WikiIslam - User contributions [en]

Osama bin Laden

2025-12-11T18:55:15Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=1|Language=1|References=3}}

Saifullah '''Osama bin Laden''' (March 10, 1957 – May 2, 2011) was the head and founder of the Islamic terrorist organization [[Al-Qaeda|Al Qaeda]], who were behind the [[September 11 Attacks|9/11]] attacks on the United States which led to the deaths of over 3,000 people and ignited a global conflict often referred to as the "War on Terror."

Bin Laden studied [[Islam]] at King Abdul-Aziz University under Muhammad Qutb<ref>[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/RL33038.pdf Origins of Al Qaeda], page 4 of 14, 17 August 2005</ref> (the yournger brother of Sayyid Qutb) and Sheikh Dr. Abdullah Azzam. Abdullah Azzam had a doctorate in Islamic law from Al-Azhar University. There are also reports that indicate he studied civil engineering there.

In 2011, bin Laden was killed in his mansion by a team of Americans in a covert operation in Abbottabad, Pakistan, about 50 km (31 mi) north of Islamabad.
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{stub}}
[[Category:Jihadists]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Salafism]]

Aisha bint Abi Bakr

2025-12-11T18:54:28Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=4|Structure=4|Content=1|Language=3|References=2}}
[[Category:Aisha]]
{{Infobox Person|name=ʿĀʾishah bint Abī Bakr|image=Aisha.png|date_of_birth=c. 614 CE|birth_place=[[Mecca]], Hijaz, Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia)|death_date=c. 678 (aged around 64)|death_place=Jannat al-Baqi, [[Medina]], Hejaz, Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia)|title=Mother of the Believers|spouse=[[Muhammad ibn Abdullah]]|relations=[[Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Uthman]], Umm Ruman|other_names=Umm Abdullah}}

'''Aisha bint Abi Bakr''' was Muhammad's third and favorite [[Muhammad's Marriages|wife]], who was married to Muhammad at the [[Aisha's Age|age of six]], and the daughter of [[Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Uthman|Abu Bakr Abdullah b. Uthman]], Muhammad's best friend. It is reported that following the death of [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah b. Khuwaylid]], Muhammad's first wife, a female companion by the name of Khawla b. Hakim (the wife of one of Muhammad's domestic aides) suggested and then arranged Muhammad's marriage to both Aisha and Sawda b. Zama (a widow around the age of 30). Aisha's arranged marriage with another man by the name of Jubayr b. Mut'im was canceled, she was wed to Muhammad, and the marriage was consummated when Aisha was [[Aisha's Age|nine years old]]. Despite Muhammad marrying and enslaving several other women of noteworthy beauty throughout his lifetime, Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife till the day [[Muhammad's Death|he died]] and is reported to have held him in her lap as he passed away: "Allah took him unto Him while his head was between my chest and my neck and his saliva was mixed with my saliva."<ref>{{Bukhari|||5217|darussalam}}</ref> As with all of Muhammad's wives, she is given the title "Mother of the Believers", which derives from a verse in the Quran.<ref>{{Quran|33|6}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam|publisher=E.J. Brill|volume=1 A-B|editor1=H.A.R. Gibb|editor2=J.H. Kramers|editor3=E. Levi-Provencal|editor4=J. Schacht|edition=New Edition [2nd]|location=Leiden|chapter='A'isha Bint Abi Bakr|pages=307-308|publication-date=1986|isbn=90 04 08114 3}}</ref>

During Muhammad's lifetime, Aisha was the focal point of a controversy known as ''al-Ifk'' ("The Lie")<ref>{{Quran|24|11}}</ref> from which she was ultimately exonerated by the [[Qur'an|Quran]].<ref>{{Quran-range|24|11|20}}</ref> The controversy revolved around her having been alone with a handsome man by name of Safwan b. al-Muattal al-Sulami for some period of time when she had fallen behind a caravan and Safwan, himself behind the caravan, had led her back to the caravan.

