “The Hour will not be established until a man kills his neighbor, his brother, and his father.”
}}

====Abundance of deaths by lightning====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad, vol. 3 pg. 64/65 (sahih)|
تَكثُرُ الصَّواعِقُ عِندَ اقْتِرابِ السَّاعةِ، حتَّى يَأتيَ الرَّجُلُ القَومَ، فيقولَ: مَن صَعِقَ قِبَلَكمُ الغَداةَ؟ فيَقولون: صَعِقَ فُلانٌ وفُلانٌ.

There will be an abundance of lightning with the coming of the Hour, until a man comes to a tribe asking: Who was struck today? Then they say: So and so
}}
John Jensenius (a lightning specialist) said that the number of injuries and deaths caused by lightning is actually going down. <ref>https://www.cbsnews.com/news/are-lightning-strikes-becoming-more-common/</ref>

====Luka bin Luka will be the happiest person====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2209}} (sahih)|
Hudhaifah bin Al-Yaman narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"The Hour will not be established until the happiest of people in the world is Luka' bin Luka'."
}}

Scholars interpreted the name "Luka bin Luka" (لكع بن لكع) to mean "the most despicable/wicked/evil"<ref>https://www.islamweb.net/ar/fatwa/18510/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%89-%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB</ref> and "wickedness", rather than a specific person

====Wine, musical instruments and singing girls will turn Muslims into monkeys and pigs====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4020}}|
لَيَشْرَبَنَّ نَاسٌ مِنْ أُمَّتِي الْخَمْرَ يُسَمُّونَهَا بِغَيْرِ اسْمِهَا يُعْزَفُ عَلَى رُءُوسِهِمْ بِالْمَعَازِفِ وَالْمُغَنِّيَاتِ يَخْسِفُ اللَّهُ بِهِمُ الأَرْضَ وَيَجْعَلُ مِنْهُمُ الْقِرَدَةَ وَالْخَنَازِيرَ

It was narrated from Abu Malik Ash’ari that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“People among my nation will drink wine, calling it by another name, and musical instruments will be played for them and singing girls (will sing for them). Allah will cause the earth to swallow them up, and will turn them into monkeys and pigs.”
}}

Since the hadith literally says "is played upon their heads with musical instruments" (يُعْزَفُ عَلَى رُءُوسِهِمْ بِالْمَعَازِفِ) some claim that it is a prediction of headphones. But it says "played", not "placed" upon their heads, the word "instruments" is in the plural form and the singing girls are obviously real singing girls, while with head phones the singing would be included in the headphones. The interpretation that the word "musical instruments" (معازف) refers to musical instruments fits much better into the context.

Muhammad himself listened to singing girls, perhaps he was in a better mood since it was the day of Eid:{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||952|darussalam}}|
Narrated Aisha:

Abu Bakr came to my house while two small Ansari girls were singing beside me the stories of the Ansar concerning the Day of Buath. And they were not singers. Abu Bakr said protestingly, "Musical instruments of Satan in the house of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) !" It happened on the `Id day and Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "O Abu Bakr! There is an `Id for every nation and this is our `Id."
}}

Wine and singing was already mentioned in pre-Islamic Arab poetry:
{{Quote|Dhu Jadan al-Himyari, Sirat Rasul Allah p. 19|
Peace, confound you! You can't turn me from my purpose

Thy scolding dries my spittle!

To '''the music of singers''' in times past 'twas fine

When we drank our fill of purest noblest wine.

'''Drinking freely of wine brings me no shame'''

If my behaviour no boon-companion would blame.

For death no man can hold back Though he drink the perfumed potions of the quack.
}}

====Milking, clothes and tank before the Hour====
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 41:7054|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would come (so sudden) that a person would be milking the she- camel and the (milk) would not reach the brim of the vessel that the Last Hour would come, and the two persons would be engaged in buying and selling of the clothes and their bargain would not be struck before the Last Hour would come. And someone would be setting his tank in order and he would have hardly set it right when the Last Hour would come.
}}

====Allah will put pieces of the world on his fingers====
Muhammad agreed with this prophecy presented by a Jewish Scholar
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim Book 39, Hadith 6699|
Abdullah b. Mas'ud reported that a Jewish scholar came to Allah's Apostle (may peace he upon him) and said:

Muhammad, or Abu al-Qasim, verily, Allah, the Exalted and Glorious would carry the Heavens on the Day of Judgment upon one finger and earths upon one finger and the mountains and trees upon one finger and the ocean and moist earth upon one finger, and in fact the whole of the creation upon one finger, and then He would stir them and say: I am your Lord, I am your Lord. Thereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) smiled testifying what that scholar had said. He then recited this verse:" And they honour not Allah with the honour due to Him; and the whole earth will be in His grip on the Day of Resurrection and the heaven rolled up in His right hand. Glory be to Him I and highly Exalted is He above what they associate (with Him)" (Az-Zumar:67).
}}

====Medina banishes its evils====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1381|reference}}|
Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him) reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

A time will come for the people (of Medina) when a man will invite his cousin and any other near relation: Come (and settle) at (a place) where living is cheap, come to where there is plenty, but Medina will be better for them; would they know it! By Him in Whose Hand is my life, none amongst them would go out (of the city) with a dislike for it, but Allah would make his successor in it someone better than be. Behold. Medina is like furnace which eliminates from it the impurities. And '''the Last Hour will not come until Medina banishes its evils''' just as a furnace eliminates the impurities of iron.
}}
====Nobody will accept charity====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1411|darussalam}}|
Narrated Haritha bin Wahab:

I heard the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "O people! Give in charity as a time will come upon you when a person will wander about with his object of charity and will not find anybody to accept it, and one (who will be requested to take it) will say, "If you had brought it yesterday, would have taken it, but today I am not in need of it."
}}

====Not paying zakat will cause a lack of rain====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. '''They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them'''. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

====Swelling of crescents [The Moon]====
{{Quote|Sahih Al-Jami' 5898 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%85%D9%90%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%90+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8E%D9%91%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%A9%D9%90+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%81%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%90%D9%84%D9%8E%D9%91%D8%A9%D9%90&order=color</ref>|
مِنَ اقترابِ الساعَةِ انتفاخُ الأهِلَّةِ

From approaching of the Hour is the swelling of crescents
}}

====An Abyssinian will destroy the Kaba====
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 7:6953/2909c|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ﷺ as saying: It would be an Abyssinian having two small shanks who would destroy the House ol Allah, the Exalted and Glorious.
}}

====Collapse, transformation and stoning from the sky====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2185}} sahih|حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو كُرَيْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا صَيْفِيُّ بْنُ رِبْعِيٍّ، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عُمَرَ، عَنْ عُبَيْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عُمَرَ، عَنِ الْقَاسِمِ بْنِ مُحَمَّدٍ، عَنْ عَائِشَةَ، قَالَتْ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏"‏ يَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ هَذِهِ الأُمَّةِ خَسْفٌ وَمَسْخٌ وَقَذْفٌ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَتْ قُلْتُ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ أَنَهْلِكُ وَفِينَا الصَّالِحُونَ قَالَ ‏"‏ نَعَمْ إِذَا ظَهَرَ الْخَبَثُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ أَبُو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ غَرِيبٌ مِنْ حَدِيثِ عَائِشَةَ لاَ نَعْرِفُهُ إِلاَّ مِنْ هَذَا الْوَجْهِ ‏.‏ وَعَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ عُمَرَ تَكَلَّمَ فِيهِ يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ مِنْ قِبَلِ حِفْظِهِ ‏.‏

'Aishah narrated "The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
'In the end of this Ummah there will be a collapse, transformation, and Qadhf."' She said :"I said: 'O Messenger of Allah! Will they be destroyed while they are righteous among them?' He said: 'Yes, when evil is dominant."'
}}

It's just three vague words خَسْفٌ وَمَسْخٌ وَقَذْفٌ (khasf and maskh and qadhf). Tafsir:
{{Quote|Al-Munawi - Fayd al-Qadir|
3176 - (بين يدي الساعة مسخ) قلب الخلقة من شيء إلى شيء أو تحويل الصورة إلى أقبح منها أو مسخ القلوب (وخسف) أي غور في الأرض (وقذف) أي رمي بالحجارة من جهة السماء

maskh - transformation of creation from its shape to an uglier one

khasf - a depression in the Earth

qadhf - pelting with stones from the sky

}}

====Euphrates will uncover a mountain of gold soon====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7119|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "'''Soon the river "Euphrates" will disclose the treasure (the mountain) of gold''', so whoever will be present at that time should not take anything of it." Al-A'raj narrated from Abii Huraira that the Prophet (ﷺ) said the same but he said, "It (Euphrates) will uncover a mountain of gold (under it).
}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2894a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ﷺ as saying: The Last Hour would not come before the Euphrates uncovers a mountain of gold, for which people would fight. Ninety-nine out of each one hundred would die but every man amongst them would say that perhaps he would be the one who would be saved (and thus possess this gold).
}}

No mountain of gold was found uncovered by the Euphrates soon thereafter, let alone an exceptionally deadly conflict over the ownership of such gold. There is a gold mine more than a kilometer from the Euphrates which is claimed to fulfil the prophecy (the Copler mine in Erzincan province, Turkey). This was neither uncovered by the Euphrates, nor is it a mountain, nor has there been a deadly scramble to possess it.

The hadith prophecy is simply one adapted from the well known Biblical apocalypse, [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2016&version=NIV Revelation 16:12], "The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates, and its water was dried up to prepare the way for the kings from the East." In Revelation, this occurs in the context of a series of bowls of wrath poured out in highly symbolic language. The meaning is very obviously not literal.

====Gender ratio will be 50 women to 1 men====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||81|darussalam}}|
I will narrate to you a Hadith and none other than I will tell you about after it. I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying: From among the portents of the Hour are (the following): -1. Religious knowledge will decrease (by the death of religious learned men). -2. Religious ignorance will prevail. -3. There will be prevalence of open illegal sexual intercourse. -4. '''Women will increase in number and men will decrease in number so much so that fifty women will be looked after by one man.'''
}}

====Knowledge will be sought from young people====
{{Quote|al-Mu’jam al-Kabīr 908 (sahih)|
عَنْ أَبِي أُمَيَّةَ اللَّخْمِيِّ أَنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ إِنَّ مِنْ أَشْرَاطِ السَّاعَةِ ثَ أَنْ يُلْتَمَسَ الْعِلْمَ عِنْدَ الْأَصَاغِرِ

The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Verily, among the signs of the Hour is that knowledge will be sought from the young.”
}}

====Seventy-three sects====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|38|2640}} (hasan)|
Narrated Abu Hurairah:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "The Jews split into seventy-one sects, or seventy-two sects, and the Christians similarly, and my Ummah will split into seventy-three sects."
}}

====Emergence of Sufyani====
This hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|al-Mustadrak 4/520 (da'eef)|
يخرج رجل يقال له السفياني في عمق دمشق ، وعامة من يتبعه من كلب ، فيقتل حتى يبقر بطون النساء ويقتل الصبيان ، فتجمع لهم قيس فيقتلها حتى لا يمنع ذنب تلعة ، ويخرج رجل من أهل بيتي في الحرة فيبلغ السفياني فيبعث إليه جنداً من جنده فيهزمهم ، فيسير إليه السفياني بمن معه ، حتى إذا صار ببيداء من الأرض خسف بهم ، فلا ينجو منهم إلا المخبر عنهم

There will emerge a man called as-Sufyaani from the depths of Damascus, and most of those who follow him will be from (the tribe of) Kalb. He will kill many people until he rips open the bellies of women and kill children. (The tribe of) Qays will gather against him and he will kill them. A man from my family will emerge in the harrah, and news of that will reach as-Sufyaani. He will send troops against him and he will defeat them. Then as-Sufyaani will march towards him accompanied by those who are with him, then when he is in a plain, they will be swallowed up by the earth and none of them will be saved except the one who will tell others about them.
}}

====Muslims in mosque won't find an imam to lead them in prayer====
This hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|Sunan Abu Dawud Book 2, Hadith 581, chapter It Is Disliked To Refuse The Position Of Imam|
Narrated Sulamah daughter of al-Hurr:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: One of the signs of the Last Hour will be that people in a mosque will refuse to act as imam and will not find an imam to lead them in prayer.
}}

 
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||1|10|783}} chapter "When people are together and are all of the same status"|
It was narrated from Abu Sa'eed that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"when there are three people let one of them lead the prayer, and the one who is most entitled to lead the prayer is the one who has most knowledge of the Qur'an."
}}

This prophecy was included in a chapter called "It Is Disliked To Refuse The Position Of Imam", and is perhaps best understood as a sort of moral exhortation to lead prayer when a prayer needs to be led.

====Dajjal nor plague will be able to enter Medina====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2242}} (sahih)|
Anas narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"The Dajjal will come to Al-Madinah to find the angels have surrounded it. Neither the plague nor the Dajjal will enter it, if Allah wills."
}}Medina, historically, has not proven to be especially or at all plague-proof. Moreover, during plagues, the Saudi government (and the caliphates, historically) had to close off access to Mecca and Medina to prevent the spread of disease.

====Jesus will break the cross, kill the pigs and abolish Jizyah====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4078}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"The Hour will not begin until 'Eisa bin Maryam comes down as a just judge and a just ruler. He will break the cross, kill the pigs and abolish the Jizyah, and wealth will become so abundant that no one will accept it."
}}

====Gog and Magog will drink out the lake of Tiberias====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2937a|reference}}|
And then Allah would send Gog and Magog and they would swarm down from every slope. The first of them would pass the lake of Tiberias and drink out of it. And when the last of them would pass, he would say: There was once water there.
}}

Gog and Magog are described in the hadith and Quran as tribes on Earth blocked by a big iron wall, erected by
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn]]
, that will be unlocked at the end of times. There are supposed to be so many of them that they will drink the entire lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) dry.

====Gog and Magog will successfully dig through the wall====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4080}}|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
"Gog and Magog people dig every day until, when they can almost see the rays of the sun, the one in charge of them says: "Go back and we will dig it tomorrow." Then Allah puts it back, stronger than it was before. (This will continue) until, when their time has come, and Allah wants to send them against the people, they will dig until they can almost see the rays of the sun, then the one who is in charge of them will say: "Go back, and we will dig it tomorrow if Allah wills.' So '''they will say: "If Allah wills." Then they will come back to it and it will be as they left it. So they will dig and will come out to the people''', and they will drink all the water. The people will fortify themselves against them in their fortresses. They will shoot their arrows towards the sky and they will come back with blood on them, and they will say: "We have defeated the people of earth and dominated the people of heaven." Then Allah will send a worm in the napes of their necks and will kill them thereby.'" The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "By the One in Whose Hand is my soul, the beasts of the earth will grow fat on their flesh."
}}

====Muslims will use bows, arrows and shields of Gog and Magog as firewood for 7 years====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4076}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Nawwas bin Sam'an that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
"The Muslims will use the bows, arrows and shields of Gog and Magog as firewood, for seven years.'"
}}

==See also==

*[[Quranic Prophecies]]

External:

*[https://www.marefa.org/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 List of Muhammad's prophecies] (Arabic)
*[https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Biblical_prophecies#Criteria_for_a_true_prophecy RationalWiki: Biblical prophecies, Criteria for a true prophecy] (could be analogically applied to Islamic prophecies)
*[https://detechter.com/15-ancient-hindu-predictions-that-have-come-true/#List_of_15_Ancient_Hindu_Prophecy_From_Bhagavata_Purana 15 Hindu predictions] - ''Comparing and contrasting Islamic prophecies with those of other religions' scriptures predictions is instructive''

==References==

[[Category:Prophecies]]
<references />
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Eschatology]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Qadr (fate)]]

Prophecies in the Hadith

2026-02-23T01:29:58Z

Lightyears: Fixed hadith citations to use templates and because sunnah.com has lots of volume and book number mistakes for Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah and Nasa'i which are corrected on Quranx.

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Muhammad's prophecies are predictions attributed to him and written hundreds of years after his [[Muhammad's Death|death]]. Many prophecies are considered "signs of the Hour" (Islamic eschatology). Some prophecies are general statements that may apply to times even before Islam, other prophecies predict early Islamic history (which happened before the predictions were written) and some prophecies make predictions about the the future to come after the hadiths were written.

Prophecies in this article are from the hadiths. Quranic prophecies have a [[Quranic Prophecies|separate article]].
==Signs of the Hour==
"The Hour" (الساعة) refers to a period of time on the Day of Judgement.
{{Quote|{{Quran|30|55}}|
And '''the Day the Hour''' appears the criminals will swear they had remained but an hour. Thus they were deluded."
}}

Signs of the Hour indicate that the Hour (and the end of the world) is coming. They were divided by scholars into minor and major. The major signs are contained in this hadith:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2901a|reference}}|
Hudhaifa b. Usaid al-Ghifari reported:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) came to us all of a sudden as we were (busy in a discussion). He said: What do you discuss about? They (the Companions) said. We are discussing about the Last Hour. Thereupon he said: It will not come until you see ten signs before and (in this connection) he made a mention of the smoke, Dajjal, the beast, the rising of the sun from the west, the descent of Jesus son of Mary (Allah be pleased with him), the Gog and Magog, and land-slides in three places, one in the east, one in the west and one in Arabia at the end of which fire would burn forth from the Yemen, and would drive people to the place of their assembly.
}}

The minor signs indicate that the Hour is "getting closer", while the major signs indicate that the Hour will happen immediately after them. The first major sign is coming of the Dajjal and Muhammad thought that it might happen during his life or during life of his companions:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4321|darussalam}}|"Al-nawwas b. Sim’an al-Kilabi said:
'''The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) mentioned the Dajjal (Antichrist) saying: If he comes forth while I am among you''' I shall be the one who will dispute with him on your behalf, but if he comes forth when I am not among you, a man must dispute on his own behalf, and Allah will take my place in looking after every Muslim. Those of you who live up to his time should recite over him the opening verses of Surat al – Kahf, for they are your protection from his trial. We asked: How long will he remain on the earth ? He replied : Forty days, one like a year, one like a month, one like a week, and rest of his days like yours. We asked : Messenger of Allah, will one day’s prayer suffice us in this day which will be like a year ? He replied : No, you must make an estimate of its extent. Then Jesus son of Marry will descend at the white minaret to the east of Damascus. He will then catch him up at the date of Ludd and kill him."}}
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2234}} (hasan)|"Abu 'Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah said:
"I heard the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w): 'There was never a Prophet after Nuh but that he warned his people about '''the Dajjal''', and indeed I shall warn you of him.' Then the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) described him for us, and he said: "Perhaps some of '''you who see me, or hear my words shall live to see him'''." They said: "O Messenger of Allah! How will our hearts be on that day?" He said: "The same – that is, as today – or better.”"}}

Some reject the hadiths of the signs of the Hour <ref>http://bayanelislam.net/Suspicion.aspx?id=03-02-0071</ref>, because a Quranic verse indicates that the Hour will come by surprise (not after seeing clear signs) and that only Allah has knowledge about the Hour (not Muhammad):
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|187}}|
They ask you ˹O Prophet˺ regarding the Hour, “When will it be?” Say, “That knowledge is only with my Lord. He alone will reveal it when the time comes. It is too tremendous for the heavens and the earth and will only take you by surprise.” They ask you as if you had full knowledge of it. Say, “That knowledge is only with Allah, but most people do not know.”
}}

*7th century Arabs didn't have the concept of "an hour" meaning 60 minutes. An hour (ساعة) just meant a period of time [shorter than a day]. <ref>AR: https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/140286/%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%87%D9%88-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB-%D9%88%D9%87%D9%84-%D9%87%D9%88-%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%AF%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9</ref>
*Most prophecies are linked to the Hour
*The Hour is expected to happen on Friday <ref>{{Muslim|4 |1857|}}</ref>

==Retrodictions and Reiterating Biblical Prophecy==
The hadith collections were written, often by Persian authors, hundreds of years after the death of Muhammad. So when the hadiths contain a prophecy about early Islamic history, they are likely only being attributed to Muhammad after the fact, a phenomenon referred to in religious studies as "vaticinium ex eventu" or "prophecy after the fact." This category also includes things that always happened, even before Islam (earthquakes, wars, people being dishonest...) and prophecies copied from the Bible.