Aisha was also the co-leader of one of what had become two rivaling parties among the prophet's wives and concubines. Aisha led this party alongside another one of Muhammad's wives named Hafsa, the daughter of [[Umar ibn Al-Khattab]] (Muhammad's second best friend). While the impact of this rivalry was probably minimal, Aisha was also one of the more jealous of Muhammad's wives, and she participated in household squabbles recounted in the hadiths on multiple occasions.<ref name=":0" />

Aisha played little to no role in governmental affairs during the rule of Muhammad and the first two [[Caliph|caliphs]] (Abu Bakr and Umar). During the conflict that gave rise to and followed the assassination of the third caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]], however, Aisha led a campaign alongside the companion Talha ibn Ubaydullah and Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr against [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] (Muhammad's cousin), who had claimed the caliphate, and other opponents of Uthman. Aisha's party lost the ensuing battle, known as the Battle of the Camel, yet Aisha was dealt with respectfully while Talha and al-Zubayr both lost their lives.<ref name=":0" />

==In scripture==

===In the hadith===

====Knowledge====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3883}}|Narrated Abu Musa: "'''Never was a Hadith unclear''' to us - the Companions of the Messenger of Allah - and we asked 'Aishah, '''except that we found some knowledge concerning it with her'''." Grade: Hasan (Darussalam)}}

====Favor with angels====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3881}}|Narrated 'Aishah [may Allah be pleased with her]:
that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said: '''"O 'Aishah! Here is Jibril and he is giving Salam to you."''' She said: "I said: 'And upon him be peace and the mercy of Allah, and His blessings. '''You see that which we do not.''''" Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3880}}|Narrated 'Aishah: that '''Jibril came to the Prophet (ﷺ) with her image upon a piece of green silk cloth''', and he said: "This is your wife in the world, and in the Hereafter." Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}

====Jealousy====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3875}}|Narrated 'Aishah: "'''I was not jealous of any wife of the Prophet (ﷺ) as I was jealous of Khadijah''', and it was not because I did not see her. It was only '''because the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) mentioned her so much''', and because whenever he would slaughter a sheep, he would look for Khadijah's friends to give them some of it." Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}

====Muhammad's favorite====
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3879}}|Narrated 'Aishah: '''"The people used to give their gifts [to the Prophet (ﷺ)] on 'Aishah's day."''' She said: "So my companions gathered with Umm Salamah and they said 'O Umm Salamah! The people give their gifts on 'Aishah's day, and we desire good as 'Aishah desires, so tell the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) to order the people to give (their gifts to) him no matter where he is.' So Umm Salamah said that, and he turned away from her. Then he turned back to her and she repeated the words saying: 'O Messenger of Allah! My companions have mentioned that the people give their gifts on 'Aishah's day, so order the people to give them no matter where you are.' So upon the third time she said that, he said: 'O Umm Salamah! '''Do not bother me about 'Aishah! For Revelation has not been sent down upon me while I was under the blankets of a woman among you other than her.''''" Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|46|3886}}|Narrated 'Amr bin Al-'As:
that he said to the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ): '''"Who is the most beloved of the people to you?" He said: "'Aishah."''' He said: "From the men?" He said: "Her farther [Abu Bakr]." Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}

==Marriage to Muhammad==

===Age===
{{Main|Aisha's Age|Child Marriage in Islamic Law}}

====Marriage====

====Consummation====

==Personal life==

===Relationship with Muhammad===

===Relationships with co-wives===

===Accusation of adultery (''al-Ifk'', or "The Lie)===

===Muhammad's death===
{{Main|Muhammad's Death}}

===Aisha's death===

==Political career==

===First and second caliphate===

===Third caliphate===

===The Fitna===

==Religious views and influence==

===Influence on Islam===

===Adult suckling===
{{Main|Adult Suckling}}

==Sunni and Shi'i perspectives==

==Modern revisionary perspectives==

==See Also==

*[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]
*[[Aisha's Age]]
*[[Shi'ism]]
*[[Adult Suckling]]
*[[Child Marriage in Islamic Law]]

==References==
<references />
{{stub}}

[[Category:Stubs]]
[[Category:Muhammad's wives and concubines]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Child Marriage]]
[[Category:Sahabah (companions)]]
[[Category:Muhammad's contemporaries]]
[[Category:Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House)]]

Al-Ghazali

2025-12-11T18:52:36Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=1}}

{{Infobox_Person
| name = Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad aṭ-Ṭūsī al-Ġaz(z)ālī
| residence =
| other_names =
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = c. 1058
| birth_place = Tus, Greater Khorasan, Seljuq Empire
| death_date = 1111
| death_place = Tus, Greater Khorasan, Seljuq Empire
| death_cause =
| known =
| occupation = philosopher, theologian, jurist, mystic
| title =
| salary =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| boards =
| religion = [[Sunni]]
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| relations =
| notable_works = Revival of the Religious Sciences Incoherence of the Philosophers Deliverance from Error The Alchemy of Happiness Disciplining the Soul The Eternity of the World The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief 
| website =
| footnotes =
| employer = Nizam al-Mulk; Nizamiyyah Madrassa, Baghdad
| height =
| weight =
}}

al-Ghazali (ٱلْغَزَّالِيُّ) was a Persian Islamic scholar and one of the most prominent philosophers, Ash'arite theologians, Shafi'i jurists, and mystics of [[Sunni]] Islam. He is widely considered a mujaddid (one of the centennial revivers of Islam predicted by [[Muhammad]]), and he enjoys immense authority in the Sunni Islamic tradition. His ''magnum opus'' was the ''Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn'' ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences"), through which he advanced the "spiritual sciences" as central to Islam. He is equally well known for his ''Tahāfut al-Falāsifa'' ("Incoherence of the Philosophers"), in which he critiqued Aristotelianism in particular and philosophy more generally.<ref><nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/al-ghazali/</nowiki></ref>

==Life==
Ghazali famously studied with al-Juwayni, considered the greatest scholar of his time<ref>Griffel, Frank (2009). ''Al-Ghazālī's Philosophical Theology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN <bdi>9780195331622</bdi>.</ref>, in Nishapur. He went on to join the court of Nizam al-Mulk, who was a vizier of the Seljuk sultans, in 1085. His success as a scholar and resulting prominence led to his appointment at the prestigious Nizamiyya madrasa in Baghdad in 1091.

After four years at the Madrassa, al-Ghazali, experiencing a spiritual crisis and verging on atheism, abandoned his madrasa post and adopted an ascetic lifestyle, while telling his family and employers that he was "going on Hajj." Having made financial arrangements for his family, however, al-Ghazali would disappear indefinitely.

During this period of his life, starting in 1095, Ghazali focused on spiritual development exclusively and abstained from scholarly work for at least a year. By 1096, however, Ghazali was publishing once again, though he continued to avoid working as a teacher at state-funded schools.

Pressure from the grand vizier would eventually bring him back to work at the Nizamiyya by 1106. He died in the year 1111.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

==Al-Ghazali's views on women==
He wrote the following rules about women:

*She should stay at home and focus on domestic housework.
*She can go out only in emergencies.
*She must not be well-informed nor must she be communicative with her neighbors; she should only visit them when absolutely necessary.
*She should take care of her husband, respect him in his presence and his absence, and seek to satisfy him in everything.
*She must not leave her house without his permission, and if given his permission, she must leave secretly. She should put on old clothes and take deserted streets and alleys, avoid markets, and make sure that a stranger does not hear her voice or her footsteps, nor smell her or recognize her.
*She must not speak to a friend of her husband even in need.
*Her sole worry should be her “al-bud” (reproductive organs), her home, her prayers, and her fasting.
*If a friend of her husband calls when her husband is absent, she must not open the door, nor reply to him, in order to safeguard her “al-bud.”
*She should accept what her husband gives her as sufficient.
*She should be clean and ready to satisfy her husband’s sexual needs at any moment.<ref>''The Revival of the Religious Sciences'' Al Ghazzali</ref>

He wrote: “It is a fact that all the trials, misfortunes and woes which befall men come from women."