===Fabrication of hadiths===
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim, Introduction, Narration 15 https://sunnah.com/muslim:7|
يَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ الزَّمَانِ دَجَّالُونَ كَذَّابُونَ يَأْتُونَكُمْ مِنَ الأَحَادِيثِ بِمَا لَمْ تَسْمَعُوا أَنْتُمْ وَلاَ آبَاؤُكُمْ فَإِيَّاكُمْ وَإِيَّاهُمْ لاَ يُضِلُّونَكُمْ وَلاَ يَفْتِنُونَكُمْ

The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings of Allah upon him, said:
‘There will be in the end of time charlatan liars coming to you with narrations (hadiths) that you nor your fathers heard, so beware of them lest they misguide you and cause you tribulations’.
}}
This hadith must in fact be fabricated; there's no evidence that the words and deeds of the prophet were collected in hadith collections at all during his lifetime, since if his opinion was needed on a subject he could just be asked, and there's no evidence of any of these narrations before the dawn of the 8th century. That the author felt the need to fabricate a hadith to stop other people from fabricating hadiths is telling.

===The caliphate will last 30 years===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2226}}|
Sa'eed bin Jumhan narrated:
"Safinah narrated to me, he said: 'The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said: "'''Al-Khilafah will be in my Ummah for thirty years''', then there will be monarchy after that."' Then Safinah said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of Abu Bakr,' then he said: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Umar and the Khilafah of 'Uthman.' Then he said to me: 'Count the Khilafah of 'Ali."' He said: "So we found that they add up to thirty years." Sa'eed said: "I said to him: 'Banu Umaiyyah claim that the Khilafah is among them.' He said: 'Banu Az-Zarqa' lie, rather they are a monarchy, among the worst of monarchies."'
}}

*Tirmidhi, author of this hadith collection, was born in 824, more than 100 years after the end of the caliphate
*The hadith in it's text is in the context of discussion about previous caliphates
*The political system after the first caliphate, was still called a caliphate. There was some form of caliphate until the 20th century

===Rulership of the foolish after Muhammad===
{{Quote|Mishkat al-Masabih 3700|
Ka'b b. ‘Ujra told that God's Messenger said to him, “I commend you to God to protect you from '''the rulership of the foolish''' (إمارةِ السُّفهاءِ).” He asked what that was, and God’s Messenger replied, “'''After my time''' governors will arise whose falsehood will be believed and who will be assisted in their oppression by those who enter their presence. They have nothing to do with me and I have nothing to do with them, and they will never come down to me at the Pond. But they who do not enter their presence, believe their falsehood and help them in their oppression, those belong to me and I belong to them, and those ones will come down to me at the Pond.”}}

===Vile men control affairs of the people===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah|36|5|36|4036}} (hasan)|
..and the Ruwaibidah will decide matters.’ It was said: ‘Who are the Ruwaibidah?’ He said: ‘Vile and base men who control the affairs of the people.’”
}}
===Return of the caliphate===
The hadith was sent to a new caliph Umar II:
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 4/273, 18430 (hasan)|
حدثنا عبد الله حدثني أبي ثنا سليمان بن داود الطيالسي حدثني داود بن إبراهيم الواسطي حدثني حبيب بن سالم عن النعمان بن بشير قال : كنا قعودا في المسجد مع رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم وكان بشير رجلا يكف حديثه فجاء أبو ثعلبة الخشني فقال يا بشير بن سعد أتحفظ حديث رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم في الأمراء فقال حذيفة أنا أحفظ خطبته فجلس أبو ثعلبة فقال حذيفة قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم تكون النبوة فيكم ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء ان يرفعها ثم تكون خلافة على منهاج النبوة فتكون ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء الله أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا عاضا فيكون ما شاء الله ان يكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء أن يرفعها ثم تكون ملكا جبرية فتكون ما شاء الله ان تكون ثم يرفعها إذا شاء ان يرفعها ثم تكون خلافة على منهاج النبوة ثم سكت قال حبيب فلما قام عمر بن عبد العزيز وكان يزيد بن النعمان بن بشير في صحابته فكتبت إليه بهذا الحديث أذكره إياه فقلت له انى أرجو ان يكون أمير المؤمنين يعنى عمر بعد الملك العاض والجبرية فادخل كتابي على عمر بن عبد العزيز فسر به وأعجبه
تعليق شعيب الأرنؤوط : إسناده حسن

It was narrated by Ahmed in his Musnad, from Al-Nu’man b.Bashir, who said: “We were sitting in the mosque of the Messenger of Allah(saw), and Bashir was a man who did not speak much, so Abu Tha’labah Al-Khashnee came and said: ‘Oh, Bashir bin Sa’ad, have you memorized the words of the Messenger of Allah (saw) regarding the rulers?’ Huthayfah replied, ‘I have memorized his words’. So Abu Tha’labah sat down and Huthayfah said, ‘The Messenger of Allah (saw) said ‘'''Prophet-hood will be among you''' as long as Allah wishes, then He will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a Khilafah on the way of the Prophet''', and it will be as long as Allah wishes it to be, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be an inheritance rule''', and it will last as long as Allah wishes it to, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a coercive rule''', and it will last as long as Allah wishes it to be, then Allah will lift it up when He wishes to lift it up. '''Then there will be a Khilafah on the way of Prophet-hood'''.’ Then he (saw) was silent.” Habib said: “When '''Umar ibn AbdulAziz became caliph I wrote to him, mentioning this tradition to him''' and saying, “I hope '''you will be the commander of the faithful after the biting and the oppressive kingdoms'''. ”It pleased and charmed him, i.e. Umar ibn AbdulAziz.”
}}
Umar II died in 720 and he was expected to bring back the good old caliphate. Musnad Ahmad was written in the 9th century.

==="Prophet, siddiq and two martyrs"===
In this hadith the future caliphs are usually mentioned in the order in which they will be caliphs (strongly suggesting these were written later by someone who already knew the order):
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3686|darussalam}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:

The Prophet (ﷺ) ascended the mountain of Uhud and he was accompanied by '''Abu Bakr, `Umar and `Uthman'''. The mountain shook beneath them. The Prophet (ﷺ) hit it with his foot and said, "O Uhud ! Be firm, for on you there is none but a '''Prophet, a Siddiq and a martyr (i.e. and two martyrs)'''.
}}

The hadith was interpreted as a vague prediction that Abu Bakr will die naturally and Umar and Uthman will be killed. The 3 caliphs were in the 7th century. Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

===Khawarij===
According to Islamic scholars, this hadith is about the coming of the Khawarij:
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|37|4107}}|
It was narrated that 'Ali said:
"I heard the Messenger of Allah [SAW] say: 'At the end of time there will appear young people with foolish minds. Their faith will not pass through their throats, and they will go out of Islam as an arrow goes through the target. If you meet them, then kill them, for killing them will bring reward to the one who killed them on the Day of Resurrection.'"
}}

Khawarij ("The Leavers") left the army of the caliph Ali in the middle of the 7th century. The prediction was written in the middle of the 9th century, two hundred years later.

The prophecy says "at the end of time". The Khawarij appeared more than a thousand years ago.

===Places of killed people at the battle of Badr===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1779|reference}}|
..Then the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: This is the place where so and so would be killed. He placed his hand on the earth (saying) here and here; (and) none of them fell away from the place which the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) had indicated by placing his hand on the earth.
}}

According to the [[Sira]], the Battle of Badr was in the 7th century. This hadith collection was authored in the 9th century.

===Earthquakes will increase===
It's a part of a longer hadith as one of the signs of the end of the world:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7121|darussalam}}|
.. and earthquakes will increase in number..
}}

There were always earthquakes, increasing and decreasing. There is a report that earthquakes happened also during the life of Muhammad:
{{Quote|[https://sunnah.com/bulugh/2/441 Bulugh al-Maram 2:509]|
He [the Prophet (ﷺ)] prayed during an earthquake six bowings and four prostrations, and said, "This is the way the Prayer of the Signs (of Allah) is offered.
}}

Earthquakes were also predicted in the Bible:
{{Quote|Luke 21:9-11|
When you hear of wars and uprisings, do not be frightened. These things must happen first, but the end will not come right away.”

Then he said to them: “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. '''There will be great earthquakes''', famines and pestilences in various places, and fearful events and great signs from heaven.
}}

===Rain is hot===
This hadith is classified as mawdu (fabricated). <ref>https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/265083/%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9</ref> It's part of a long hadith about coming of the Hour:
{{Quote|al-Tabarani, Mu'jam al-Kabir 10/228 (mawdu')|
وَأَنْ يَكُونَ الْمَطَرُ قَيْظًا

and that rain will be hot

}}

It was also mentioned in Lane's lexicon:
{{Quote|Lane's lexicon on قَيْظٌ <ref>http://lexicon.quranic-research.net/data/21_q/239_qyZ.html</ref>|
لَا تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَكُونَ الوَلَدُ غَيْظًا والمَطَرُ قَيْظًا, a saying of Moḥammad, meaning [The resurrection, or the time thereof, will not come to pass until the birth of a child be an occasion of wrath, or rage, and] rain be accompanied by air like the قيظ [or '''most vehement heat of summer''']. (TA.)
}}

The word قيظ (''qayz'') was also mentioned in a different hadith meaning "hot weather":{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad Vol. 1, Book 1, Hadith 6 (Hasan)|
Rifa'ah bin Rafi' said:
I heard Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq say on the minbar of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) : I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say, and Abu Bakr wept when he remembered the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) , then he recovered and said. I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say, in this '''hot weather''' (القيظ) last year: `Ask Allah for forgiveness, well-being and certainty of faith in the Hereafter and in this world.”
}}

Some insist that the word قيظ means "acidic".

===Strong wind===
Muhammad predicted a strong wind on the same day it happened, so there was probably already a wind getting stronger:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1481|darussalam}}|
..When we reached Tabuk, the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "There will be a strong wind tonight and so no one should stand and whoever has a camel, should fasten it." So we fastened our camels. A strong wind blew at night and a man stood up and he was blown away to a mountain called Taiy..
}}
The prophecy was written in the 9th century.

===Child is filled with rage===
This is a part of a fabricated (mawdu') hadith.
{{Quote|al-Tabarani, Mu'jam al-Kabir 10/228 (mawdu')|
وإن من أعلام الساعة وأشراطها: أن يكون الولد غيظاً، وأن يكون المطر قيظاً

And from the signs of the Hour is that '''a boy will be enraged''' and that water will be hot
}}
Angry children have been around since time immemorial.

===Muhammad's death===
Muhammad predicted that he will die. The prediction doesn't contain any specific information about his death:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "'''Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death''', the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}

The context is that it will be a sign that the Hour is coming. But Muhammad died more than a thousand years ago and the Hour didn't come.

===Muhammad's wife with the longest arm will die first===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1420|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Aisha:

Some of the wives of the Prophet asked him, "Who amongst us will be the first to follow you (i.e. die after you)?" He said, "Whoever has the longest hand." So they started measuring their hands with a stick and Sauda's hand turned out to be the longest. (When Zainab bint Jahsh died first of all in the caliphate of 'Umar), we came to know that the long hand was a symbol of practicing charity, so she was the first to follow the Prophet and she used to love to practice charity. (Sauda died later in the caliphate of Muawiya).
}}

It's questionable whether the prophecy was metaphorical and fulfilled or whether it was literal and hence re-interpreted. Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

===Muhammad's daughter Fatima will die first from his family===
During Muhammad's illness, Fatima was walking like Muhammad, so she also had signs of illness:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2450c|reference}}|
`A'isha reported that all the wives of Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) had gathered (in her apartment) '''during the days of his (Prophet's) last illness ''' and no woman was left behind that '''Fatima, who walked after the style of Allah's Messenger''' (ﷺ), came there. He welcomed her by saying:

You are welcome, my daughter, and made her sit on his right side or on his left side, and then talked something secretly to her and Fatima wept. Then he talked something secretly to her and she laughed. I said to her: What makes you weep? She said: I am not going to divulge the secret of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). I (`A'isha) said: I have not seen (anything happening) like today, the happiness being more close to grief (as I see today) when she wept. I said to her: Has Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) singled you out for saying something leaving us aside? She then wept and I asked her what he said, and she said: I am not going to divulge the secrets of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). And when he died I again asked her and she said that he (the Holy Prophet) told her: Gabriel used to recite the Qur'an to me once a year and for this year it was twice and so I perceived that my death had drawn near, and that '''I (Fatima) would be the first amongst the members of his family who would meet him (in the Hereafter)'''. He shall be my good forerunner and it made me weep. He again talked to me secretly (saying): Aren't you pleased that you should be the sovereign amongst the believing women or the head of women of this Ummah? And this made me laugh.
}}

===A plague kills many Muslims===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, '''a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep''', the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}
It was interpreted as a prophecy about the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Amwas Plague of Amwas] (638-639), which is considered a re-emergence of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Justinian the Plague of Justinian] (541-549), so there was a precedent.

The prediction was written in the 9th century.

===Sexual immorality (abominations)===
{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: '''Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them'''. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

Sexual immorality (or "abomination") was nothing new in the 7th century. The Old Testament mentions such a story:
{{Quote|The Bible, Genesis 19:3-8|
He prepared a meal for them, baking bread without yeast, and they ate. Before they had gone to bed, all the men from every part of the city of Sodom—both young and old—surrounded the house. They called to Lot, “Where are the men who came to you tonight? Bring them out to us so that we can have sex with them.” Lot went outside to meet them and shut the door behind him and said, “No, my friends. Don’t do this wicked thing. Look, I have two daughters who have never slept with a man. Let me bring them out to you, and you can do what you like with them.
}}

In the New Testament Jesus spoke to a woman who had many sexual partners:
{{Quote|The Bible, John 4:16-18|
“Go and get your husband,” Jesus told her.

“I don’t have a husband,” the woman replied.

Jesus said, “You’re right! You don’t have a husband— for you have had five husbands, and you aren’t even married to the man you’re living with now. You certainly spoke the truth!”
}}

There were also abominations happening in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5134|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Aisha:

that the Prophet (ﷺ) married her when '''she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old'''. Hisham said: I have been informed that `Aisha remained with the Prophet (ﷺ) for nine years (i.e. till his death).
}}

Plagues and diseases also happened throughout whole history. Plagues (pestilences) were also predicted in the Bible, hundreds of years before Muhammad:{{Quote|Luke 21:9-11|
When you hear of wars and uprisings, do not be frightened. These things must happen first, but the end will not come right away.”

Then he said to them: “Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be great earthquakes, famines and '''pestilences''' in various places, and fearful events and great signs from heaven.
}}
===Homosexuality===
This is a fabricated (mawdu') hadith:
{{Quote|Tabarani, al-Mu'jim al-kabeer 10/228 (mawdu')|
يا ابن مسعود إن من أعلام الساعة وأشراطها أن يكتفي الرجال بالرجال والنساء بالنساء

..O Ibn Mas'ud, indeed from the signs of the Hour is that men are content with men and women with women..
}}

It typifies the predictions of increased sin and licentiousness before the apocalypse.
===Women naked, but dressed (wearing revealing clothes)===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2128|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) having said this:

Two are the types of the denizens of Hell whom I did not see: people having flogs like the tails of the ox with them and they would be beating people, and '''the women who would be dressed but appear to be naked, who would be inclined (to evil) and make their husbands incline towards it. Their heads would be like the humps of the bukht camel inclined to one side'''. They will not enter Paradise and they would not smell its odour whereas its odour would be smelt from such and such distance.
}}

Some apologists present it as something new that happens in the 21st century and Muhammad couldn't have guessed it.
{{Quote|islamqa.info: Commentary on the hadeeth; “two types of the people of Hell whom I have not seen…” <ref>https://islamqa.info/en/answers/47017/commentary-on-the-hadeeth-two-types-of-the-people-of-hell-whom-i-have-not-seen</ref>|
This hadeeth is one of the miracles of Prophethood, for these two types of people have appeared, and '''they exist now, as al-Nawawi (may Allaah have mercy on him) said.'''
}}
Al-Nawawi lived in the 13th century.

Islamic sources say that there were naked women circumambulating around the Kaba in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||3|24|2959}}|
It was narrated from Saeed bin Jubair that Ibn Abbas said:
"Women used to circumambulate the Kabah naked, saying: 'Today some, or all of it will appear And whatever appers I don't make is permissible.' Then the following was revealed: 'O Children of Adam! Take your adornment to every Masjid.'"
}}

There is also a hadith with the same terminology of dressed (كاسيات) and undressed (عاريات) but in a different context:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1126|darussalam}}|
Narrated Um Salama:

One night the Prophet (ﷺ) got up and said, "Subhan Allah! How many afflictions Allah has revealed tonight and how many treasures have been sent down (disclosed). Go and wake the sleeping lady occupants of these dwellings up (for prayers), perhaps a well '''dressed''' (كاسية) in this world may be '''naked''' (عارية) in the Hereafter."
}}

===Widespread adultery===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2671a|reference}}|
Anas b. Malik reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

It is from the conditions of the Last Hour that knowledge would be taken away and ignorance would prevail (upon the world), the liquor would be drunk, and '''adultery would become rampant'''.
}}

This is again a prediction of sin and licentiousness before the end of the world.
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1405d|reference}}|
Jabir b. 'Abdullah reported:

We contracted temporary marriage giving a handful of (tales or flour as a dower during the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and during the time of Abu Bakr until 'Umar forbade it in the case of 'Amr b. Huraith.
}}

There is also a fabricated (mawdu') prophecy about illegitimate children:
{{Quote|Tabarani, al-Mu'jim al-kabeer 10/228 (mawdu')|
يَا ابْنَ مَسْعُودٍ ، إِنَّ مِنْ أَعْلَامِ السَّاعَةِ وَأَشْرَاطِهَا أَنْ يَكْثُرَ أَوْلَادُ الزِّنَا

O Ibn Mas'ud, indeed from the signs of the Hour is that there are many children from adultery
}}

===Abundant wealth===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4047}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“The Hour will not begin until '''wealth becomes abundant''' and tribulations appear, and Harj increases.” They said: “What is Harj, O Messenger of Allah?” He said: '''“Killing, killing, killing,”''' three times.
}}

This hadith may go back to an earlier point in time or even to Muhammad himself; the Qur'an is full of expectations that "the Hour" id est the day of judgement, is imminent, and the background of the Qur'an in the ancient near east was the apacolyptic war between the Byzantine and Sassanid empire which was ravaging the near east at the time.

===Men obey their wives===
The hadith is daif:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}}|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, '''a man obeys his wife''' and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

It was mentioned among negative things, that indicates that a woman being dominant in marriage is an evil thing. But it appears that the patriarchy was not universal even in Muhammad's time:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2468|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas: ...We, the people of Quraish, used to have authority over women, but when we came to live with the Ansar, we noticed that '''the Ansari women had the upper hand over their men''', so our women started acquiring the habits of the Ansari women. Once I shouted at my wife and she paid me back in my coin and I disliked that she should answer me back....}}

===Fire in Hijaz illuminates necks of camels in Busra===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7118|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till a fire will come out of the land of Hijaz, and it will throw light on the necks of the camels at Busra."
}}
There was a lava eruption in Hijaz in the year 1256 ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrat_Rahat Harrat Rahat]) which is considered by Muslims as fulfillment. That's the last eruption, but the eruption before that was in 640 - 641 A.D. during the reign of Umar.<ref>
Volcanic history of the northernmost part of the Harrat Rahat volcanic field, Saudi Arabia
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geosphere/article/14/3/1253/529993/Volcanic-history-of-the-northernmost-part-of-the</ref> The unspecified date of occurrence makes this prediction one that might be referenced perennially

===Making halal what was haram===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5590|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu 'Amir or Abu Malik Al-Ash'ari:

He heard that the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "From among my followers there will be some '''people who will consider illegal sexual intercourse, the wearing of silk, the drinking of alcoholic drinks and the use of musical instruments, as lawful.''' And there will be some people who will stay near the side of a mountain and in the evening their shepherd will come to them with their sheep and ask them for something, but they will say to him, 'Return to us tomorrow.' Allah will destroy them during the night and will let the mountain fall on them, and He will transform the rest of them into monkeys and pigs and they will remain so till the Day of Resurrection."
}}

According to the Qur'an, Jews and Christians took their rabbis and monks as lords, because the rabbis and monks ''made lawful'' for them what Allah forbade. <ref>Quran 9:31, tafsir Ibn Kathir</ref>

===Slave woman gives birth to her master/mistress===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||50|darussalam}}|One day while the Prophet (ﷺ) was sitting in the company of some people, (The angel) Gabriel came and asked, "What is faith?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, 'Faith is to believe in Allah, His angels, (the) meeting with Him, His Apostles, and to believe in Resurrection." Then he further asked, "What is Islam?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "To worship Allah Alone and none else, to offer prayers perfectly to pay the compulsory charity (Zakat) and to observe fasts during the month of Ramadan." Then he further asked, "What is Ihsan (perfection)?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "To worship Allah as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of devotion then you must consider that He is looking at you." Then he further asked, "When will the Hour be established?" Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) replied, "The answerer has no better knowledge than the questioner. But I will inform you about its portents.

1. When a slave (lady) gives birth to her master.

2. When the shepherds of black camels start boasting and competing with others in the construction of higher buildings. And the Hour is one of five things which nobody knows except Allah.

The Prophet (ﷺ) then recited: "Verily, with Allah (Alone) is the knowledge of the Hour--." (31. 34) Then that man (Gabriel) left and the Prophet (ﷺ) asked his companions to call him back, but they could not see him. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "That was Gabriel who came to teach the people their religion." Abu 'Abdullah said: He (the Prophet) considered all that as a part of faith.}}
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|63}} (sahih)|
"We were sitting with the Prophet (ﷺ) when a man came to him whose clothes were intensely white and whose hair was intensely black; no signs of travel could be seen upon him, and none of us recognized him. He sat down facing the Prophet (ﷺ), with his knees touching his, and he put his hands on his thighs, and said: 'O Muhammad, what is Islam?' He said: 'To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah, and that I am the Messenger of Allah, to establish regular prayer, to pay Zakat, to fast in Ramadan, and to perform Hajj to the House (the Ka'bah).' He said: 'You have spoken the truth.' We were amazed by him: He asked a question, then told him that he had spoken the truth. Then he said: 'O Muhammad, what is Iman faith? He said: 'To believe in Allah, His angels, His Messengers, His books, the Last day, and the Divine Decree (Qadar), both the good of it and the bad of it.' He said' You have spoken the truth.' We were amazed by him. He asked a question, then told him that he had spoken the truth. Then he said: 'O Muhammad, what is Ihsan (right action, goodness, sincerity)? He said: 'To worship Allah as if you see Him, for even though you do not see Him, He sees you.' He asked: "When will the Hour be?' He said: 'The one who is being asked about it does not know more than the one who is asking.' He asked: 'Then what are its signs?' he said: 'When the slave woman gives birth to her mistress' (Waki' said: This means when non-Arabs will give birth to Arabs") 'and when you see barefoot, naked, destitute shepherds competing in constructing tall buildings.' The Prophet (ﷺ) met me three days later and asked me: 'Do you know who that man was? I said" 'Allah and his Messenger know best.' He said: 'That was Jibril, who came to you to teach you your religion.'"}}

According to Nawawi, the opinion of the majority of scholars is that Muslims will enslave non-Muslim women and have kids with them and the kids will be masters of their mothers because the kids are Muslims. <ref>https://quranacademy.io/blog/an-nawawis-hadith-2-hadith-of-jibreel-3/</ref> Ibn Hajar (who lived later) didn't like this interpretation, because the enslavement was already happening during the time of Muhammad, so it wasn't really a prophecy of the future.

Ibn Hajar and others, as a result, like to interpret it as kids treating their mothers like slaves. This is not compatible with Waki's comment, and it would appear that children disrespecting their parents has been and will remain a universal phenomenon.

===Woman helps her husband in business===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
'Abdullah said, 'From the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, who said, "Before the Final Hour people will single out one individual for the greeting, commerce will increase until '''a woman helps her husband in business''', people will sever their links with their relatives, knowledge will spread, false testimony will appear and true testimony will be concealed."
}}

===Some people control trade===
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||5|44|4461}} (sahih)|
"The Messenger of Allah said: 'One of the portents of the Hour will be that wealth becomes widespread and abundant, and trade will become widespread, but knowledge will disappear. '''A man will try to sell something and will say: "No, not until I consult the merchant of banu so and so''' and People will look throughout a vast area for a scribe and will not find one."
}}
 

===Injustice===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 485 (sahih)|
Ibn 'Umar reported that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Injustice will appear as darkness on the Day of Rising."
}}Once again, sin and wrongdoing will multiply before the final hour.

===False testimony===
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
وَظُهُورُ الشَّهَادَةِ بِالزُّورِ، وَكِتْمَانُ شَهَادَةِ الْحَقِّ

..false testimony will appear and true testimony will be concealed.
}}

Yet another predictions of licentiousness and sin before the end of times.

===Unfulfilled vows===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3650|darussalam}}|
..then the Prophet (ﷺ) added, 'There will come after you, people who will bear witness without being asked to do so, and will be treacherous and untrustworthy, and '''they will vow and never fulfill their vows''', and fatness will appear among them."
}}

===Cheating in weights (scales)===
{{Quote| {{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. '''They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers'''. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

This is also mentioned in the Old Testament:
{{Quote|The Bible (NASB), Amos 8:2-6|
Then the Lord said to me, “The end has come for My people Israel. I will spare them no longer. The songs of the palace will turn to wailing in that day,” declares the Lord God. “Many will be the corpses; in every place they will cast them forth in silence.” '''Hear this, you who trample the needy''', to do away with the humble of the land, saying: “When will the new moon be over, So that we may sell grain, And the sabbath, that we may open the wheat market, '''To make the bushel smaller and the shekel bigger, And to cheat with dishonest scales'''
}}

This fits into a general eschatological scheme of disasters before the end times found in many end-of-times predictions.

===Making money unlawfully===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2083|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Hurairah (ra):
The Prophet (ﷺ) said "Certainly a time will come when people will not bother to know from where they earned the money, by lawful means or unlawful means."
}}
If raiding caravans can be called an "unlawful method" of acquiring money, then according to the sirah Muhammad himself engaged in dubious practices to acquire money:
{{Quote|Sirat Rasul Allah 428, Tabari VII:29|
Then the apostle heard that Abu Sufyan b. Harb was coming from Syria with a large caravan of Quraysh, containing their money and merchandise, accompanied by some thirty or forty men." Mohammad said, "This is the Quraysh caravan containing their property, Go out to attack it, perhaps God will give it as prey,
}}Most Muslims would argue that Muhammad was engaged in war against the Medinians, but his and his followers lust not for religious victory but for booty is noted again and again in the sirah.

===Usury (riba)===
{{Quote|Musnad Aḥmad 10191|
عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ أَنّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ يَأْتِي عَلَى النَّاسِ زَمَانٌ يَأْكُلُونَ فِيهِ الرِّبَا قِيلَ النَّاسُ كُلُّهُمْ قَالَ مَنْ لَمْ يَأْكُلْهُ مِنْهُمْ نَالَهُ مِنْ غُبَارِهِ

Abu Huraira reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “A time will come upon people in which they will consume usury.” It was said, “All of the people?” The Prophet said, “Whoever does not consume it will be affected by its dust.”
}}

Usury (riba) was already widespread in the period before Islam, which Muslims call "jahilya":
{{Quote|[https://ebrary.net/10536/business_finance/types_riba Types of Riba]|
Riba al-Jahiliyah means “the riba used during the age of ignorance and paganism.” It is also called riba al-nassee'aa (the riba that is constrained by a time limit and is time dependent). This type of '''riba was widely practiced by the pagan Arabs at the advent of Islam'''.
}}

In any interest-based economy, all goods will inevitably be "tainted" directly or indirectly with interest-based practices; this fits into a general pattern of predicting sin and degeneracy before the endtimes.

===Sudden deaths===
{{Quote|Al-Mu'jam al-Awsat al-Tabarani (9/147) No. 9376 (sahih)|
حدثنا الهيثم بن خالد المصيصي نا عبدالكبير بن المعافى بن عمران نا شريك عن العباس بن ذريح عن الشعبي عن أنس بن مالك رفعه إلى النبي صلى الله عليه و سلم قال من اقتراب الساعة أن يرى الهلال قبلا فيقال لليلتين وأن تتخذ المساجد طرقا وأن يظهر الموت الفجاء لم يرو هذا الحديث عن العباس بن زريح إلا شريك تفرد به عبد الكبير بن المعافى

Anas bin Malik (RA) narrated that the Prophet (SAW) said: “Among the signs that the Last Hour is near, is that the crescent would appear larger than its actual size and people would say: ‘It appears as if it is only two days old.’ and the masajid will be taken as streets, and '''sudden death will spread'''.”
}}

In other hadiths Muhammad and Ubayd speak about sudden death as something already known:{{Quote| {{Abu Dawud||3110|darussalam}}(sahih)|
Narrated Ubayd ibn Khalid as-Sulami,:

A man from the Companions of the Prophet (ﷺ), said: The narrator Sa'd ibn Ubaydah narrated sometimes from the Prophet (ﷺ) and sometimes as a statement of Ubayd (ibn Khalid): The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Sudden death is a wrathful catching.
}}

===Islam will be unpleasant for Muslims (like burning ember/coal in hand)===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2260}} (hasan)|
Anas bin Malik narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"There shall come upon the people a time in which the one who is patient upon his religion will be like the one holding onto a burning ember."
}}

===Following Jews and Christians===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7320|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "You will follow the ways of those nations who were before you, span by span and cubit by cubit (i.e., inch by inch) so much so that even if they entered a hole of a mastigure, you would follow them." We said, "O Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)! (Do you mean) the Jews and the Christians?" He said, "Whom else?"
}}
===Killing [pointless killing]===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7062|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah and Abu Musa:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days during which Religious ignorance will spread, knowledge will be taken away (vanish) and '''there will be much Al-Harj, and Al- Harj means killing'''."
}}

It is not very clear what this refers to, except for a general prediction of violence before the end of times; originally it may have been a reference to the apacolyptic war between the Romans and the Sassanids, but there's not alot of detail to infer that in this hadith as "killing" may describe many events in history.
===Two parties with the same message will fight===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157h|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) many ahadith and one of them was this:

The last Hour will not come until the two parties (of Muslims) confront each other and there is a large-scale massacre amongst them and the claim of both of them is the same.
}}

This prediction was interpreted by Islamic scholars as referring to the Battle of Siffin (year 657). Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.

===Issue between Ali and Aisha===
{{Quote|Fath al Bari 13/59 (sahih) and others|
إنَّهُ سيكونُ بينَكَ وبين عائشةَ أمرٌ قال فأنا أشقاهُم يا رسولَ اللهِ قال لا ولكنْ إذا كان ذلك فاردُدْها إلى مأمنِها

There will be an issue between you and ‘Aisha.” He said, “Me, O Messenger of Allah?!” He said, “Yes.” He said, “Me?!” He said, “Yes.” He said, “Then [in that case] I would be the worst of them (all people).” He said, “No, but when this occurs, return her to her safe quarters.”}}

The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Camel Battle of the Camel] happened in 656. The hadith (in Musnad Ahmad) was written in the 9th century.

===Ammar will be killed===
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3800}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abu Hurairah:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "Rejoice, 'Ammar, the transgressing party shall kill you."
}}

He was killed in the 7th century. The collection of Tirmidhi was written in the 9th century.

==="I have been given Persia"===
{{Quote|Al-Nasa'i, Sunan al Kubra 8858|
أنبأ محمد بن عبد الأعلى قال حدثنا معتمر قال سمعت عوفا قال سمعت ميمونا يحدث عن البراء بن عازب قال : لما أمرنا رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم أن يحفر الخندق عرض لنا فيه حجر لا يأخذ فيه المعول فاشتكينا ذلك إلى رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم فجاء رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم فألقى ثوبه وأخذ المعول وقال بسم الله فضرب ضربة فكسر ثلث الصخرة قال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح الشام والله إني لأبصر قصورها الحمر الآن من مكاني هذا قال ثم ضرب أخرى وقال بسم الله وكسر ثلثا آخر وقال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح فارس والله إني لأبصر قصر المدائن الأبيض الآن ثم ضرب ثالثة وقال بسم الله فقطع الحجر قال الله أكبر أعطيت مفاتيح اليمن والله إني لأبصر باب صنعاء

Al-Bara said: On the Day of Al-Khandaq (the trench) there stood out a rock too immune for our spades to break up. We therefore went to see God’s Messenger for advice. He took the spade, and said: “In the Name of God” Then he struck it saying: “God is Most Great, I have been given the keys of Ash-Sham (Greater Syria). By God, I can see its red palaces at the moment;” on the second strike he said: “God is Most Great, '''I have been given Persia'''. By God, I can now see the white palace of Madain;” and for the third time he struck the rock saying: “In the Name of God,” shattering the rest of the rock, and he said: “God is Most Great, I have been given the keys of Yemen. By God, I can see the gates of San’a while I am in my place.”
}}

The bloody conquest happened around the year 650. Earliest hadith collection Muwatta Imam Malik (which doesn't contain this hadith) was written around the year 750 and the hadith collection sunan al-Kubra which contains the hadith was written around the year 850. This hadith was written hundreds of years after the event it describes.

Furthermore, Persia was already conquered a thousand years before by Alexander the Great. And at the time of Muhammad Persia was exhausted by wars with Romans which lasted from 54 BC to 628 AD (681 years).

===Conquest of Jerusalem===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:

I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, '''the conquest of Jerusalem''', a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.
}}

Some suggest that Muhammad predicted "The Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 AD." <ref>https://www.islamweb.net/en/article/135817/the-signs-of-the-hour</ref>: However, this was the second Islamic conquest of Jerusalem. Muslims first conquered Jerusalem in 636.

Furthermore, after the conquest, the Hour was expected to come. Both events occurred nearly a thousand years in the past. This was written by Bukhari two hundred years after the first conquest.

Hadith in Sunan Abu Dawud also stresses the coming of the Last Hour after the conquest of Jerusalem (holy land):{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||2535|darussalam}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Hawalah al-Azdi:

The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) sent us on foot to get spoil, but we returned without getting any. When he saw the signs of distress on our faces, he stood up on our faces and said: O Allah, do not put them under my care, for I would be too weak to care for them; do not put them in care of themselves, for they would be incapable of that, and do not put them in the care of men, for they would choose the best things for themselves. '''He then placed his hand on my head and said: Ibn Hawalah, when you see the caliphate has settled in the holy land, earthquakes, sorrows and serious matters will have drawn near and on that day the Last Hour will be nearer to mankind than this hand of mine is to your head.'''
}}

===Conquest of Egypt===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2543b|reference}}|
Abu Dharr reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

'''You would soon conquer Egypt''' and that is a land which is known (as the land of al-qirat). So when you conquer it, treat its inhabitants well. For there lies upon you the responsibility because of blood-tie or relationship of marriage (with them). And when you see two persons falling into dispute amongst themselves for the space of a brick, than get out of that. He (Abu Dharr) said: I saw Abd al-Rahman b. Shurahbil b. Hasana and his brother Rabi'a disputing with one another for the space of a brick. So I left that (land).
}}
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt Muslim conquest of Egypt] happened in the 7th century. The hadith collection Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.

===Conquest of Yemen, Syria and Iraq===
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1388b|reference}}|
Sufyan b. Abu Zuhair heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) say:

'''Yemen will be conquered''' and some people will go away (to that country) driving their camels and carrying their families on them and those who are under their authority, while Medina is better for them if they were to know it. Then '''Syria will be conquered''' and some people will go away driving their camels along with them and carrying their families with them and those who are under their authority, while Medina is better for them if they were to know it. Then '''lraq will be conquered''' and some people will go away (to that country) driving their camels and carrying their families with them and those who are under their authority. while Medina is better for them if they were to know it.
}}
All conquests happened in the 7th century. Sahih Muslim was written in the 9th century.
===Fighting Turks===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3587|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till you fight a nation wearing hairy shoes, and till you '''fight the Turks''', who will have small eyes, red faces and flat noses; and their faces will be like flat shields. And you will find that the best people are those who hate responsibility of ruling most of all till they are chosen to be the rulers. And the people are of different natures: The best in the pre-lslamic period are the best in Islam. A time will come when any of you will love to see me rather than to have his family and property doubled."
}}

Some suggest that "Turks" here means "Mongols" and that this thus predicts Gengis Khan. However, The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kharistan Battle of Kharistan] (737) which happened between the Umayyad caliphate and Turkic Türgesh, could equally fit the description provided here. This seems more plausible, especially as Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

One might also note that if Muhammad did in fact make these predictions, Islam's global imperial aspirations (proven as they were by the end of Muhammad's life) would make the conquest of any number of neighboring or nearby peoples a likelihood.

===Leave the Turks as long as they leave you===
This hadith is often referenced as evidence that Muhammad predicted the Ottoman empire, often ignoring the clause about the Abyssinians
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4302|darussalam}}|
Narrated from Abi Sukainah One of the Companions:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: '''Let the Abyssinians alone as long as they let you alone''', and let the Turks alone as long as they leave you alone.
}}

It is said that the Turks should be left alone because they were strong, and they were strong therefore they would eventually become dominant. This is an evidently generous reading of the hadith.

In other hadith, Muhammad is reported to have predicted that after a few wars, Muslims would exterminate the Turks:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar, Takhreej Mishkaat al-Masabih 5/110 (hasan) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%84%D9%8F%D9%83%D9%85+%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8C+%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%90+%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8F%D9%91%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8E</ref>|
يقاتِلُكم قومٌ صغارُ الأعينِ يعني التُّركَ قالَ تسوقونَهم ثلاثَ مرات حتَّى تُلحِقوهم بجزيرةِ العربِ فأمَّا في السِّاقةِ الأولى فينجو من هربَ منهم فأمَّا في الثَّانيةِ فينجو بعضٌ ويَهلِكُ بعضٌ وأمَّا في الثَّالثةِ فيصطَلِمونَ

People with small eyes, i.e. the Turks, will fight against you, the prophet (ﷺ) said: You will drive them off three times till you catch up with them in Arabia. On the first occasion when you drive them off those who fly will be safe, on the second occasion some will be safe and some will perish, but '''on the third occasion they will be extirpated'''.
}}
===Spoils of war distributed preferentially===
Hadith da'if:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2211}} (daif)|
إِذَا اتُّخِذَ الْفَىْءُ دُوَلاً

When Al-Fai' is distributed(preferentially)
}}
Al-Fai mean spoils of war.

===Fearless traveler (security)===
Probably refers to time after the conquest of Iraq in the 7th century:
{{Quote|al-Haythami 7/334 (sahih)|
لا تقومُ الساعَةُ حتى تعودَ أرْضُ العربِ مروجًا وأَنْهَارًا وحتى يسيرَ الراكِبُ بينَ العِرَاقِ ومَكَّةَ لَا يَخَافُ إلَّا ضَلَالَ الطريقِ [ وحتَّى يَكْثُرَ الْهَرْجُ قالوا وما الهَرْجُ يا رسولَ اللهِ قال القتلُ ]

The Hour will not come until the land of Arabs becomes meadows and rivers and until '''a rider goes between Iraq and Makka and doesn't fear anything except getting lost''' and until al-harj is widespread. They said: And what is al-Harj O messenger of God? He said: Killing.
}}

===Fat people===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3650|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Imran bin Husain:

"Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, 'The best of my followers are those living in my generation (i.e. my contemporaries). and then those who will follow the latter" `Imran added, "I do not remember whether he mentioned two or three generations after his generation, then the Prophet (ﷺ) added, 'There will come after you, people who will bear witness without being asked to do so, and will be treacherous and untrustworthy, and they will vow and never fulfill their vows, and '''fatness will appear among them'''."
}}

After the 7th century Islamic conquests, Muslims became rich and could have a lot of food, so this is again most likely a hadith about a later point in time being projected back into the time of the prophet.