He also wrote: “When Eve ate the fruit which Allah had forbidden to her from the tree in Paradise, the Lord, be He praised, cursed women with eighteen punishments":

*menstruation
*childbirth
*separation from mother and father and marriage to a stranger
*pregnancy
*not having control over her own person
*a lesser share in inheritance
*her liability to be divorced and inability to divorce
*it being lawful for men to have four wives, but for a woman to have only one husband
*the fact that she must stay secluded in the house
*the fact that she must keep her head covered inside the house
*the fact that two women’s testimony has to be set against the testimony of one man
*the fact that she must not go out of the house unless accompanied by a near relative
*the fact that men take part in Friday and feast day prayers and funerals while women do not
*disqualification for leadership and judgeship
*the fact that merit has one thousand components, only one of which is attributable to women while 999 are attributable to men
*the fact that if women are profligate, they will be given twice as much torment as the rest of the community on Resurrection Day
*the fact that if their husbands die, they must observe a waiting period of four months and ten days before remarrying<ref>''Counsel for Kings''. Al Ghazzali.</ref>
*the fact that if their husbands divorce them, they must observe a waiting period of three months or three menstrual periods before remarrying

The following quotes further illustrate his views on women:{{Quote||Marriage is a form of slavery. The woman is man’s slave and her duty therefore is absolute obedience to the husband in all that he asks of her person. A woman, who at the moment of death enjoys the full approval of her husband, will find her place in Paradise.}}

{{Quote||Do not add evil to unhappiness. (Muhammad and Caliph Umar Ibn al-Khattab commanded you to) Prevent women from learning to write, adopt positions opposite those of women. There is great virtue in such opposition}}

{{Quote||If you relax the woman’s leash a tiny bit, she will take you and bolt wildly. Their deception is awesome and their wickedness is contagious; bad character and feeble mind are their predominant traits.}}

==References==
[[Category:Traditional scholars]]
[[Category:Philosophers]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]
<references />

Islam and Miracles

2025-12-11T18:50:09Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=4|References=3}}This page lists summaries of articles on WikiIslam related to purported miracles in Islam.
==Qur'anic Miracles==
===Scientific and historical miracles===
{{Main|Scientific Miracles in the Quran|l1=Scientific Miracles in the Quran}}Numerous claims of the Quran's "scientific miracles"—facts about the earth or cosmos which could never be known 1,400 years ago yet nevertheless appear in the book—exist. This article provides an overview of such claims.

===Word Count Miracles in the Qur'an===
{{Main|Word Count Miracles in the Qur'an}}Numerous claims of the Quran's "word-count miracles"—that the book includes specific words in specific quantities which would have been impossible to achieve by a human being compiling a book over 23 years in a non-chronological manner—also exist. This article presents and examines these claims in detail.
==Articles==
These are articles on Islamic miracles.

*[[Cosmology of the Quran|Cosmology of the Qur'an]]

*[[Muhammads Miracles|Muhammad's Miracles]]

==See Also==

*[[Category:Prophecies|Islamic Prophecies]]

[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]

Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam

2025-12-11T18:49:11Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=1}}
In 1990, the OIC (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), which represents all 57 Muslim-majority nations, created the '''Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (CDHRI)''', using [[Islam and Scripture|Islamic scripture]] as its sole source.<ref>Articles 24 and 25 of the [{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20100106180857/http://www.religlaw.org/interdocs/docs/cairohrislam1990.htm|2=2013-01-08}} Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam] (the Islamic definition of "[[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]]" being the [[Qur'an]] and Prophet [[Muhammad]]'s [[Sunnah]], which is found in the [[Hadith]] and [[Sira]]).</ref>

==Text of Declaration==

{{Quote|1=|2=Adopted and Issued at the Nineteenth Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers in Cairo on 5 August 1990.

The Member States of the Organization of the Islamic Conference,

Reaffirming the civilizing and historical role of the Islamic Ummah which God made the best nation that has given mankind a universal and well-balanced civilization in which harmony is established between this life and the hereafter and knowledge is combined with faith; and the role that this Ummah should play to guide a humanity confused by competing trends and ideologies and to provide solutions to the chronic problems of this materialistic civilization.

Wishing to contribute to the efforts of mankind to assert human rights, to protect man from exploitation and persecution, and to affirm his freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shari’ah

Convinced that mankind which has reached an advanced stage in materialistic science is still, and shall remain, in dire need of faith to support its civilization and of a self-motivating force to guard its rights;

Believing that fundamental rights and universal freedoms in Islam are an integral part of the Islamic religion and that no one as a matter of principle has the right to suspend them in whole or in part or violate or ignore them in as much as they are binding divine commandments, which are contained in the Revealed Books of God and were sent through the last of His Prophets to complete the preceding divine messages thereby making their observance an act of worship and their neglect or violation an abominable sin, and accordingly every person is individually responsible — and the Ummah collectively responsible — for their safeguard.