===Special greeting===
It was interpreted as "greeting only people you know":
{{Quote|Al-Adab Al-Mufrad 1049 (sahih)|
بَيْنَ يَدَيِ السَّاعَةِ‏:‏ تَسْلِيمُ الْخَاصَّةِ

Before the Hour there is special greeting
}}

According to this hadith, everyone should be greeted:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||13|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Amr:

A man asked the Prophet (ﷺ) , "What sort of deeds or (what qualities of) Islam are good?" The Prophet (ﷺ) replied, 'To feed (the poor) and '''greet those whom you know and those whom you do not know'''.
}}

In other hadiths however Muhammad was preventing Muslims from greeting certain people based on their religion:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2167a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

Do not greet the Jews and the Christians before they greet you and when you meet any one of them on the roads force him to go to the narrowest part of it.
}}

===Controversy over the Hadith===
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4604|darussalam}}|
Narrated Al-Miqdam ibn Ma'dikarib:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: Beware! I have been given the Qur'an and something like it, yet the time is coming when a man replete on his couch will say: '''Keep to the Qur'an'''; what you find in it to be permissible treat as permissible, and what you find in it to be prohibited treat as prohibited. Beware! The domestic ass, beasts of prey with fangs, a find belonging to confederate, unless its owner does not want it, are not permissible to you. If anyone comes to some people, they must entertain him, but if they do not, he has a right to mulct them to an amount equivalent to his entertainment.
}}

This hadith, although rated sahih, is almost certainly a v''aticinum ex eventu'' about controversies which took place after the prophet died. It's unlikely that if the prophet himself had said in his lifetime that these things were haram that there would be people claiming that they were actually allowed by the shari'ah.
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3646|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As:

I used to write everything which I heard from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). I intended (by it) to memorise it. The Quraysh prohibited me saying: '''Do you write everything that you hear from him while the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) is a human being: he speaks in anger and pleasure?''' So I stopped writing, and mentioned it to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). He signalled with his finger to him mouth and said: Write, by Him in Whose hand my soul lies, only right comes out from it.
}}This hadith, though sahih and not technically a prophecy, probably is indicative of problems in the 8th century, when the idea that the words and deeds of the prophet should govern all aspects of life was still controversial. This hadith is backdating that later controversy into the prophet's own lifetime.

===Liars will be trusted and honest people will be regarded as liars===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4036}} (hasan)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“There will come to the people years of treachery, when the liar will be regarded as honest, and the honest man will be regarded as a liar; the traitor will be regarded as faithful, and the faithful man will be regarded as a traitor; and the Ruwaibidah will decide matters.’ It was said: ‘Who are the Ruwaibidah?’ He said: ‘Vile and base men who control the affairs of the people.’”
}}

This was already happening according to Islamic sources. According to the sira some Arabs trusted the false prophet Musaylimah.

==="The pen will spread"===
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 1035 (sahih)|
عَنْ ابْنِ مَسْعُودٍ عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ بَيْنَ يَدَيِ السَّاعَةِ تَسْلِيمُ الْخَاصَّةِ وَفُشُوُّ التِّجَارَةِ حَتَّى تُعِينَ الْمَرْأَةُ زَوْجَهَا عَلَى التِّجَارَةِ وَقَطْعُ الأَرْحَامِ وَفُشُوُّ الْقَلَمِ وَظُهُورُ الشَّهَادَةِ بِالزُّورِ وَكِتْمَانُ شَهَادَةِ الْحَقِّ

Ibn Mas’ud reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Just before the Hour, the greeting of peace will only be given to specific people, trade will proliferate to the point that a woman will help her husband in his business, family ties will be severed, '''the pen will spread''', false testimony will prevail and truthful testimony will be concealed.”
}}
There is the Pen that Allah created first and which writes the future:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|44|3319}} (sahih)|
“I arrived in Makkah and met Ata bin Abi Rabah. I said: ‘O Abu Muhammad! Some people with us speak about Al-Qadar.’ Ata said: ‘I met Al-Walid bin Ubadah bin As-Samit and he said: “My father narrated to me, he said: ‘I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: “Verily '''the first of what Allah created was the Pen (القلم). He said to it: “Write.” So it wrote what will be forever'''.’”
}}

There is also the Pen that writes deeds:
{{Quote|Bulugh al Maram: Book 8, Hadith 1096|
Narrated 'Aishah (RA):
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: "There are three people whose actions are not recorded ( رُفِعَ اَلْقَلَمُ عَنْ ثَلَاثَةٍ, literally "is lifted the pen from three"), a sleeping person till he awakes, a child till he is a grown up, and an insane person till he is restored to reason or recovers his sense." [Reported by Ahmad and al-Arba'a, except at-Tirmidhi. al-Hakim graded it Sahih (authentic)].
}}
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|26|3217}} (sahih)|
Narrated Abu Salamah:
It was narrated from Abu Salamah that Abu Hurairah said: "I said: 'O Messenger of Allah, I am a young man and I fear hardship for myself, but I cannot afford to marry; should I castrate myself?'" The Prophet turned away from him until he said it three times. Then the Prophet said: "O Abu Hurairah, '''the pen is dried concerning what you are going to face''', so (it is up to you whether) you castrate yourself or not." Abu Abdur-Rahman (An-Nasai) said: Al-Awzai did not hear this narration from Az-Zuhri, and this hadith is sahih, Yunus reported it from Az-Zuhri.
}}

Literacy was increasing before Muhammad was born. Jews and Christians first used oral traditions, but then switched to writing. There was also the ongoing global transitions from oral cultures to written cultures more generally.

Notice also that the prophecy was written by people who were ''writing'' hadiths from oral traditions.

===Family ties will be severed===
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 1035 (sahih)|
Ibn Mas’ud reported: The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Just before the Hour, the greeting of peace will only be given to specific people, trade will proliferate to the point that a woman will help her husband in his business, '''family ties will be severed''' (وَقَطْعُ الأَرْحَامِ), the pen will spread, false testimony will prevail and truthful testimony will be concealed.”
}}
Judeo-Christian mythology (later adopted by Islam) teaches that among the first people were brothers Cain and Abel and Cain killed Abel.

There is also hadith where Muhammad encourages people to keep the ties of kinship, which indicates they weren't doing it enough in his time:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|25|1979}} (hasan)|
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah said:
"Learn enough about your lineage to facilitate keeping your ties of kinship (تَصِلُونَ بِهِ أَرْحَامَكُمْ). For indeed keeping the ties of kinship encourages affection among the relatives, increases the wealth, and increases the lifespan."
}}

Killing of family members for the sake of Islam was also approved by Muhammad:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4361|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah Ibn Abbas: A blind man had a slave-mother who used to abuse the Prophet (peace be upon him) and disparage him. He forbade her but she did not stop. He rebuked her but she did not give up her habit. One night she began to slander the Prophet (peace be upon him) and abuse him. So he took a dagger, placed it on her belly, pressed it, and killed her. A child who came between her legs was smeared with the blood that was there. When the morning came, the Prophet (peace be upon him) was informed about it.

He assembled the people and said: I adjure by Allah the man who has done this action and I adjure him by my right to him that he should stand up. Jumping over the necks of the people and trembling the man stood up.

He sat before the Prophet (peace be upon him) and said: Apostle of Allah! I am her master; she used to abuse you and disparage you. I forbade her, but she did not stop, and I rebuked her, but she did not abandon her habit. I have two sons like pearls from her, and she was my companion. Last night she began to abuse and disparage you. So I took a dagger, put it on her belly and pressed it till I killed her.

Thereupon the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Oh be witness, no retaliation is payable for her blood.}}A similar prophecy exists in Tabrani, predicting "family ties will be severed", though this hadith is often mistranslated (also the hadith is weak):
{{Quote|Tabrani, al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr 10/228 and Mu'jan al-Awsat 4861 (da'eef)|
“From among the signs of Qiyamah is that people will maintain ties with '''distant relatives and strangers''' (الأطباق) but sever ties with close family.”
}}
The word الأطباق (''al-atbaaq'') is today sometimes translated as "dishes" (although the classical translation (understanding) fits better into the context) and then they interpret the "dishes" as "satellites", but this is clearly an anachronistic, inaccurate translation.

*[https://hadithanswers.com/is-satellite-communication-a-sign-of-qiyamah/ Fatwa against the modern interpretation]

===Automobiles (actually camels with lofty saddles)===
Muhammad forbade riding on ''mayathir'' (مياثر) (silk saddles), so mayathir were something already known:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6235|darussalam}}|
..He forbade us to drink from silver utensils, to wear gold rings, '''to ride on silken saddles (ركوب المياثر)''', to wear silk clothes..
}}

There is a prophecy about people riding on mayathir at the end of times:
{{Quote|al-Mustadrak 4 / 436 (hasan)|
سَيَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ هَذِهِ الْأُمَّةِ رِجَالٌ يَرْكَبُونَ عَلَى الْمَيَاثِرِ حَتَّى يَأْتُوا أَبْوَابَ مَسَاجِدِهِمْ

They will mount their mayaathir until they come to the doors of their mosques
}}
Albani explained:
{{Quote|Tafsir by Albani|
the word mayaathir is the plural of meetharah and Ibn al-Athir described it as, “… smooth and soft, made out of silk or a silk brocade [heavy silk] which the rider places beneath him on the saddle on top of the camel.
}}

And a re-iteration of the same prophecy:
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 654/11 (hasan)|
يكون في آخر أمتي رجال يركبون على سرج كأشباه الرحال ينزلون على أبواب المساجد نساؤهم كاسيات عاريات

In the last [part] of my nation there will be men who ride on '''saddles that resemble packsaddles''' (سرج كأشباه الرحال). They will alight at the doors of the mosques. Their women are clothed but naked. On their heads are [what appears to be] like the humps of [lean] camels. Curse them for they are cursed. If there were a nation from the nations to come after you, your women would serve them, just as the women of the nations that were before you served you.
}}
Some try to translate سرج كأشباه الرحال as "carriots" or "cars", but:

*سَرْج means "saddlebag; packsaddle; saddle; pigskin; pillion" <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AC/</ref>
*رَحْل means "Either of a pair of a bags laid over the back of a horse - saddlebag; packsaddle; saddle". <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%84/</ref>

===Ignorance [of Islamic teachings]===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7062|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah and Abu Musa:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days during which '''Religious ignorance will spread''', knowledge will be taken away (vanish) and there will be much Al-Harj, and Al- Harj means killing."}}

*In Islamic discourse, the period before Muhammad's career is called jahilya (ignorance).
*in context of Islamic jurisprudence, theology and scriptural analysis, when Muhammad says "knowledge" it means "knowledge of Muhamamd's claims and commands" and when Islam says "ignorance" it means "ignorance of Muhammad's claims and commands"

===Learning for something other than Islam===
{{Quote|Al-Shawkani, Nayl al-Awtar 8/262 (hasan li-ghayrihi)|
إذا اتُّخِذَ الفَيْءُ دُوَلًا والأمانةُ مَغْنَمًا والزكاةُ مَغْرَمًا وتُعُلِّمَ لغيرِ الدِّينِ وأطاع الرجلُ امرأتَه وعَقَّ أُمَّه وأَدْنَى صديقَه وأَقْصَى أباه وظَهَرَتِ الأصواتُ في المساجدِ وساد القبيلةَ فاسِقُهُم وكان زعيمُ القومِ أَرْذَلَهم وأُكْرِمَ الرجلُ مَخَافةَ شرِّه وظَهَرَتِ القِيَانُ والمعازفُ وشُرِبَتِ الخُمورُ ولَعَن آخِرُ هذه الأمةِ أولَها فلْيَرْتَقِبُوا عند ذلك رِيحًا حمراءَ وزَلْزَلَةً وخَسْفًا ومَسْخًا وقَذْفًا وآياتٍ تُتَابَعُ كنِظامٍ بالٍ قُطِعَ سِلْكُه فتتابع بعضُه بعضًا

When spoiles of war are distributed; and property given in trust will be considered as booty for oneself; Zakat will be looked upon as a fine; '''learning for other than the religion'''; a man will obey his wife and disobey his mother; a man will bring his friends nearer and drive his father far off; noises will be raised in the masjids; the most wicked of a tribe will become its ruler; the most worthless member of a people will become its leader; a man will be honoured for fear of the evil he may do; singing girls and musical instruments will come into vogue; drinking of wine will become common; and the later generations will begin to curse the previous generations; then wait, for red violent winds, earthquakes, swallowing up by the earth, defacement (of human faces), pelting of stones from the skies as rain, and a continuing chain of disasters followed one by another, like beads of a necklace falling one after the other rapidly when its string is cut.
}}
Secular knowledge for secular purposes was studied before Islam.

===Tall buildings===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|63}}|
وَأَنْ تَرَى الْحُفَاةَ الْعُرَاةَ الْعَالَةَ رِعَاءَ الشَّاءِ يَتَطَاوَلُونَ فِي الْبِنَاءِ

..and when '''you see barefoot, naked, destitute shepherds''' competing in constructing tall buildings
}}The Bible contained a story of the Tower of Babel, Egyptians built pyramids. The desire and ability to construct tall buildings appears to has been common in history.

Lane's Lexicon explains al binaa as "originally an inf. n.: (see 1, first sentence:) then applied to A building; a structure; an edifice;] a thing that is built, or constructed".<ref>Binaa الْبِنَاء - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume1/00000298.pdf Lane's Lexicon] p. 261</ref> The "compete in height" aspect of the translation comes from the word تطاول (tataawul)<ref>tay-waw-lam طول - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000180.pdf Lane's Lexicon] - p. 1895</ref> These words appear in some other narrations in the same or similar context in relation to the 7th century.

There were people in the 7th century building buildings that could be considered tall in that time. Ibn Hajar wrote in his famous commentary on Sahih Bukhari:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar: Fatḥ al-Bārī fī Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī|
يتطاول الناس في البنيان وهي من العلامات التي وقعت عن قرب في زمن النبوة

"The people are [competing in height] building buildings" - and that's from the signs which '''happened close at the time of the prophethood'''
}}

The caliph Uthman was accused of practicing tataawul at his time, though the meaning here may simply be that he built a lot of buildings.

{{Quote|[http://shiaonlinelibrary.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A8/3671_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%82%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A-%D8%AC-%D9%A1/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9_32 al-Imāma wal-Siyāsa, vol 1 page 35] by Ibn Qutaybah (d. 889 / 276)| ما أنكر الناس على عثمان رحمه الله قال: وذكروا أنه اجتمع ناس من أصحاب النبي عليه الصلاة والسلام، فكتبوا كتابا ذكروا فيه ما خالف فيه عثمان من سنة رسول الله وسنة صاحبيه، وما كان من هبته خمس أفريقية لمروان وفيه حق الله ورسوله، ومنهم ذوو القربى واليتامى والمساكين، وما كان من تطاوله في البنيان، حتى عدوا سبع دور بناها بالمدينة

And what people condemned of Uthman was that a group of the prophet's companions came together and wrote a book mentioning in it what Uthman has not followed of the sunnah of the prophet and his companions and of what he did when he gave 1/5th of Africa to Marwan and in it is the share of Allah and his prophet and that of relatives, orphans and poor people. And of his excesses in building ( تطاوله في البنيان ) that reached 7 houses in Medina.}}

Muslims could afford building tall buildings after they got rich from early Islamic conquests.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5672|darussalam}}|
Narrated Qais bin Abi Hazim:

We went to pay a visit to Khabbab (who was sick) and he had been branded (cauterized) at seven places in his body. He said, "Our companions who died (during the lifetime of the Prophet) left (this world) without having their rewards reduced through enjoying the pleasures of this life, but '''we have got (so much) wealth that we find no way to spend It except on the construction of buildings''' .Had the Prophet not forbidden us to wish for death, I would have wished for it.' We visited him for the second time while he was building a wall. '''He said: A Muslim is rewarded (in the Hereafter) for whatever he spends except for something that he spends on building'''."
}}

Some add that theses buildings were described as being "as high as mountains", but that hadith is mawqoof (not from Muhammad). It was a saying of ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr and it was after Muslims became rich from early Islamic conquests, so they could likely imagine themselves building tall in Mecca. Also the hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|Musannaf ibn Abi Shaybah, Hadith: 14306 (da'eef or hasan)|
Sayyiduna '''‘Abdullah ibn ‘Amr''' (radiyallahu ‘anhuma) is reported to have said: “……When you see tunnels/canals being dug in Makkah Mukarramah and the buildings (of Makkah Mukarramah) higher than the peak of the mountains then know that Qiyamah is close.”
}}

*[https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/247118/%D9%87%D9%84-%D8%AB%D8%A8%D8%AA-%D9%85%D9%86-%D9%83%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%88-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5-%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A9-%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9 Fatwa] (Arabic) says that since it's not from Muhammad, it shouldn't even be called a hadith.

===Mosques full of hypocrites===
{{Quote|Ibn Abi Shaybah: Kitab al-Iman 101 (sahih)|
عن عبد اللهِ بنِ عَمرو قال : يأتي على الناس زمانٌ ، يجتمِعون ويُصلُّون في المساجدِ ، وليس فيهم مؤمنٌ

A time will come on people when they get together and pray in mosques and isn't among them a single believer
}}

Praying hypocrites were also mentioned in the Bible:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Matthew 6:5|
“And when you pray, do not be like the hypocrites, for they love to pray standing in the synagogues and on the street corners to be seen by others.
}}

The imperialistic nature of Islam's spread may have encouraged this type of hypocrisy, and the flood of opportunists joining the ranks of Islam after the conquest is likely the origin of these ahadith:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||21a|reference}}|
It is reported on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah said:

I have been commanded to fight against people so long as they do not declare that there is no god but Allah, and he who professed it was guaranteed the protection of his property and life on my behalf except for the right affairs rest with Allah.
}}
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3017|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Ikrima:

`Ali burnt some people and this news reached Ibn `Abbas, who said, "Had I been in his place I would not have burnt them, as the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'Don't punish (anybody) with Allah's Punishment.' No doubt, I would have killed them, for the Prophet (ﷺ) said, 'If somebody (a Muslim) discards his religion, kill him.' "
}}

===Voices raised in mosques===
The hadith is daif:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2211}} (daif)|
Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When Al-Fai' is distributed(preferentially), trust is a spoil of war, Zakat is a fine, knowledge is sought for other than the(sake of the) religion, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is close to his friend and far from his father, '''voices are raised in the Masajid''', tribes are led by their wicked, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, singing slave-girls and music spread, intoxicants are drunk, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning- then anticipate a red wind, earthquake, collapsing of the earth, transformation, Qadhf, and the signs follow in succession like gems of a necklace whose string is cut and so they fall in succession."
}}

People were raising voices even in the time of Muhammad in front of him. Muhammad rebuked them in the Quran:
{{Quote|{{Quran|49|2}} (Sahih International)|
O you who have believed, do not raise your voices above the voice of the Prophet or be loud to him in speech like the loudness of some of you to others, lest your deeds become worthless while you perceive not.

}}

===Decoration of mosques===
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||1|8|690}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Anas that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"One of the portents of the Hour will be that people will show off in building Masjids."
}}

There was a precedent. Christians and Jews were adorning their places of worship:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||448|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:

I was not commanded to build high mosques. Ibn Abbas said: You will certainly adorn them '''as the Jews and Christians did'''.
}}

===Markets will approach (taqaarub al-aswaaq)===
{{Quote|al-Haythami 7/330 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D8%AA%D8%B8%D9%87%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%86+%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%AB%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B0%D8%A8+%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82+%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86</ref>|
لا تقومُ الساعةُ حتى تَظْهَرَ الفِتَنُ ويكثرَ الكذِبُ وتتقارَبَ الأسواقُ ويتقارَبَ الزمانُ ويكثُرَ الهرجُ قلْتُ وما الهرْجُ قال القتْلُ

The Hour won't come till tribulations show up, lies are widespread and '''taqaarub of markets''' and taqaarub of time and harj is widespread. I said: What is al-harj? He said: Killing.
}}
The hadith is vague in its entirety, but the situation on markets expectedly changed after Muslims got rich by the 7th century conquests.

===Breaking the convenant with god makes enemies overpower them===
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
... '''They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands.''' Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

This is mentioned in the Old Testament:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Leviticus 26:14-17|
Punishment for Disobedience

“‘But if you will not listen to me and carry out all these commands, and if you reject my decrees and abhor my laws and fail to carry out all my commands and so violate my covenant, then I will do this to you: I will bring on you sudden terror, wasting diseases and fever that will destroy your sight and sap your strength. You will plant seed in vain, because your enemies will eat it. I will set my face against you so that you will be defeated by your enemies; those who hate you will rule over you, and you will flee even when no one is pursuing you.
}}

===A man passes by a grave and wants to be dead too===
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7121|darussalam}}|
وَحَتَّى يَمُرَّ الرَّجُلُ بِقَبْرِ الرَّجُلِ فَيَقُولُ يَا لَيْتَنِي مَكَانَهُ

... till a man when passing by a grave of someone will say, 'Would that I were in his place...
}}

The Old Testament mentions this:
{{Quote|The Bible (NASB), Jonah 4:3|
"Therefore now, O LORD, please take my life from me, for death is better to me than life."
}}

===People will treat a man with respect because they fear the evil he could do===
The hadith is daif (weak).
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}} (daif)|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, the leader of the people is the most despicable among them, '''the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of''', intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

Intimidation with violence was already used before Islam. It was also used by Muhammad.

===The leader of a people will be the worst of them===
This hadith is daif (weak).
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2210}} (daif)|
Ali bin Abi Talib narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"When my Ummah does fifteen things, the afflictions will occur in it." It was said: "What are they O Messenger of Allah?" He said: "When Al-Maghnam (the spoils of war) are distributed (preferentially), trust is usurped, Zakah is a fine, a man obeys his wife and disobeys his mother, he is kind to his friend and abandons his father, voices are raised in the Masajid, '''the leader of the people is the most despicable among them''', the most honored man is the one whose evil the people are afraid of, intoxicants are drunk, silk is worn (by males), there is a fascination for singing slave-girls and music, and the end of this Ummah curses its beginning. When that occurs, anticipate a red wind, collapsing of the earth, and transformation."
}}

==Predictions of the future (after the hadiths)==
In this category are hadiths that don't appear to speak of events which already transpired before the prophecies were written.
====Mountains will move====
This hadith is da'eef (Ufayr bin Ma'daan is in the chain):
{{Quote|Mu'jam at-Tabaraani vol 7, n. 6857|
لا تقومُ الساعةُ حتى تزولَ الجبالُ عن أماكِنِها وتَرَوْنَ الأمورَ العظامَ التي لم تَكُونوا تَرَوْنَها

The Hour will not begin until the '''mountains are moved from their places''' and you see great calamities which you have never seen before.
}}
====Non-speaking objects will start speaking====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2181}} (sahih)|
Abu Sa'eed Al-Khudri narrated that the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w) said:
"By the One in Whose Hand is my soul! The Hour will not be established until predators speak to people and until the tip of a man's whip and the straps on his sandal speak to him, and his thigh informs him of what occurred with his family after him."
}}

Though this hadith is often metaphorically interpreted to refer to modern technology (mobile phones), the original wording of the hadith appears to be rather literal in its intention.

The Old Testament already has a story about a talking serpent:
{{Quote|The Bible, Genesis 3:1|
Now '''the serpent''' was more crafty than any of the wild animals the Lord God had made. '''He said''' to the woman, “Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?”
}}

According to the hadith, for Muhammad (unlike for most people), talking objects wouldn't even be much miraculous, since he was hearing voices regularly. For example he heard a stone saluting him:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2277|reference}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: I recognise '''the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations''' before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}

====The land of Arabia reverts to meadows and rivers====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157c|reference}}|
وَحَدَّثَنَا قُتَيْبَةُ بْنُ سَعِيدٍ، حَدَّثَنَا يَعْقُوبُ، - وَهُوَ ابْنُ عَبْدِ الرَّحْمَنِ الْقَارِيُّ - عَنْ سُهَيْلٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ، أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏ "‏ لاَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَكْثُرَ الْمَالُ وَيَفِيضَ حَتَّى يَخْرُجَ الرَّجُلُ بِزَكَاةِ مَالِهِ فَلاَ يَجِدُ أَحَدًا يَقْبَلُهَا مِنْهُ وَحَتَّى تَعُودَ أَرْضُ الْعَرَبِ مُرُوجًا وَأَنْهَارًا ‏"‏ ‏.‏

Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) as saying:

The Last Hour will not come before wealth becomes abundant and overflowing, so much so that a man takes Zakat out of his property and cannot find anyone to accept it from him and '''till the land of Arabia reverts (تعود) to meadows and rivers.'''
}}

Note that the Sunnah.com website have changed the translation of Sahih Muslim here. For Sahih Muslim they use the published translation by Abdul Hamid Siddiqui, but in 2020 after this miracle claim became popular they edited Siddiqui's translation by replacing ''becomes'' with ''reverts''.

The word تعود (''ta'ooda'') could mean "become" or "revert" here.
{{Quote|مرقاة المفاتيح شرح مشكاة المصابيح|
وحتى تعود أرض العرب أي: تصير أو ترجع

"And until ''ta'ooda'' the land of Arabs" - meaning "becomes" or "reverts"
}}

The correct meaning of تَعُودَ in this context is controversial. This verb, عاد ('aada), generally relates to returning or repetition. However, some Arabic speaking critics point out that it can also mean become (for the first time), and argue that this meaning is possible or even likely given grammatical features in this hadith. The typical argument is that generally, though not necessarily, there would be a preposition such as ila (to) or fee (in) after the verb if it meant return to a state.

More typically, a verb such as صَارَ would be used for "becomes", though Lane's Lexicon states that عاد can be a synonym for صَارَ and gives as an example وَدِدْتُ أَنَّ هٰذَا اللَّبَنَ يَعُودُ قَطِرَانًا (I wish that this milk would become tar).<ref>ayn-waw-dal عود - [https://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume5/00000473.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2188]</ref>

Other critics respond that even if the meaning here is "returns to meadows and rivers", Arabia throughout recorded history has had fertile valleys and productive land.<ref>See for example Strabo, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/16D%2A.html ''The Geography'' Book XVI, Chapter 4], 1st Century BCE</ref> The hadith may represent an elaboration of pre-Islamic folk tales. Al-Tabari records a tradition that centuries earlier, the Yamāmah region of central Arabia "was a most fertile and highly cultivated land, a land most prosperous, with a variety of fruit, wondrous orchards, and tall castles."<ref>Al-Tabari (transl. Moshe Perlmann) ''The History of al-Tabari: Volume IV The Ancient Kingdoms'', Suny Press, p. 151</ref>

A few hadiths shed further light on this interpretation, implying that it would likely mean merely a return to the mythological state of the world at the time of Adam rather than any miraculous knowledge of prehistory.

A hadith collected by Abd al-Razzaq, one of the earliest hadith compilers uses the exact same verb, تَعُودَ in the phrase وتعود الأرض كهيئتها على عهد آدم ("The earth will return to its original state as it was in the time of Adam").<ref>[https://www.islamweb.net/ar/library/content/73/19884/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%89-%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 Musannaf Abd al-Razzaq 20843] - islamweb.net</ref>

A hadith in the collection of Ibn Majah states a similar idea about vegetation growing as it did in the time of Adam:

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4077|}}|[...] War will cease and Quraish will no longer be in power. The earth will be like a silver platter, with its vegetation growing as it did at the time of Adam, until a group of people will gather around one bunch of grapes and it will suffice them, and a group will gather around a single pomegranate and it will suffice them. An ox will be sold for such and such amount of money, and a horse will be sold for a few Dirham. [...]}}

====Much rain, but little vegetation====
{{Quote|Shuaib Al Arna'ut, Takhreej al-Musnad 12429 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%AD%D8%AA%D9%89+%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3+%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7+%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7+%D8%8C+%D9%88+%D9%84%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%AA+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6+%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A7</ref>|
لا تَقومُ السَّاعةُ حتى يُمطَرَ النَّاسُ مَطرًا عامًّا، ولا تُنبِتَ الأرضُ شيئًا.

The Hour would not come until there is too much rain, but the earth does not produce crops
}}

===Other Predictions About the Future===
====Coming of Muhammad and the Hour are close like the forefinger and middle finger joined together====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2951e|reference}}|
Anas reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

I and the Last Hour have been sent like this and (he while doing it) joined the forefinger with the middle finger.
}}

====A 7th century boy won't grow very old before the Hour comes====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2953b|reference}}|
وَحَدَّثَنِي حَجَّاجُ بْنُ الشَّاعِرِ، حَدَّثَنَا سُلَيْمَانُ بْنُ حَرْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا حَمَّادٌ، - يَعْنِي ابْنَ زَيْدٍ - حَدَّثَنَا مَعْبَدُ بْنُ هِلاَلٍ الْعَنَزِيُّ، عَنْ أَنَسِ بْنِ مَالِكٍ، أَنَّ رَجُلاً، سَأَلَ النَّبِيَّ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ مَتَى تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ قَالَ فَسَكَتَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم هُنَيْهَةً ثُمَّ نَظَرَ إِلَى غُلاَمٍ بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنْ أَزْدِ شَنُوءَةَ فَقَالَ ‏ "‏ إِنْ عُمِّرَ هَذَا لَمْ يُدْرِكْهُ الْهَرَمُ حَتَّى تَقُومَ السَّاعَةُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ قَالَ أَنَسٌ ذَاكَ الْغُلاَمُ مِنْ أَتْرَابِي يَوْمَئِذٍ ‏.‏

Anas b. Malik reported that a person asked Allah's Apostle (ﷺ):

When would the Last Hour come? Thereupon Allah's Messenger (way peace be upon him) kept quiet for a while. Then looked at a young boy in his presence belonging to the tribe of Azd Shanu'a and he said: If this boy lives he would not grow very old till the Last Hour would come ''to you''. Anas said that this young boy was of our age during those days.
}}

There are two versions of this hadith. In this version, the "to you" was added by the translators to indicate that it is the last hour (death) of the people who asked. However this qualification is entirely absent in the Arabic text. This version of the hadith reported by Anas just says "until the hour comes" (حَتَّى تَقُومَ السَّاعَةُ) (see also {{Bukhari|||6167|darussalam}} quoted below where Anas seems to be a witness, {{Muslim||2953a|reference}}, and {{Muslim||2953c|reference}}). Another version of the hadith is reported by Aisha and instead has the phrase "until your hour comes to you" (حَتَّى تَقُومَ عَلَيْكُمْ سَاعَتُكُمْ) {{Bukhari|||6511|darussalam}} and {{Muslim||2952|reference}}.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6167|darussalam}}|
...In the meantime, a slave of Al-Mughira passed by, and he was of the same age as I was. The Prophet (ﷺ) said. "If this (slave) should live long, he will not reach the geriatric old age, but the Hour will be established."
}}

====Nothing will live one hundred years from now====
The "tonight" in ''italic'' was added by translators to accommodate the later re-interpretation:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||116|darussalam}}|
أَرَأَيْتَكُمْ لَيْلَتَكُمْ هَذِهِ، فَإِنَّ رَأْسَ مِائَةِ سَنَةٍ مِنْهَا لاَ يَبْقَى مِمَّنْ هُوَ عَلَى ظَهْرِ الأَرْضِ أَحَدٌ

Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

Once the Prophet (ﷺ) led us in the `Isha' prayer during the last days of his life and after finishing it (the prayer) (with Taslim) he said: "Do you realize (the importance of) this night?" Nobody present on the surface of the earth ''tonight'' will be living after the completion of one hundred years from this night."
}}

When the prophecy failed 100 years later, it was subject to retroactive re-interpretation in Bukhari:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||601|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Abdullah bin `Umar:

The Prophet (ﷺ) prayed one of the `Isha' prayer in his last days and after finishing it with Taslim, he stood up and said, "Do you realize (the importance of) this night? Nobody present on the surface of the earth tonight would be living after the completion of one hundred years from this night." '''The people made a mistake in grasping the meaning of this statement of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) and they indulged in those things which are said about these narrators (i.e. some said that the Day of Resurrection will be established after 100 years etc.)''' But the Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Nobody present on the surface of earth tonight would be living after the completion of 100 years from this night"; he meant "When that century (people of that century) would pass away."
}}

====If 10 scholars of the Jews would follow me, no Jew would be left upon the surface of the earth====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2793|reference}} (Muhsin Khan translation)|
لَوْ تَابَعَنِي عَشْرَةٌ مِنَ الْيَهُودِ لَمْ يَبْقَ عَلَى ظَهْرِهَا يَهُودِيٌّ إِلاَّ أَسْلَمَ

Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

If ten ''scholars'' of the Jews would follow me, no Jew would be left upon the surface of the earth who would not embrace Islam.
}}

The Arabic original doesn't say "ten Jewish scholars", but only "ten Jews" (عشرة من اليهود).

====30 false prophets before the Hour====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||157l|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would not come until there would arise about thirty impostors, liars, and each one of them would claim that he is a messenger of Allah.
}}
According to the sira, in Muhammad's time there were other (supposedly false) prophets like Saf ibn Sayyad and Maslamah bin Ḥabīb (called by Muslims "Musaylimah al-Kadhdhāb" (Musaylama the Liar)), Al-Aswad Al-Ansi and Tulayha.

False prophets were also likewise predicted in the Bible:
{{Quote|The Bible (NIV), Matthew 24:10-11|
At that time many will turn away from the faith and will betray and hate each other, and many '''false prophets will appear and deceive many people'''.
}}

====Rising of the Sun from its setting place====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4311|darussalam}}|
We were sitting in the shade of the chamber of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) discussing (something) and when we mentioned the last hour, our voices rose high. The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: The last hour will not come or happen until there appear ten signs before it : '''the rising of the sun in its place of setting''', the coming forth of the beast, the coming forth of Gog and Magog, the Dajjal (Antichrist), (the descent of) Jesus son of Mary, the smoke, and three collapses of the earth: one in the west, one in the east, and one in the Arabian Peninsula. The last of that will be the emergence of a fire from Yemen, from the lowest part of Aden, and drive mankind to their place of assembly.
}}
This seems to suggest that the sun revolves about the Earth and can reverse direction

There is also a related verse in the Quran:{{Quote|{{Quran|6|158}}|
Do they [then] wait for anything except that the angels should come to them or your Lord should come or that there come some of the signs of your Lord? The Day that '''some of the signs of your Lord will come no soul will benefit from its faith as long as it had not believed before''' or had earned through its faith some good. Say, "Wait. Indeed, we [also] are waiting."
}}
Tafsir:
{{Quote|Tafsir Al-Jalalayn on 6:158|
"On the day that one of your Lord’s signs comes" — and this is the rising of the sun from the west as reported in the hadīth of the two Sahīhs of Bukhārī and Muslim — it shall not benefit a soul to believe if it had not believed theretofore
}}
The hadith:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4635|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established until the sun rises from the West: and when the people see it, then whoever will be living on the surface of the earth will have faith, and that is (the time) when no good will it do to a soul to believe then, if it believed not before." (6.158)
}}

Note that this hadith and others which mention this event are commonly mistranslated as the sun rising "from the west". In every case, such hadiths actually say in the arabic, ''min maghribiha'' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِهَا), which is literally "from its setting place" with the possessive suffix and without the definite article. "From the west" would be rather, ''min al maghriba'' as in {{Quran|2|258}} quoted below. Furthermore, the verb "rises" in such hadiths, ''taṭluʿa'' (تَطْلُعَ) is the one which appears in {{Quran|18|90}} when Dhu'l Qarnayn reaches the rising place of the sun and finds it rising on a people without shelter.

Another hadith says that right after the rising, a beast will appear in the forenoon:{{Quote|Abu Dawud 4310 (sahih)|
Abu zur’ah said:
A group of people came to Marwan in Medina, and they heard him say that the first of the signs to appear would be the coming forth of the Dajjal (Antichirst). He said: I then went to Abd Allah b. ‘Amr and mentioned it to him. He did not say anything(reliable). I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: '''The first of the signs to appear will be the rising of the sun in its place of setting and the coming forth of the beast against mankind in the forenoon.''' Whichever of them comes first will soon be followed by the other. ’Abd Allah who used to read the scriptures (Torah, Gospel) said: I think the first of them will be the rising of the sun in its place of setting.
}}

{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4069}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“The first signs to appear will be at '''the rising of the sun from the west and the emergence of the Beast to the people, at forenoon'''.’” 'Abdullah said: "Whichever of them appears first, the other will come soon after." 'Abdullah said: "I do not think it will be anything other than the sun rising from the west."
}}

Some today proffer a metaphorical interpretation that the "rising of the Sun from the west" refers to the rise of the Western civilization. As noted above, this stems from the common mistranslation of the phrase, and would also leave the segment regarding the beast unexplained.

The Quran seems to affirm the possibility that God could make the Sun "rise from the West":
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|258}}|
Have you not considered the one who argued with Abraham about his Lord [merely] because Allah had given him kingship? When Abraham said, "My Lord is the one who gives life and causes death," he said, "I give life and cause death." Abraham said, "Indeed, '''Allah brings up the sun from the east''', so bring it up from the west." So the disbeliever was overwhelmed [by astonishment], and Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.
}}
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn]]
See also the story of [[Dhul-Qarnayn_and_the_Sun_Setting_in_a_Muddy_Spring_-_Part_One|Dhul-Qarnayn and the Sun setting in a muddy Spring]] in the Quran, where this possibility is further confirmed. The sun is there described as having a setting place in a muddy spring, and a rising place where people lack shelter. This story is known to derive from the mid-6th century [[Dhul-Qarnayn and the Alexander Romance|Syriac Alexander Legend]].

====Stones and trees say to Muslims: "here is a Jew behind me; come and kill him"====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2922|reference}}|
The last hour would not come unless the Muslims will fight against the Jews and the Muslims would kill them until the Jews would hide themselves behind a stone or a tree and '''a stone or a tree would say: Muslim, or the servant of Allah, there is a Jew behind me; come and kill him'''; but the tree Gharqad would not say, for it is the tree of the Jews.
}}

According to the hadith, Muhammad himself used to hear voices from stones as well:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2277|reference}}|Jabir b. Samura reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: I recognise '''the stone in Mecca which used to pay me salutations''' before my advent as a Prophet and I recognise that even now.}}

====Time will pass more quickly (taqaarub az-zamaan)====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 10560|
لا تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَتَقَارَبَ الزَّمَانُ ، فَتَكُونَ السَّنَةُ كَالشَّهْرِ ، وَيَكُونَ الشَّهْرُ كَالْجُمُعَةِ ، وَتَكُونَ الْجُمُعَةُ كَالْيَوْمِ ، وَيَكُونَ الْيَوْمُ كَالسَّاعَةِ ، وَتَكُونَ السَّاعَةُ كَاحْتِرَاقِ السَّعَفَةِ

The Hour will not begin until time passes quickly, so a year will be like a month, and a month will be like a week, and a week will be like a day, and a day will be like an hour, and an hour will be like the burning of a braid of palm leaves.
}}

Islamic scholars have interpreted this variously, without any agreement as to the possible meaning:
{{Quote|[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/34618/one-of-the-signs-of-the-hour-is-that-time-will-pass-more-quickly islamqa.info: One of the signs of the Hour is that time will pass more quickly]|
The scholars differed concerning the meaning of the phrase taqaarub al-zamaan (time passing more quickly). '''There are many views''', the strongest of which is:

That the phrase taqaarub al-zamaan (time passing quickly) may be interpreted literally or metaphorically.
}}

====A man from Qahtan appears, driving the people with his stick====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7117|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till a man from Qahtan appears, driving the people with his stick."
}}

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qahtan_(tribe) Qahtan] still exists, but the prophecy remains unfulfilled. <ref>https://www.islamweb.net/ar/fatwa/418273/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B9%D8%8C-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A5%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9</ref>

====A man called Jahjah will occupy the throne====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2911|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The day and the night would not come to an end before a man called al-Jahjah would occupy the throne.
}}

*[https://islamqa.info/ar/answers/118597/%D9%85%D8%A7-%D9%87%D9%8A-%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A-%D9%84%D9%85-%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86 Fatwa] (AR) puts this prophecy among non-fulfilled prophecies

====Conquest of Constantinopole without fighting and the Hour come together====
This hadith is considered da'eef by Albani (but sahih by Dhahabi):
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 14:331|
لتفتحن القسطنطينية، فلنعم الأمير أميرها، ولنعم الجيش ذلك الجيش

Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will her
leader be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!
}}

The predictions historically played a huge role in the continued Muslim jihads against the Roman (Byzantine) Empire, and when the Muslims finally conquered it in 1453 it was seen as the fulfillment of an eschatological vision of an apocalypse which never happened.