Proceeding from the above-mentioned principles,

Declare the following:

 
ARTICLE 1:
 
(a) All human beings form one family whose members are united by submission to God and descent from Adam. All men are equal in terms of basic human dignity and basic obligations and responsibilities, without any discrimination on the grounds of race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations. True faith is the guarantee for enhancing such dignity along the path to human perfection.
(b) All human beings are God’s subjects, and the most loved by him are those who are most useful to the rest of His subjects, and no one has superiority over another except on the basis of piety and good deeds.

 
ARTICLE 2:
 
(a) Life is a God-given gift and the right to life is guaranteed to every human being. It is the duty of individuals, societies and states to protect this right from any violation, and it is prohibited to take away life except for a Shari’ah-prescribed reason.
(b) It is forbidden to resort to such means as may result in the genocidal annihilation of mankind.
(c) The preservation of human life throughout the term of time willed by God is a duty prescribed by Shari’ah.
(d) Safety from bodily harm is a guaranteed right. It is the duty of the state to safeguard it, and it is prohibited to breach it without a Shari’ah-prescribed reason.

 
ARTICLE 3:
 
(a) In the event of the use of force and in case of armed conflict, it is not permissible to kill non-belligerents such as old men, women and children. The wounded and the sick shall have the right to medical treatment; and prisoners of war shall have the right to be fed, sheltered and clothed. It is prohibited to mutilate dead bodies. It is a duty to exchange prisoners of war and to arrange visits or reunions of the families separated by the circumstances of war.
(b) It is prohibited to fell trees, to damage crops or livestock, and to destroy the enemy’s civilian buildings and installations by shelling, blasting or any other means.

 
ARTICLE 4:
 
Every human being is entitled to inviolability and the protection of his good name and honour during his life and after his death. The state and society shall protect his remains and burial place.

 
ARTICLE 5:
 
(a) The family is the foundation of society, and marriage is the basis of its formation. Men and women have the right to marriage, and no restrictions stemming from race, colour or nationality shall prevent them from enjoying this right.
(b) Society and the State shall remove all obstacles to marriage and shall facilitate marital procedure. They shall ensure family protection and welfare.

 
ARTICLE 6:
 
(a) Woman is equal to man in human dignity, and has rights to enjoy as well as duties to perform; she has her own civil entity and financial independence, and the right to retain her name and lineage.
(b) The husband is responsible for the support and welfare of the family.

 
ARTICLE 7:
 
(a) As of the moment of birth, every child has rights due from the parents, society and the state to be accorded proper nursing, education and material, hygienic and moral care. Both the fetus and the mother must be protected and accorded special care.
(b) Parents and those in such like capacity have the right to choose the type of education they desire for their children, provided they take into consideration the interest and future of the children in accordance with ethical values and the principles of the Shari’ah.
(c) Both parents are entitled to certain rights from their children, and relatives are entitled to rights from their kin, in accordance with the tenets of the Shari’ah.

 
ARTICLE 8:
 
Every human being has the right to enjoy his legal capacity in terms of both obligation and commitment. Should this capacity be lost or impaired, he shall be represented by his guardian.

 
ARTICLE 9:
 
(a) The quest for knowledge is an obligation, and the provision of education is a duty for society and the State. The State shall ensure the availability of ways and means to acquire education and shall guarantee educational diversity in the interest of society so as to enable man to be acquainted with the religion of Islam and the facts of the Universe for the benefit of mankind.
(b) Every human being has the right to receive both religious and worldly education from the various institutions of education and guidance, including the family, the school, the university, the media, etc., and in such an integrated and balanced manner as to develop his personality, strengthen his faith in God and promote his respect for and defence of both rights and obligations.

 
ARTICLE 10:
 
Islam is the religion of unspoiled nature. It is prohibited to exercise any form of compulsion on man or to exploit his poverty or ignorance in order to convert him to another religion or to atheism.