Another hadith adds that the Hour was expected to come with this conquest:
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2239}}|
Anas bin Malik said:
"Constantinople will be conquered with the coming of the Hour."
}}

The coming of the Dajjal was expected right after the conquest:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4294|darussalam}} (hasan)|
Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The flourishing state of Jerusalem will be when Yathrib is in ruins, the ruined state of Yathrib will be when the great war comes, the outbreak of the great war will be at the conquest of Constantinople and the conquest of Constantinople when the Dajjal (Antichrist) comes forth. He (the Prophet) struck his thigh or his shoulder with his hand and said: This is as true as you are here or as you are sitting (meaning Mu'adh ibn Jabal).
}}

Another hadith mentions Romans attacking Dabiq before the conquest of Constantinople. The mention of swords makes it hard to re-interpret as a prophecy about another conquest of Constantinople in the future:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2897|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would not come until '''the Romans would land at al-A'maq or in Dabiq'''. An army consisting of the best (soldiers) of the people of the earth at that time will come from Medina (to counteract them). When they will arrange themselves in ranks, the Romans would say: Do not stand between us and those (Muslims) who took prisoners from amongst us. Let us fight with them; and the Muslims would say: Nay, by Allah, we would never get aside from you and from our brethren that you may fight them. They will then fight and a third (part) of the army would run away, whom Allah will never forgive. A third (part of the army) which would be constituted of excellent martyrs in Allah's eye, would be killed and the third who would never be put to trial would win and they would be conquerors of Constantinople. And as they would be busy in distributing the spoils of war (amongst themselves) after hanging their '''swords''' by the olive trees, the Satan would cry: '''The Dajjal''' has taken your place among your family. They would then come out, but it would be of no avail. And when they would come to Syria, he would come out while they would be still preparing themselves for battle drawing up the ranks. Certainly, the time of prayer shall come and then Jesus (peace be upon him) son of Mary would descend and would lead them. When the enemy of Allah would see him, it would (disappear) just as the salt dissolves itself in water and if he (Jesus) were not to confront them at all, even then it would dissolve completely, but Allah would kill them by his hand and he would show them their blood on his lance (the lance of Jesus Christ).
}}

Also:
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4294|darussalam}} (hasan)|
Narrated Mu'adh ibn Jabal:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The flourishing state of Jerusalem will be when Yathrib is in ruins, the ruined state of Yathrib will be when the great war comes, the outbreak of the great war will be at the conquest of Constantinople and the conquest of Constantinople when the Dajjal (Antichrist) comes forth. He (the Prophet) struck his thigh or his shoulder with his hand and said: This is as true as you are here or as you are sitting (meaning Mu'adh ibn Jabal).
}}

The conquest of Constantinople was predicted to happen without fighting, whereas in fact a fierce siege preceded the final fall of the city:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2920a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Apostle (may peace he upon him) saying:

You have heard about a city, one side of which is on land and the other is in the sea ('''Constantinople'''). They said: Allah's Messenger, yes. Thereupon he said: The Last Hour would not come unless seventy thousand persons from Bani lshaq would attack it. When they would land there, '''they will neither fight with weapons nor would shower arrows but would only say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," ''' and one side of it would fall. Thaur (one of the narrators) said: I think that he said: The part by the side of the ocean. Then they would say for the second time: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest" and the second side would also fall, and they would say: "There is no god but Allah and Allah is the Greatest," and the gates would be opened for them and they would enter therein and, they would be collecting spoils of war and distributing them amongst themselves when a noise would be heard saying: Verily, Dajjal has come. And thus they would leave everything there and go back.
}}

Constantinople was [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople conquered in 1453] by fighting, the Dajjal didn't appear and the city was renamed to Istanbul.

====Conquest of Rome====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2900|reference}}|
Nafi' b. Utba reported:

We were with Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) in an expedition that there came a people to Allah's Apostle (ﷺ) from the direction of the west. They were dressed in woollen clothes and they stood near a hillock and they met him as Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) was sitting. I said to myself: Better go to them and stand between him and them that they may not attack him. Then I thought that perhaps there had been going on secret negotiation amongst them. I however, went to them and stood between them and him and I remember four of the words (on that occasion) which I repeat (on the fingers of my hand) that he (Allah's Messenger) said: You will attack Arabia and Allah will enable you to conquer it, then you would attack Persia and He would make you to conquer it. '''Then you would attack Rome and Allah will enable you to conquer it, then you would attack the Dajjal and Allah will enable you to conquer him. Nafi' said: Jabir, we thought that the Dajjal would appear after Rome (Syrian territory) would be conquered.'''
}}

The Roman empire was conquered by Mehmet the Conqueror of the Turkish Ottoman dynasty in the 15th century, but the Dajjal did not appear after this event though many in the Muslim world thought he would.

====Byzantines will make truce with Muslims, betray them and attack them====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3176|darussalam}}|
Narrated `Auf bin Mali:

I went to the Prophet (ﷺ) during the Ghazwa of Tabuk while he was sitting in a leather tent. He said, "Count six signs that indicate the approach of the Hour: my death, the conquest of Jerusalem, a plague that will afflict you (and kill you in great numbers) as the plague that afflicts sheep, the increase of wealth to such an extent that even if one is given one hundred Dinars, he will not be satisfied; then an affliction which no Arab house will escape, '''and then a truce between you and Bani Al-Asfar (i.e. the Byzantines) who will betray you and attack you under eighty flags. Under each flag will be twelve thousand soldiers.'''
}}
The prophecy is considered unfulfilled:
{{Quote|[https://www.islamweb.net/en/fatwa/83460/hadith-about-the-romans-attacking-us-under-eighty-flags Hadith about the Romans attacking us under eighty flags]|
Imam Ibn al-Muneer said: 'Till this time the incident of gathering and attacking Rome in this huge number of soldiers has not happened yet. This matter has not taken place yet.
}}

====Conquest of India and the second coming of Jesus come together====
Also known as [[Ghazwa-e-hind|ghazwa-e-hind]].
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||4|25|3177}} (hasan) from The Book of Jihad, chapter "Invading India"|
It was narrated that Thawban, the freed slave of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), said:
"The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: 'There are two groups of my Ummah whom Allah will free from the Fire: The group that invades India (تَغْزُو الْهِنْدَ, ''taghzoo al-hind''), and the group that will be with Isa bin Maryam, peace be upon him.'"
}}

Early conquests of India happened in the 7th century (for example [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rasil Battle of Rasil]), while author of the hadith collection [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Nasa%27i al-Nasa'i] lived in the 9th century.

The conquest of India is linked to the second coming of Jesus (Isa). In other (although weak) hadiths it's even more explicit:
{{Quote|Na‘eem ibn Hammaad, al-Fitan, p. 409 (daeef)|
The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said – and he mentioned India – then he said: “An army of yours will invade India and Allah will grant its conquest to them, until they bring their kings in chains, and Allah will forgive them their sins. Then they will return and when they return, they will find the son of Maryam in ash-Shaam (Syria).” Abu Hurayrah said: If I live to see that campaign, I will sell everything I possess and join the campaign. Then if Allah grants us victory and we return, then I will be Abu Hurayrah the freed (protected from Hellfire). And when we return to Syria we will find there ‘Eesa ibn Maryam. Then I shall make sure that I draw close to him and tell him that I accompanied you, O Messenger of Allah. The Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) smiled and said: “Unlikely, unlikely.” [very difficult?]
}}

However, the second coming did not follow either these events:
{{Quote|[https://islamqa.info/en/answers/145636/hadith-about-the-conquest-of-india islamqa.info: Hadith about the conquest of India]|
What is mentioned in the hadith of Abu Hurayrah (may Allah have mercy on him), which was narrated by Na‘eem ibn Hammaad, about '''the conquest of India has not happened up till now''', but it will happen when ‘Eesaa ibn Maryam (peace be upon him) descends, if the hadith that says that is saheeh.
}}

====No more Khosrau and Caesar====
In Muhammad's time, the ruler of Persia was called Khosrau and the ruler of the Byzantine empire Caesar.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3027|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Khosrau will be ruined, and there will be no Khosrau after him, and Caesar will surely be ruined and there will be no Caesar after him, and you will spend their treasures in Allah's Cause." He called, "War is deceit'.
}}
There are many examples of this prophecy failing for both [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow Kusrau] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title) Caesar]. For example:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_Shah Khusrau Shah] was the king of the Justanids in the 10th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusrau_Khan Khusrau Khan] was the Sultan of Delhi in the 14th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doukas_(Caesar) John Doukas] was a Caesar of the Byzantine empire in the 11th century
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror Mehmed the Conqueror] - a 15h century Muslim conqueror, also called himself Caesar

The prophecy is probably referring to the 7th century Islamic conquests. The prediction in Sahih Bukhari was written in the 9th century.

====Nations will soon call each other to attack Muslims====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4297|darussalam}}|
The Prophet (ﷺ) said: The people will soon summon one another to attack you as people when eating invite others to share their dish. Someone asked: Will that be because of our small numbers at that time? He replied: No, you will be numerous at that time: but you will be scum and rubbish like that carried down by a torrent, and Allah will take fear of you from the breasts of your enemy and last enervation into your hearts. Someone asked: What is wahn (enervation). Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): He replied: Love of the world and dislike of death.
}}

This hadith was invoked by ISIS to rationalize the international coalition that formed against them.

====Romans would form a majority amongst people====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2898b|reference}}|
Mustaurid Qurashi reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: '''The Last Hour would come when the Romans would form a majority amongst people'''. This reached 'Amr b. al-'As and he said: What are these ahadith which are being transmitted from you and which you claim to have heard from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ)? Mustaurid said to him: I stated only that which I heard from Allah's Messenger (ﷺ). Thereupon 'Amr said: If you state this (it is true), for they have the power of tolerance amongst people at the time of turmoil and restore themselves to sanity after trouble, and are good amongst people so far as the destitute and the weak are concerned.
}}

The Roman (Byzantine) empire dissolved without the realization of this prophecy.

====Western people will triumphally follow the truth until the Hour====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1925|reference}}|
It has been narrated by Sa'd b. Abu Waqqas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

The people of the West will continue to triumphantly follow the truth until the Hour is established.
}}

====Twelve caliphs====
Shi'ite Imamology rests heavily upon this hadith, though has been continuously troubled by it (as have been Sunni scholars), as there appears to be no clear group of "twelve Caliphs" to have appeared in history:{{Quote|{{Muslim||1821d|reference}}|
It has been narrated on the authority of Jabir b. Samura who said:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: Islam will continue to be triumphant until there have been '''twelve Caliphs'''. Then the Prophet (ﷺ) said something which I could not understand. I asked my father: What did he say? He said: He has said that all of them (twelve Caliphs) will be from the Quraish.
}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1822a|reference}}|
It has been narrated on the authority of Amir b. Sa'd b. Abu Waqqas who said:

I wrote (a letter) to Jabir b. Samura and sent it to him through my servant Nafi', asking him to inform me of something he had heard from the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ). He wrote to me (in reply): I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say on Friday evening, the day on which al-Aslami was stoned to death (for committing adultery): '''The Islamic religion will continue until the Hour has been established, or you have been ruled over by twelve Caliphs, all of them being from the Quraish'''. also heard him say: A small force of the Muslims will capture the white palace, the police of the Persian Emperor or his descendants. I also heard him say: Before the Day of Judgment there will appear (a number of) impostors. You are to guard against them. I also heard him say: When God grants wealth to any one of you, he should first spend it on himself and his family (and then give it in charity to the poor). I heard him (also) say: I will be your forerunner at the Cistern (expecting your arrival).
}}

Commentaries by (Sunni) Islamic scholars:
{{Quote|Ibn Hajar, Fathul-Bari, vol. 13, p.211|
لم ألق أحدا يقطع في هذا الحديث يعني بشيء معين

I have not met anyone who could be certain about the meaning of this hadith!
}}
{{Quote|Ibn Jouzi, Kashful-Majhool, vol.1 p.449|
هذا الحديث قد أطلت البحث عنه، وتطلّبت مظانّه، وسألت عنه، فما رأيت أحدا وقع على المقصود به

I have researched for long to understand this hadith and referred to many references and made much enquiries about it, yet I did not meet anyone who could understand it.
}}

====Rain which will destroy all dwellings except tents====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 7554 (sahih)|
حدثنا عبد الله حدثني أبي ثنا أبو كامل وعفان قالا ثنا حماد عن سهيل قال عفان في حديثه قال أنا سهيل بن أبي صالح عن أبيه عن أبي هريرة قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه و سلم : لا تقوم الساعة حتى يمطر الناس مطرا لا تكن منه بيوت المدر ولا تكن منه الا بيوت الشعر
تعليق شعيب الأرنؤوط : إسناده صحيح على شرط مسلم

The Hour will not come until there has been rain which
will destroy all dwellings except tents
}}
====Not living according to the sharia causes infighting between Muslims====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. '''Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”'''
}}

As the Muslim community split into warring factions very quickly after the death of the prophet, this hadith is almost certainly another example of ''vaticinium ex eventu'' about events of the various Muslim civil war, fitnahs, revolts, and unrest from the 7th and 8th centuries.

====12 thousand from Aden Abyan will make Islam victorious====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 5/33 (sahih)|
يخرجُ من عدنِ أَبْيَنَ اثنا عشرَ ألفًا ينصرونَ اللهَ ورسولَهُ هم خيرُ مَن بيني وبينهم

Out of Aden-Abyan will come 12000, giving victory to the (religion of) Allah and His Messenger. They are the best between me and them.
}}

====Group of Muslims will remain victorious until Allah's order====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7311|darussalam}}|
Narrated Al-Mughira bin Shu`ba:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "A group of my follower swill remain predominant (victorious) till Allah's Order (the Hour) comes upon them while they are still predominant (victorious).
}}

====Ninety-nine dragons in infidel's grave until the Hour====
{{Quote|Mishkat al-Masabih 134 (Hasan according to Zubair Alizai, Daeef according to Albani)|
Abu Sa'id reported God’s messenger as saying, “Ninety-nine dragons will be given power over an infidel in his grave, and will bite and sting him till the last hour comes. If one of those dragons were to breathe over the earth, it would bring forth no green thing."

Darimi transmitted it, and Tirmidhi transmitted something similar, but he said seventy instead of ninety-nine.
}}

====Periods of fitnah====
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4242|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdullah ibn Umar:

When we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), he talked about periods of trial (fitnahs), mentioning many of them.

When he mentioned the one when people should stay in their houses, some asked him: Messenger of Allah, what is the trial (fitnah) of staying at home?

He replied: It will be flight and plunder. Then will come a test which is pleasant. Its murkiness is due to the fact that it is produced by a man from the people of my house, who will assert that he belongs to me, whereas he does not, for my friends are only the God-fearing. Then the people will unite under a man who will be like a hip-bone on a rib. Then there will be the little black trial which will leave none of this community without giving him a slap, and when people say that it is finished, it will be extended. During it a man will be a believer in the morning and an infidel in the evening, so that the people will be in two camps: the camp of faith which will contain no hypocrisy, and the camp of hypocrisy which will contain no faith. When that happens, expect the Antichrist (Dajjal) that day or the next.
}}

====Inheritance is not distributed====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2899a|reference}}|
لاَ تَقُومُ حَتَّى لاَ يُقْسَمَ مِيرَاثٌ وَلاَ يُفْرَحَ بِغَنِيمَةٍ

..The Last Hour would not come until shares of '''inheritance are not distributed''' and there is no rejoicing over spoils of war...
}}
====People don't rejoice over spoils of war====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2899a|reference}}|
لاَ تَقُومُ حَتَّى لاَ يُقْسَمَ مِيرَاثٌ وَلاَ يُفْرَحَ بِغَنِيمَةٍ

..The Last Hour would not come until shares of inheritance are not distributed and '''there is no rejoicing over spoils of war'''...
}}

====Muslims will soon flee to mountains from persecution====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||20|darussalam}}|
عَنْ أَبِي سَعِيدٍ الْخُدْرِيِّ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ أَنَّهُ قَالَ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ يُوشِكُ أَنْ يَكُونَ خَيْرَ مَالِ الْمُسْلِمِ غَنَمٌ يَتْبَعُ بِهَا شَعَفَ الْجِبَالِ وَمَوَاقِعَ الْقَطْرِ يَفِرُّ بِدِينِهِ مِنْ الْفِتَنِ

“Soon the best property of a Muslim will be a flock of sheep he takes to the top of a mountain, or in the valleys of rainfall, fleeing with his religion from tribulations.”
}}

====All believers will go to Syria====
{{Quote|Al-Mustadrak alaa al-Sahihain 8461 (sahih)|
يأتي على الناس زمان لا يبقى فيه مؤمن إلا لحق بالشام

A time will come to people when no believer remains except that he came over to As-Sham
}}

====Extinction of the Quraysh tribe====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad 16/186 (sahih)|
أسرعُ قبائلِ العربِ فناءً قريشٌ ويوشكُ أن تمرَّ المرأةُ بالنعلِ فتقول إن هذا نعلُ قرشيُّ

The fastest Arab tribe in extinction is Quraysh. Soon a woman will pass by a sandal, then she will say that this is a sandal of a Qurashi.
}}

====Arabs will be exterminated and go to hell====
Hadith da'eef:
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|3967}} (da'eef) and others|
It was narrated from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“There will be a tribulation which will utterly destroy the Arabs, and those who are slain will be in Hell. At that time the tongue will be worse than a blow of the sword.”
}}

====Last of the ummah will curse the first====
Fabricated (mawdu') hadith:
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||1|1|263}} (mawdu)|
It was narrated that Jabir said:
"The Messenger of Allah said: 'When the last people of this Ummah curse the first, (at that time) whoever conceals a Hadith will be concealing what Allah has revealed.'" (Maudu')
}}

====Pilgrimage to Makka will be abandoned====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1593|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Sa`id Al-Khudri:

The Prophet (ﷺ) said "The people will continue performing the Hajj and `Umra to the Ka`ba even after the appearance of Gog and Magog." Narrated Shu`ba extra: The Hour (Day of Judgment) will not be established till the Hajj (to the Ka`ba) is abandoned.
}}

====Disappearance of faith====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||148b|reference}}, chapter The Disappearance of Faith at the End of Time|
It is narrated on the authority of Anas that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

"The Hour (Resurrection) will not occur as long as anyone says: 'Allah, Allah.'"
}}

This follows the theme of religion decreasing while sin increases before the end of times.

====Islam will be widespread====
Although Muhammad predicted that Islam will disappear, he also predicted that Islam will succeed:
{{Quote|Musnad Aḥmad 16509 (sahih)|
Tamim al-Dari reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “This matter will certainly reach every place touched by the night and day. Allah will not leave a house or residence but that Allah will cause this religion to enter it, by which the honorable will be honored and the disgraceful will be disgraced. Allah will honor the honorable with Islam and he will disgrace the disgraceful with unbelief.”
}}
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2176}} (sahih)|
"Indeed Allah gathered the earth for me so that I saw its east and its west. And surely my Ummah's authority shall reach over all that was shown to me of it.
}}

If these traditions go back to Muhammad, the seem to indicate different ideas Muhammad had about the future;otherwise they may indicate the feelings of the groups of people who fabricated these hadiths at later points in Muslim history.