 
ARTICLE 11:
 
(a) Human beings are born free, and no one has the right to enslave, humiliate, oppress or exploit them, and there can be no subjugation but to God the Most-High.
(b) Colonialism of all types being one of the most evil forms of enslavement is totally prohibited. Peoples suffering from colonialism have the full right to freedom and self-determination. It is the duty of all States and peoples to support the struggle of colonized peoples for the liquidation of all forms of colonialism and occupation, and all States and peoples have the right to preserve their independent identity and exercise control over their wealth and natural resources.

 
ARTICLE 12:
 
Every man shall have the right, within the framework of Shari’ah, to free movement and to select his place of residence whether inside or outside his country and, if persecuted, is entitled to seek asylum in another country. The country of refuge shall ensure his protection until he reaches safety, unless asylum is motivated by an act which Shari’ah regards as a crime.

 
ARTICLE 13:
 
Work is a right guaranteed by the State and Society for each person able to work. Everyone shall be free to choose the work that suits him best and which serves his interests and those of society. The employee shall have the right to safety and security as well as to all other social guarantees. He may neither be assigned work beyond his capacity nor be subjected to compulsion or exploited or harmed in any way. He shall be entitled — without any discrimination between males and females — to fair wages for his work without delay, as well as to the holidays, allowances and promotions which he deserves. For his part, he shall be required to be dedicated and meticulous in his work. Should workers and employers disagree on any matter, the State shall intervene to settle the dispute and have the grievances redressed, the rights confirmed and justice enforced without bias.

 
ARTICLE 14:
 
Everyone shall have the right to legitimate gains without monopolization, deceit or harm to oneself or to others. Usury (riba) is absolutely prohibited.

 
ARTICLE 15:
 
(a) Everyone shall have the right to own property acquired in a legitimate way, and shall be entitled to the rights of ownership, without prejudice to oneself, others or to society in general. Expropriation is not permissible except for the requirements of public interest and upon payment of immediate and fair compensation
(b) Confiscation and seizure of property is prohibited except for a necessity dictated by law.

 
ARTICLE 16:
 
Everyone shall have the right to enjoy the fruits of his scientific, literary, artistic or technical production and the right to protect the moral and material interests stemming therefrom, provided that such production is not contrary to the principles of Shari’ah.

 
ARTICLE 17:
 
(a) Everyone shall have the right to live in a clean environment, away from vice and moral corruption, an environment that would foster his self-development; and it is incumbent upon the State and society in general to afford that right.
(b) Everyone shall have the right to medical and social care, and to all public amenities provided by society and the State within the limits of their available resources.
(c) The State shall ensure the right of the individual to a decent living which will enable him to meet all his requirements and those of his dependents, including food, clothing, housing, education, medical care and all other basic needs.

 
ARTICLE 18:
 
(a) Everyone shall have the right to live in security for himself, his religion, his dependents, his honour and his property.
(b) Everyone shall have the right to privacy in the conduct of his private affairs, in his home, among his family, with regard to his property and his relationships. It is not permitted to spy on him, to place him under surveillance or to besmirch his good name. The State shall protect him from arbitrary interference.
(c) A private residence is inviolable in all cases. It will not be entered without permission from its inhabitants or in any unlawful manner, nor shall it be demolished or confiscated and its dwellers evicted.

 
ARTICLE 19:
 
(a) All individuals are equal before the law, without distinction between the ruler and the ruled.
(b) The right to resort to justice is guaranteed to everyone.
(c) Liability is in essence personal.
(d) There shall be no crime or punishment except as provided for in the Shari’ah.
(e) A defendant is innocent until his guilt is proven in a fair trial in which he shall be given all the guarantees of defence.

 
ARTICLE 20:
 
It is not permitted without legitimate reason to arrest an individual, or restrict his freedom, to exile or to punish him. It is not permitted to subject him to physical or psychological torture or to any form of humiliation, cruelty or indignity. Nor is it permitted to subject an individual to medical or scientific experimentation without his consent or at the risk of his health or of his life. Nor is it permitted to promulgate emergency laws that would provide executive authority for such actions.

 
ARTICLE 21:
 
Taking hostages under any form or for any purpose is expressly forbidden.