====The Quran will disappear overnight====
{{Quote|Sunan al-Dārimī 3343 (hasan)|
عَنْ زِرٍّ عَنْ ابْنِ مَسْعُودٍ رضي الله عنه قَالَ لَيُسْرَيَنَّ عَلَى الْقُرْآنِ ذَاتَ لَيْلَةٍ فَلَا يُتْرَكُ آيَةٌ فِي مُصْحَفٍ وَلَا فِي قَلْبِ أَحَدٍ إِلَّا رُفِعَتْ

The Quran will vanish in one night. No verse in the scripture or in the heart of anyone will be left behind.
}}

====Islam will wear out====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4049}} (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%8C+%D9%83%D9%85%D8%A7+%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3+%D9%88%D8%B4%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%A8</ref>|
يدرُسُ الإسلامُ كما يدرُسُ وَشيُ الثَّوبِ حتَّى لا يُدرَى ما صيامٌ، ولا صلاةٌ، ولا نسُكٌ، ولا صدَقةٌ، ولَيُسرى على كتابِ اللَّهِ عزَّ وجلَّ في ليلَةٍ، فلا يبقى في الأرضِ منهُ آيةٌ، وتبقَى طوائفُ منَ النَّاسِ الشَّيخُ الكبيرُ والعجوزُ، يقولونَ: أدرَكْنا آباءَنا على هذِهِ الكلمةِ، لا إلَهَ إلَّا اللَّهُ، فنحنُ نقولُها فقالَ لَهُ صِلةُ: ما تُغني عنهم: لا إلَهَ إلَّا اللَّهُ، وَهُم لا يَدرونَ ما صلاةٌ، ولا صيامٌ، ولا نسُكٌ، ولا صدقةٌ؟ فأعرضَ عنهُ حُذَيْفةُ، ثمَّ ردَّها علَيهِ ثلاثًا، كلَّ ذلِكَ يعرضُ عنهُ حُذَيْفةُ، ثمَّ أقبلَ علَيهِ في الثَّالثةِ، فقالَ: يا صِلةُ، تُنجيهِم منَ النَّار ثلاثًا

“Islam will wear out as embroidery on a garment wears out, until no one will know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are. The Book of Allah will be taken away at night, and not one Verse of it will be left on earth. And there will be some people left, old men and old women, who will say: “We saw our fathers saying these words: ‘La ilaha illallah’ so we say them too.” Silah said to him: “What good will (saying): La ilaha illallah do them, when they do not know what fasting, prayer, (pilgrimage) rites and charity are?” Hudhaifah turned away from his. He repeated his question three times, and Hudhaifah turned away from him each time. Then he turned to him on the third time and said: “O Silah! It will save them from Hell,” three times.
}}

====Islam will end up like a snake crawling back into its hole====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||146|reference}}|
It is narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Umar ('Abdullah b. 'Umar) that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) observed:

Verily Islam started as something strange and it would again revert (to its old position) of being strange just as it started, and it would recede between the two mosques just as the serpent crawls back into its hole.
}}

In other hadith, Muhammad described belief in Islam as a snake:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1876|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Verily, Belief returns and goes back to Medina as a snake returns and goes back to its hole (when in danger).
}}

====Countries colonized by Muslims will stop paying them and Muslims will be poor again====
The hadith is in the chapter called "Making Endowments Of The Lands Of As-Sawad, And The Lands That Were Conquered By Force":
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3035|darussalam}}|
Abu Hurairah reported the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) as saying “Iraq will prevent its measure (qafiz) and dirham. Syria will prevent its measure (mudi) and dinar. Egypt will prevent its measure (irdabb) and dinar. Then you will return to the position where you started. Zuhair said this three times. The flesh and blood of Abu Hurairah witnessed it.
}}

====Buttocks of women of Daus are moving around the Yemenite Kaba====

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7116|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "The Hour will not be established till '''the buttocks of the women of the tribe of Daus move while going round Dhi-al-Khalasa'''." Dhi-al-Khalasa was the idol of the Daus tribe which they used to worship in the Pre Islamic Period of ignorance.
}}

It was interpreted metaphorically as a rise of polytheism because the idol was destroyed and the people were killed before it came true :
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2476a|reference}}|
Jabir reported that there was in pre-Islamic days a temple called '''Dhu'l- Khalasah and it was called the Yamanite Ka'ba''' or the northern Ka'ba. Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said unto me:

Will you rid me of Dhu'l-Khalasah and so I went forth at the head of 350 horsemen of the tribe of Ahmas and '''we destroyed it and killed whomsoever we found there'''. Then we came back to him (to the Holy Prophet) and informed him and he blessed us and the tribe of Ahmas.
}}

====People commonly have sex in the streets, like donkeys====
{{Quote|Sahih Ibn Hibban 6/345 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%84%D9%8E%D8%A7+%D8%AA%D9%8E%D9%82%D9%8F%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%A9%D9%8F+%D8%AD%D9%8E%D8%AA%D9%91%D9%8E%D9%89+%D9%8A%D9%8E%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8E%D8%AF%D9%8E+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%91%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8F+%D9%81%D9%90%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%91%D9%8F%D8%B1%D9%8F%D9%82%D9%90+%D8%AA%D9%8E%D8%B3%D9%8E%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8F%D8%AF%D9%8E+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%92%D8%AD%D9%8E%D9%85%D9%90%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%90</ref>|
لا تقومُ السَّاعةُ حتَّى يتسافدَ النَّاسُ في الطُّرقِ تسافُدَ الحميرِ

The Hour shall not commence until the people engage in sexual
intercourse in the streets just like donkeys.
}}

Public sex was already happening among ancient civilizations.<ref>[https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/all-about-sex/201809/orgies-through-the-ages Orgies Through the Ages]</ref>

====Rise of polytheism====
{{Quote|Sunan Abi Dawud 4252|
..the Last Hour will not come before the tribes of my people attach themselves to the polytheists and tribes of my people worship idols..
}}
Polytheism has become less popular with time.

====People will worship goddesses Lat and Uzza again====
The goddesses [[Lat]] and [[Uzza]] were worshiped by Arabs before the Islamic conquest of Arabia.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2907a|reference}}|
'A'isha reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: '''The (system) of night and day would not end until the people have taken to the worship of Lat and 'Uzza'''. I said: Allah's Messenger, I think when Allah has revealed this verse:" He it is Who has sent His Messenger with right guidance, and true religion, so that He may cause it to prevail upon all religions, though the polytheists are averse (to it)" (ix. 33), it implies that (this promise) is going to be fulfilled. Thereupon he (Allah's Apostle) said: It would happen as Allah would like. Then Allah would send the sweet fragrant air by which everyone who has even a mustard grain of faith in Him would die and those only would survive who would have no goodness in them. And they would revert to the religion of their forefathers.
}}

====All believers will be killed by a wind from Allah and only evil people (= non-Muslims) will survive====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2907a|reference}}|
'A'isha reported:

I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying: The (system) of night and day would not end until the people have taken to the worship of Lat and 'Uzza'. I said: Allah's Messenger, I think when Allah has revealed this verse:" He it is Who has sent His Messenger with right guidance, and true religion, so that He may cause it to prevail upon all religions, though the polytheists are averse (to it)" (ix. 33), it implies that (this promise) is going to be fulfilled. Thereupon he (Allah's Apostle) said: It would happen as Allah would like. '''Then Allah would send the sweet fragrant air by which everyone who has even a mustard grain of faith in Him would die''' and those only would survive who would have no goodness in them. And they would revert to the religion of their forefathers.
}}

====Killing neighbors and family members====
{{Quote|al-Adab al-Mufrad 118 (classified as "very good" by Albani)|
عَنْ أَبِي مُوسَى‏ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم‏ لاَ تَقُومُ السَّاعَةُ حَتَّى يَقْتُلَ الرَّجُلُ جَارَهُ وَأَخَاهُ وَأَبَاهُ

The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “The Hour will not be established until a man kills his neighbor, his brother, and his father.”
}}

====Abundance of deaths by lightning====
{{Quote|Musnad Ahmad, vol. 3 pg. 64/65 (sahih)|
تَكثُرُ الصَّواعِقُ عِندَ اقْتِرابِ السَّاعةِ، حتَّى يَأتيَ الرَّجُلُ القَومَ، فيقولَ: مَن صَعِقَ قِبَلَكمُ الغَداةَ؟ فيَقولون: صَعِقَ فُلانٌ وفُلانٌ.

There will be an abundance of lightning with the coming of the Hour, until a man comes to a tribe asking: Who was struck today? Then they say: So and so
}}
John Jensenius (a lightning specialist) said that the number of injuries and deaths caused by lightning is actually going down. <ref>https://www.cbsnews.com/news/are-lightning-strikes-becoming-more-common/</ref>

====Luka bin Luka will be the happiest person====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2209}} (sahih)|
Hudhaifah bin Al-Yaman narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"The Hour will not be established until the happiest of people in the world is Luka' bin Luka'."
}}

Scholars interpreted the name "Luka bin Luka" (لكع بن لكع) to mean "the most despicable/wicked/evil"<ref>https://www.islamweb.net/ar/fatwa/18510/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%89-%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB</ref> and "wickedness", rather than a specific person

====Wine, musical instruments and singing girls will turn Muslims into monkeys and pigs====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4020}}|
لَيَشْرَبَنَّ نَاسٌ مِنْ أُمَّتِي الْخَمْرَ يُسَمُّونَهَا بِغَيْرِ اسْمِهَا يُعْزَفُ عَلَى رُءُوسِهِمْ بِالْمَعَازِفِ وَالْمُغَنِّيَاتِ يَخْسِفُ اللَّهُ بِهِمُ الأَرْضَ وَيَجْعَلُ مِنْهُمُ الْقِرَدَةَ وَالْخَنَازِيرَ

It was narrated from Abu Malik Ash’ari that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
“People among my nation will drink wine, calling it by another name, and musical instruments will be played for them and singing girls (will sing for them). Allah will cause the earth to swallow them up, and will turn them into monkeys and pigs.”
}}

Since the hadith literally says "is played upon their heads with musical instruments" (يُعْزَفُ عَلَى رُءُوسِهِمْ بِالْمَعَازِفِ) some claim that it is a prediction of headphones. But it says "played", not "placed" upon their heads, the word "instruments" is in the plural form and the singing girls are obviously real singing girls, while with head phones the singing would be included in the headphones. The interpretation that the word "musical instruments" (معازف) refers to musical instruments fits much better into the context.

Muhammad himself listened to singing girls, perhaps he was in a better mood since it was the day of Eid:{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||952|darussalam}}|
Narrated Aisha:

Abu Bakr came to my house while two small Ansari girls were singing beside me the stories of the Ansar concerning the Day of Buath. And they were not singers. Abu Bakr said protestingly, "Musical instruments of Satan in the house of Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) !" It happened on the `Id day and Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "O Abu Bakr! There is an `Id for every nation and this is our `Id."
}}

Wine and singing was already mentioned in pre-Islamic Arab poetry:
{{Quote|Dhu Jadan al-Himyari, Sirat Rasul Allah p. 19|
Peace, confound you! You can't turn me from my purpose

Thy scolding dries my spittle!

To '''the music of singers''' in times past 'twas fine

When we drank our fill of purest noblest wine.

'''Drinking freely of wine brings me no shame'''

If my behaviour no boon-companion would blame.

For death no man can hold back Though he drink the perfumed potions of the quack.
}}

====Milking, clothes and tank before the Hour====
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 41:7054|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

The Last Hour would come (so sudden) that a person would be milking the she- camel and the (milk) would not reach the brim of the vessel that the Last Hour would come, and the two persons would be engaged in buying and selling of the clothes and their bargain would not be struck before the Last Hour would come. And someone would be setting his tank in order and he would have hardly set it right when the Last Hour would come.
}}

====Allah will put pieces of the world on his fingers====
Muhammad agreed with this prophecy presented by a Jewish Scholar
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim Book 39, Hadith 6699|
Abdullah b. Mas'ud reported that a Jewish scholar came to Allah's Apostle (may peace he upon him) and said:

Muhammad, or Abu al-Qasim, verily, Allah, the Exalted and Glorious would carry the Heavens on the Day of Judgment upon one finger and earths upon one finger and the mountains and trees upon one finger and the ocean and moist earth upon one finger, and in fact the whole of the creation upon one finger, and then He would stir them and say: I am your Lord, I am your Lord. Thereupon Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) smiled testifying what that scholar had said. He then recited this verse:" And they honour not Allah with the honour due to Him; and the whole earth will be in His grip on the Day of Resurrection and the heaven rolled up in His right hand. Glory be to Him I and highly Exalted is He above what they associate (with Him)" (Az-Zumar:67).
}}

====Medina banishes its evils====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||1381|reference}}|
Abu Huraira (Allah be pleased with him) reported Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) as saying:

A time will come for the people (of Medina) when a man will invite his cousin and any other near relation: Come (and settle) at (a place) where living is cheap, come to where there is plenty, but Medina will be better for them; would they know it! By Him in Whose Hand is my life, none amongst them would go out (of the city) with a dislike for it, but Allah would make his successor in it someone better than be. Behold. Medina is like furnace which eliminates from it the impurities. And '''the Last Hour will not come until Medina banishes its evils''' just as a furnace eliminates the impurities of iron.
}}
====Nobody will accept charity====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||1411|darussalam}}|
Narrated Haritha bin Wahab:

I heard the Prophet (ﷺ) saying, "O people! Give in charity as a time will come upon you when a person will wander about with his object of charity and will not find anybody to accept it, and one (who will be requested to take it) will say, "If you had brought it yesterday, would have taken it, but today I am not in need of it."
}}

====Not paying zakat will cause a lack of rain====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4019}}|
It was narrated that ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar said:
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ turned to us and said: ‘O Muhajirun, there are five things with which you will be tested, and I seek refuge with Allah lest you live to see them: Immorality never appears among a people to such an extent that they commit it openly, but plagues and diseases that were never known among the predecessors will spread among them. They do not cheat in weights and measures but they will be stricken with famine, severe calamity and the oppression of their rulers. '''They do not withhold the Zakah of their wealth, but rain will be withheld from the sky, and were it not for the animals, no rain would fall on them'''. They do not break their covenant with Allah and His Messenger, but Allah will enable their enemies to overpower them and take some of what is in their hands. Unless their leaders rule according to the Book of Allah and seek all good from that which Allah has revealed, Allah will cause them to fight one another.’”
}}

====Swelling of crescents [The Moon]====
{{Quote|Sahih Al-Jami' 5898 (sahih) and others <ref>http://hdith.com/?s=%D9%85%D9%90%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%92%D8%AA%D9%90%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%90+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%8E%D9%91%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%A9%D9%90+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%81%D9%8E%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%8F+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%87%D9%90%D9%84%D9%8E%D9%91%D8%A9%D9%90&order=color</ref>|
مِنَ اقترابِ الساعَةِ انتفاخُ الأهِلَّةِ

From approaching of the Hour is the swelling of crescents
}}

====An Abyssinian will destroy the Kaba====
{{Quote|Sahih Muslim 7:6953/2909c|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ﷺ as saying: It would be an Abyssinian having two small shanks who would destroy the House ol Allah, the Exalted and Glorious.
}}

====Collapse, transformation and stoning from the sky====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2185}} sahih|حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو كُرَيْبٍ، حَدَّثَنَا صَيْفِيُّ بْنُ رِبْعِيٍّ، عَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عُمَرَ، عَنْ عُبَيْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عُمَرَ، عَنِ الْقَاسِمِ بْنِ مُحَمَّدٍ، عَنْ عَائِشَةَ، قَالَتْ قَالَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم ‏"‏ يَكُونُ فِي آخِرِ هَذِهِ الأُمَّةِ خَسْفٌ وَمَسْخٌ وَقَذْفٌ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَتْ قُلْتُ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ أَنَهْلِكُ وَفِينَا الصَّالِحُونَ قَالَ ‏"‏ نَعَمْ إِذَا ظَهَرَ الْخَبَثُ ‏"‏ ‏.‏ قَالَ أَبُو عِيسَى هَذَا حَدِيثٌ غَرِيبٌ مِنْ حَدِيثِ عَائِشَةَ لاَ نَعْرِفُهُ إِلاَّ مِنْ هَذَا الْوَجْهِ ‏.‏ وَعَبْدُ اللَّهِ بْنُ عُمَرَ تَكَلَّمَ فِيهِ يَحْيَى بْنُ سَعِيدٍ مِنْ قِبَلِ حِفْظِهِ ‏.‏

'Aishah narrated "The Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
'In the end of this Ummah there will be a collapse, transformation, and Qadhf."' She said :"I said: 'O Messenger of Allah! Will they be destroyed while they are righteous among them?' He said: 'Yes, when evil is dominant."'
}}

It's just three vague words خَسْفٌ وَمَسْخٌ وَقَذْفٌ (khasf and maskh and qadhf). Tafsir:
{{Quote|Al-Munawi - Fayd al-Qadir|
3176 - (بين يدي الساعة مسخ) قلب الخلقة من شيء إلى شيء أو تحويل الصورة إلى أقبح منها أو مسخ القلوب (وخسف) أي غور في الأرض (وقذف) أي رمي بالحجارة من جهة السماء

maskh - transformation of creation from its shape to an uglier one

khasf - a depression in the Earth

qadhf - pelting with stones from the sky

}}

====Euphrates will uncover a mountain of gold soon====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7119|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "'''Soon the river "Euphrates" will disclose the treasure (the mountain) of gold''', so whoever will be present at that time should not take anything of it." Al-A'raj narrated from Abii Huraira that the Prophet (ﷺ) said the same but he said, "It (Euphrates) will uncover a mountain of gold (under it).
}}
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2894a|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger ﷺ as saying: The Last Hour would not come before the Euphrates uncovers a mountain of gold, for which people would fight. Ninety-nine out of each one hundred would die but every man amongst them would say that perhaps he would be the one who would be saved (and thus possess this gold).
}}

No mountain of gold was found uncovered by the Euphrates soon thereafter, let alone an exceptionally deadly conflict over the ownership of such gold. There is a gold mine more than a kilometer from the Euphrates which is claimed to fulfil the prophecy (the Copler mine in Erzincan province, Turkey). This was neither uncovered by the Euphrates, nor is it a mountain, nor has there been a deadly scramble to possess it.

The hadith prophecy is simply one adapted from the well known Biblical apocalypse, [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2016&version=NIV Revelation 16:12], "The sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates, and its water was dried up to prepare the way for the kings from the East." In Revelation, this occurs in the context of a series of bowls of wrath poured out in highly symbolic language. The meaning is very obviously not literal.

====Gender ratio will be 50 women to 1 men====
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||81|darussalam}}|
I will narrate to you a Hadith and none other than I will tell you about after it. I heard Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) saying: From among the portents of the Hour are (the following): -1. Religious knowledge will decrease (by the death of religious learned men). -2. Religious ignorance will prevail. -3. There will be prevalence of open illegal sexual intercourse. -4. '''Women will increase in number and men will decrease in number so much so that fifty women will be looked after by one man.'''
}}

====Knowledge will be sought from young people====
{{Quote|al-Mu’jam al-Kabīr 908 (sahih)|
عَنْ أَبِي أُمَيَّةَ اللَّخْمِيِّ أَنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَالَ إِنَّ مِنْ أَشْرَاطِ السَّاعَةِ ثَ أَنْ يُلْتَمَسَ الْعِلْمَ عِنْدَ الْأَصَاغِرِ

The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Verily, among the signs of the Hour is that knowledge will be sought from the young.”
}}

====Seventy-three sects====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||5|38|2640}} (hasan)|
Narrated Abu Hurairah:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "The Jews split into seventy-one sects, or seventy-two sects, and the Christians similarly, and my Ummah will split into seventy-three sects."
}}

====Emergence of Sufyani====
This hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|al-Mustadrak 4/520 (da'eef)|
يخرج رجل يقال له السفياني في عمق دمشق ، وعامة من يتبعه من كلب ، فيقتل حتى يبقر بطون النساء ويقتل الصبيان ، فتجمع لهم قيس فيقتلها حتى لا يمنع ذنب تلعة ، ويخرج رجل من أهل بيتي في الحرة فيبلغ السفياني فيبعث إليه جنداً من جنده فيهزمهم ، فيسير إليه السفياني بمن معه ، حتى إذا صار ببيداء من الأرض خسف بهم ، فلا ينجو منهم إلا المخبر عنهم

There will emerge a man called as-Sufyaani from the depths of Damascus, and most of those who follow him will be from (the tribe of) Kalb. He will kill many people until he rips open the bellies of women and kill children. (The tribe of) Qays will gather against him and he will kill them. A man from my family will emerge in the harrah, and news of that will reach as-Sufyaani. He will send troops against him and he will defeat them. Then as-Sufyaani will march towards him accompanied by those who are with him, then when he is in a plain, they will be swallowed up by the earth and none of them will be saved except the one who will tell others about them.
}}

====Muslims in mosque won't find an imam to lead them in prayer====
This hadith is da'eef:
{{Quote|Sunan Abu Dawud Book 2, Hadith 581, chapter It Is Disliked To Refuse The Position Of Imam|
Narrated Sulamah daughter of al-Hurr:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) say: One of the signs of the Last Hour will be that people in a mosque will refuse to act as imam and will not find an imam to lead them in prayer.
}}

 
{{Quote|{{Al Nasai||1|10|783}} chapter "When people are together and are all of the same status"|
It was narrated from Abu Sa'eed that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"when there are three people let one of them lead the prayer, and the one who is most entitled to lead the prayer is the one who has most knowledge of the Qur'an."
}}

This prophecy was included in a chapter called "It Is Disliked To Refuse The Position Of Imam", and is perhaps best understood as a sort of moral exhortation to lead prayer when a prayer needs to be led.

====Dajjal nor plague will be able to enter Medina====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||4|31|2242}} (sahih)|
Anas narrated that the Messenger of Allah(s.a.w) said:
"The Dajjal will come to Al-Madinah to find the angels have surrounded it. Neither the plague nor the Dajjal will enter it, if Allah wills."
}}Medina, historically, has not proven to be especially or at all plague-proof. Moreover, during plagues, the Saudi government (and the caliphates, historically) had to close off access to Mecca and Medina to prevent the spread of disease.

====Jesus will break the cross, kill the pigs and abolish Jizyah====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4078}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Prophet (ﷺ) said:
"The Hour will not begin until 'Eisa bin Maryam comes down as a just judge and a just ruler. He will break the cross, kill the pigs and abolish the Jizyah, and wealth will become so abundant that no one will accept it."
}}

====Gog and Magog will drink out the lake of Tiberias====
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2937a|reference}}|
And then Allah would send Gog and Magog and they would swarm down from every slope. The first of them would pass the lake of Tiberias and drink out of it. And when the last of them would pass, he would say: There was once water there.
}}

Gog and Magog are described in the hadith and Quran as tribes on Earth blocked by a big iron wall, erected by
[[Category:Dhul-Qarnayn|Dhul-Qarnayn]]
, that will be unlocked at the end of times. There are supposed to be so many of them that they will drink the entire lake of Tiberias (Sea of Galilee) dry.

====Gog and Magog will successfully dig through the wall====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4080}}|
It was narrated from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
"Gog and Magog people dig every day until, when they can almost see the rays of the sun, the one in charge of them says: "Go back and we will dig it tomorrow." Then Allah puts it back, stronger than it was before. (This will continue) until, when their time has come, and Allah wants to send them against the people, they will dig until they can almost see the rays of the sun, then the one who is in charge of them will say: "Go back, and we will dig it tomorrow if Allah wills.' So '''they will say: "If Allah wills." Then they will come back to it and it will be as they left it. So they will dig and will come out to the people''', and they will drink all the water. The people will fortify themselves against them in their fortresses. They will shoot their arrows towards the sky and they will come back with blood on them, and they will say: "We have defeated the people of earth and dominated the people of heaven." Then Allah will send a worm in the napes of their necks and will kill them thereby.'" The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: "By the One in Whose Hand is my soul, the beasts of the earth will grow fat on their flesh."
}}

====Muslims will use bows, arrows and shields of Gog and Magog as firewood for 7 years====
{{Quote|{{Ibn Majah||5|36|4076}} (sahih)|
It was narrated from Nawwas bin Sam'an that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:
"The Muslims will use the bows, arrows and shields of Gog and Magog as firewood, for seven years.'"
}}

==See also==

*[[Quranic Prophecies]]

External:

*[https://www.marefa.org/%D8%B9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85 List of Muhammad's prophecies] (Arabic)
*[https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Biblical_prophecies#Criteria_for_a_true_prophecy RationalWiki: Biblical prophecies, Criteria for a true prophecy] (could be analogically applied to Islamic prophecies)
*[https://detechter.com/15-ancient-hindu-predictions-that-have-come-true/#List_of_15_Ancient_Hindu_Prophecy_From_Bhagavata_Purana 15 Hindu predictions] - ''Comparing and contrasting Islamic prophecies with those of other religions' scriptures predictions is instructive''

==References==

[[Category:Prophecies]]
<references />
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Eschatology]]
[[Category:Revelation]]
[[Category:Qadr (fate)]]

Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Health and Hygiene

2026-02-21T23:03:24Z

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{{QuranHadithScholarsIndex}}
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The Islamic texts at the core of the tradition evince a sense of ritual cleanliness. Much of it is healthy practise even today, and especially by the standards of the time. Others traditions provide guidance which is divorced from the modern theory of germ-based illness, even in some cases potentially dangerous (particuarly narrations concerning the well of Buda'ad). Certain actions, such as answering the call of nature or interacting with dogs, are ritually unclean and require ritual cleansing, which should be with water (without the necessity of soap) but can also be with dirt if water is unavailable; meanwhile, other actions which from a modern perspective would be dirty, such as interacting with the saliva of the prophet, are seen as clean owing to their ritual purity. Others are harmless but of no obvious benefit such as dipping a house fly in a drink if it lands in it.

Ablutions (wudu) five times each day with water is instructed before prayers. Washing the relevant body parts with water is also instructed in other circumstances such as following a call of nature or urination. If not available, pebbles, sand or earth may be used. A full body wash (ghusl, ritual bath) is to be performed after sexual intercourse, orgasm or completion of a menstral cycle, as well as less common events such as touching a dead body. It is also recommended before certain ritual events such as Friday prayers, Eid, or entering the state of Ihram before pilgrimage.

==Ablution==
{{Quote|{{Quran|5|6}}|O ye who believe! When ye rise up for prayer, wash you faces, and your hands up to the elbows, and lightly rub your heads and (wash) your feet up to the ankles. And if ye are unclean, purify yourselves. And if ye are sick or on a journey, or one of you cometh from the closet, or ye have had contact with women, and ye find not water, then go to clean, high ground and rub your faces and your hands with some of it. Allah would not place a burden on you, but He would purify you and would perfect His grace upon you, that ye may give thanks.}}

{{quote|{{Quran|4|43}}|O ye who believe! Approach not prayers with a mind befogged, until ye can understand all that ye say,- nor in a state of ceremonial impurity (Except when travelling on the road), until after washing your whole body. If ye are ill, or on a journey, or one of you cometh from offices of nature, or ye have been in contact with women, '''and ye find no water, then take for yourselves clean sand or earth, and rub therewith your faces and hands.''' For Allah doth blot out sins and forgive again and again. }}
{{quote|{{Bukhari|||4583|darussalam}}| Narrated 'Aisha 

The necklace of Asma' was lost, so the Prophet sent some men to look for it. The time for the prayer became due and they had not performed ablution and could not find water, so they offered the prayer without ablution. Then Allah revealed (the Verse of Tayammum). }}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||227a|reference}}|Humran, the freed slave of 'Uthman, said: Uthman b. 'Affan called for ablution water and this is how he performed the ablution. He washed his hands thrice. He then rinsed his mouth and cleaned his nose with water (three times). He then washed his face three times, then washed his right arm up to the elbow three times, then washed his left arm like that, then wiped his head; then washed his right foot up to the ankle three times, then washed his left foot like that, and then said: I saw the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) perform ablution like this ablution of mine. Then the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: He who performs ablution like this ablution of mine and then stood up (for prayer) and offered two rak'ahs of prayer without allowing his thoughts to be distracted, all his previous sins are expiated. Ibn Shihab said: Our scholars remarked: This is the most complete of the ablutions performed for prayer. }}

==Cleanliness is half of faith==

{{Quote|{{Muslim||223|reference}}|Abu Malik at-Ash'ari reported: The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said : Cleanliness is half of faith and al-Hamdu Liliah (Praise be to Allah) fills the scale, and Subhan Allah (Glory be to Allah) and al-Hamdu Liliah (Praise be to Allah) fill upwhat is between the heavens and the earth, and prayer is a light, and charity is proof (of one's faith) and endurance is a brightness and the Holy Qur'an is a proof on your behalf or against you. All men go out early in the morning and sell themselves, thereby setting themselves free or destroying themselves. }}

==Call of Nature==

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||156|darussalam}}| Narrated Abdullah: The Prophet went out to answer the call of nature and asked me to bring three stones. I found two stones and searched for the third but could not find it. So I took a dried piece of dung and brought it to him. He took the two stones and threw away the dung and said, "This is a filthy thing."}}

Muhammed believed that urine is impure and that being defiled by urine will result in damnation:
{{Quote|{{Muslim||292a|reference}}|Ibn Abbas reported: The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) happened to pass by two graves and said: They (their occupants) are being tormented, but they are not tormented for a grievous sin. One of them carried tales and '''the other did not keep himself safe from being defiled by urine.''' He then called for a fresh twig and split it into two parts, and planted them on each grave and then said: Perhaps, their punishment way be mitigated as long as these twigs remain fresh.}}

However, drinking camel urine for medicinal purposes is fine.
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5686|darussalam}}|The climate of Medina did not suit some people, so the Prophet ordered them to follow his shepherd, i.e. his camels, and drink their milk and urine (as a medicine). So they followed the shepherd that is the camels and drank their milk and urine till their bodies became healthy.}}

==Toothbrushing==
{{Quote|{{Muslim||253b|reference}}|'A'isha reported: Whenever Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) entered his house, he used tooth-stick first of all. }}

==Clothes==
{{quote|{{Bukhari|||5468|darussalam}}| Narrated 'Aisha 

A boy was brought to the Prophet to do Tahnik for him, but the boy urinated on him, whereupon the Prophet had water poured on the place of urine.|See also: {{Bukhari|||5692|darussalam}} & {{Muwatta|2|2|31|111}} }}

{{quote|{{Muslim||291a|reference}}|
Asma (daughter of Abu Bakr) reported: A woman came to the Apostle of Allah (may peace be upon him) and said: What should one do if the blood of menses smears the garment of one amongst us? He (the Holy Prophet) replied: She should scrape it, then rub it with water, then pour water over it and then offer prayer in it.|See also: {{Bukhari|||227|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||307|darussalam}} & {{Bukhari|||308|darussalam}} }}

==Food==

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5456|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: The Prophet said, 'When you eat, do not wipe your hands till you have licked it, '''or had it licked by somebody else'''."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||235|darussalam}}| Narrated Maimuna: 
Allah's Apostle was asked regarding ghee (cooking butter) in which a mouse had fallen. He said, "Take out the mouse and throw away the ghee around it and use the rest."}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||279a|reference}}|Abu Huraira reported the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) to have said: When a dog licks a utensil belonging to any one of you, (the thing contained in it) should be thrown away and then (the utensil) should be washed seven times.|See Also {{Muslim||279b|reference}}, {{Muslim||279c|reference}}, {{Muslim||279d|reference}}, {{Muslim||279e|reference}}, {{Muslim||280a|reference}}, {{Muwatta|2|6|36|}}}}

{{Quote|1=[http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/78438 Islam Q&A - Fatwa #78438]|2=
Swallowing bits of food that may be left between the teeth is regarded as eating, so it invalidates
the fast...

Ibn Qudaamah (may Allaah have mercy on him) said in al-Mughni, 3/260:

If a person has food between his teeth, one of the following two scenarios must apply:

1 – It is a small amount that he cannot spit out, so he swallows it. This does not invalidate his fast, because it cannot be avoided. It is like saliva. Ibn al-Mundhir said: The scholars are unanimously agreed on that.

2 – It is a large amount and he can spit it out. If he spits it out there is no sin on him, but if he swallows it deliberately, his fast is invalidated according to the majority of scholars, because he has swallowed food that he could have spat out willingly when he is mindful of his fast. So this breaks the fast just as if he deliberately started eating. End quote.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3832|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas ibn Malik:

When the Prophet (peace be upon him) was brought some old dates, he began to examine them and remove the worms from them.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||3833|darussalam}}|Number Narrated Abdullah ibn AbuTalhah:

The Prophet (peace be upon him) was brought some dates which contained worms. He then mentioned the rest of the tradition to the same effect as the previous (No 3823).}}

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|||4102|darussalam}}|Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah:

When the Trench was dug, I saw the Prophet in the state of severe hunger. So I returned to my wife and said, "Have you got anything (to eat), for I have seen Allah's Apostle in a state of severe hunger." She brought out for me, a bag containing one Sa of barley, and we had a domestic she animal (i.e. a kid) which I slaughtered then, and my wife ground the barley and she finished at the time I finished my job (i.e. slaughtering the kid). Then I cut the meat into pieces and put it in an earthenware (cooking) pot, and returned to Allah's Apostle . My wife said, "Do not disgrace me in front of Allah's Apostle and those who are with him." So I went to him and said to him secretly, "O Allah's Apostle! I have slaughtered a she-animal (i.e. kid) of ours, and we have ground a Sa of barley which was with us. So please come, you and another person along with you." The Prophet raised his voice and said, "O people of Trench ! Jabir has prepared a meal so let us go." Allah's Apostle said to me, "Don't put down your earthenware meat pot (from the fireplace) or bake your dough till I come." So I came (to my house) and Allah's Apostle too, came, proceeding before the people. When I came to my wife, she said, "May Allah do so-and-so to you." I said, "I have told the Prophet of what you said." '''Then she brought out to him (i.e. the Prophet the dough, and he spat in it and invoked for Allah's Blessings in it. Then he proceeded towards our earthenware meat-pot and spat in it and invoked for Allah's Blessings in it.''' Then he said (to my wife). Call a lady-baker to bake along with you and keep on taking out scoops from your earthenware meat-pot, and do not put it down from its fireplace." They were one-thousand (who took their meals), and by Allah they all ate, and when they left the food and went away, our earthenware pot was still bubbling (full of meat) as if it had not decreased, and our dough was still being baked as if nothing had been taken from it.}}

==Lice==
{{quote|{{Abu Dawud||3080|darussalam}}|Narrated Zaynab: '''She was picking lice from the head of the Apostle of Allah''' (peace be upon him) while the wife of Uthman ibn Affan and the immigrant women were with him. They complained about their houses that they had been narrowed down to them and they were evicted from them. The Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) ordered that the houses of the Immigrants should be given to their wives. Thereafter Abdullah ibn Mas'ud died, and his wife inherited his house in Medina.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7001|darussalam}}| Narrated Anas bin Malik:

Allah's Apostle used to visit Um Haram bint Milhan she was the wife of 'Ubada bin As-Samit. One day the Prophet visited her and she provided him with food and '''started looking for lice in his head'''. Then Allah's Apostle slept and afterwards woke up smiling.}}

==Semen==

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||232|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha: I used to wash the semen off the clothes of the Prophet and even then I used to notice one or more spots on them.}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||290|reference}}|Abdullah b. Shihab al-Khaulani reported: I stayed in the house of 'A'isha and had a wet dream (and perceived its effect on my garment), so (in the morning) I dipped both (the clothes) in water. This (act of mine) was watched by a maid-servant of A'isha and she informed her. She (Hadrat A'isha) sent me a message: What prompted you to act like this with your clothes? He (the narrator) said: I told that I saw in a dream what a sleeper sees. She said: Did you find (any mark of the fluid) on your clothes? I said: No. She said: Had you found anything you should have washed it. '''In case I found that (semen) on the garment of the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) dried up, I scraped it off with my nails.'''|See Also {{Muslim||288a|reference}}, {{Muslim||288b|reference}}, {{Muslim||288c|reference}}, {{Muslim||288d|reference}}, {{Muslim||289a|reference}}, {{Muslim||289b|reference}}}}

==Spitting==
{{quote|{{Bukhari|||405|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik 

The Prophet saw some sputum in the direction of the Qibla (on the wall of the mosque) and he disliked that and the sign of disgust was apparent from his face. So he got up and scraped it off with his hand and said, "Whenever anyone of you stands for the prayer, he is speaking in private to his Lord or his Lord is between him and his Qibla. So, none of you should spit in the direction of the Qibla but one can spit to the left or under his foot." The Prophet then took the corner of his sheet and spat in it and folded it and said, "Or you can do like this. "|See also: {{Bukhari|||406|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||407|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||408|darussalam}} & {{Bukhari|||410|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||414|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||417|darussalam}} }}

{{quote|{{Bukhari|||413|darussalam}}| Narrated Anas bin Malik: The Prophet said, "A faithful believer while in prayer is speaking in private to his Lord, so he should neither spit in front of him nor to his right side but he could spit either on his left or under his foot." |See also: {{Bukhari|||412|darussalam}} & {{Bukhari|||416|darussalam}} }}

{{quote|{{Bukhari|||241|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas 
The Prophet once spat in his clothes.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6986|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Qatada: The Prophet said, "A good dream that comes true is from Allah, and a bad dream is from Satan, so if anyone of you sees a bad dream, he should seek refuge with Allah from Satan and should spit on the left, for the bad dream will not harm him."}}

==Water==

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||63|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah ibn Umar:
The Prophet (peace be upon him), was asked about water (in desert country) and what is frequented by animals and wild beasts. He replied: '''When there is enough water to fill two pitchers, it bears no impurity'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||68|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas:
One of the wives of the Prophet (peace be upon him) took a bath from a large bowl. The Prophet (peace be upon him) wanted to perform ablution or take from the water left over. She said to him: O Prophet of Allah, verily I was sexually defiled. The Prophet said: Water not defiled.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||69|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Hurairah :

The Prophet ( sal Allaahu alayhi wa sallam ) said : None amongst you should urinate in stagnant water, and then wash in it.}}

{{Quote|1={{Bukhari|||4151|darussalam}}|2=Narrated Al-Bara bin Azib: That they were in the company of Allah's Apostle on the day of Al-Hudaibiya and their number was 1400 or more. They camped at a well and drew its water till it was dried. When they informed Allah's Apostle of that, he came and sat over its edge and said, '''"Bring me a bucket of its water." When it was brought, he spat and invoked (Allah) and said, "Leave it for a while." Then they quenched their thirst''' and watered their riding animals (from that well) till they departed.}}

{{Quote| {{Bukhari|||376|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Juhaifa:

I saw Allah's Apostle in a red leather tent and '''I saw Bilal taking the remaining water with which the Prophet had performed ablution. I saw the people taking the utilized water impatiently and whoever got some of it rubbed it on his body and those who could not get any took the moisture from the others' hands.''' Then I saw Bilal carrying an 'Anza (a spear-headed stick) which he planted in the ground. The Prophet came out tucking up his red cloak, and led the people in prayer and offered two Rakat (facing the Ka'ba) taking 'Anza as a Sutra for his prayer. I saw the people and animals passing in front of him beyond the 'Anza.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3320|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said "If a house fly falls in the drink of anyone of you, he should dip it (in the drink), for one of its wings has a disease and the other has the cure for the disease."}}

Water mixed with dead dogs and menstrual clothes is still considered clean.
{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||66|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuSa'id al-Khudri:

The people asked the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): Can we perform ablution out of the well of Buda'ah, which is a well into which menstrual clothes, dead dogs and stinking things were thrown? He replied: Water is pure and is not defiled by anything.| }}

However, eating or drinking water while standing is forbidden.
{{Quote|{{Muslim||2024b|reference}}|Anas reported that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) forbade that a person should drink while standing. Qatada reported: We said to him: What about eating? Thereupon he (Anas) said: That is even worse and more detestable (abominable).}}

{{quote|{{Bukhari|||5383|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha 
The Prophet died when we had satisfied our hunger with the two black things, i.e. dates and water.}}

==Miscellaneous==

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2259|reference}}|Abu Sa`id Khudri reported: We were going with Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him). As we reached the place (known as) Arj there met (us) a poet who had been reciting poetry. Thereupon Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: Catch the satan or detain the satan, for filling the belly of a man with pus is better than stuffing his brain with poetry.}}

{{quote|{{Bukhari|||310|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Aisha 

"One of the wives of Allah's Apostle joined him in l'tikaf and she noticed blood and yellowish discharge (from her private parts) and put a dish under her when she prayed."}}

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Health|Health}}

{{Hub4|Hygiene|Hygiene}}

[[Category:QHS]]
[[Category:Health]]
[[Category:Hygiene]]
[[ar:القرآن_والحديث_والعلماء:_الصحة_والنظافة]]