 
ARTICLE 22:
 
(a) Everyone shall have the right to express his opinion freely in such manner as would not be contrary to the principles of the Shari’ah.
(b) Everyone shall have the right to advocate what is right, and propagate what is good, and warn against what is wrong and evil according to the norms of Islamic Shari’ah.
(c) Information is a vital necessity to society. It may not be exploited or misused in such a way as may violate sanctities and the dignity of Prophets, undermine moral and ethical values or disintegrate, corrupt or harm society or weaken its faith.
(d) It is not permitted to arouse nationalistic or doctrinal hatred or to do anything that may be an incitement to any form of racial discrimination.

 
ARTICLE 23:
 
(a) Authority is a trust; and abuse or malicious exploitation thereof is absolutely prohibited, so that fundamental human rights may be guaranteed.
(b) Everyone shall have the right to participate, directly or indirectly in the administration of his country's public affairs. He shall also have the right to assume public office in accordance with the provisions of Shari'ah.

 
ARTICLE 24:
 
All the rights and freedoms stipulated in this Declaration are subject to the Islamic Shari'ah.

 
ARTICLE 25:
 
The Islamic Shari'ah is the only source of reference for the explanation or clarification to any of the articles of this Declaration.

Cairo, 14 Muharram 1411H
5 August 1990<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20100106180857/http://www.religlaw.org/interdocs/docs/cairohrislam1990.htm|2=2013-01-08}} The Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam] - ReligLaw Database, archived on January 6, 2010</ref>}}

==Criticism==

The need for this declaration arose due to a conflict between [[Islam|Islamic]] and non-Islamic notions of [[Portal: Islam and Human Rights|human rights]]. In 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations declared that "the Universal Declaration of Human Rights represented a secular interpretation of the Judeo-Christian tradition, which could not be implemented by Muslims."<ref>David G. Littman - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/205577/human-rights-and-human-wrongs/david-g-littman|2=2013-01-08}} Human Rights and Human Wrongs] - National Review, January 19, 2003</ref> Similar views were expressed by other countries such as Sudan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, leading to this alternative declaration being adopted by 45 member states of the OIC. Nevertheless, this declaration has been severely criticized by many, including the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), the Association for World Education (AWE), and the Association of World Citizens (AWC) for its incompatibility with human rights, [[Islam and Women|women's rights]], religious freedom, and [[Free Speech|freedom of expression]], for "imposing restrictions on nearly every human right based on Islamic Sharia law."<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20101030053805/http://www.iheu.org/node/3162|2=2013-01-08}} The Cairo Declaration and the Universality of Human Rights] - International Humanist and Ethical Union, May 28, 2008</ref> Furthermore, according to the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ):

{{Quote|1=[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=ODkzM2Q2NGE5ODQzZWI2Y2QyMzhlYjA4NWRlOWYzMzE= Feb. 1992 Joint Statement to the UNCHR] The International Commission of Jurists and the International Federation for Human Rights|2=1) It gravely threatens the inter-cultural consensus on which the international human rights instruments are based; 2) It introduces, in the name of the defence of human rights, an intolerable discrimination against both non-Muslims and women; 3) It reveals a deliberately restrictive character in regard to certain fundamental rights and freedoms, to the point that certain essential provisions are below the legal standard in effect in a number of Muslim countries; 4) It confirms under cover of the "Islamic Shari'a (Law)" the legitimacy of practices, such as corporal punishment, that attack the integrity and dignity of the human being.}}

==See Also==

*[[Portal: Islam and Human Rights]]

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.faithfreedom.org/Articles/Ohmyrus30816.htm|2=2013-01-08}} Islamic Human Rights?] ''- Ohmyrus, August 16, 2003''
*[http://www.speroforum.com/a/20569/Islamic-Nations-and-Apostasy Islamic Nations and Apostasy] ''- Andrew Bostom, September 22, 2009''

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]

Contradictions in the Hadith

2025-12-11T18:48:44Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
This page lists various contradictions in the [[Hadith]].

===Did Muhammad see Allah?===

No

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||157|darussalam}}|
Narrated Masruq:
'Aisha said, "If anyone tells you that Muhammad has seen his Lord, he is a liar, for Allah says: 'No vision can grasp Him.' (6.103) And if anyone tells you that Muhammad has seen the Unseen, he is a liar, for Allah says: 'None has the knowledge of the Unseen but Allah.'"}}

Yes

{{Quote|{{Muslim||176a|reference}}|
It is narrated on the authority of Ibn 'Abbas that he (the Holy Prophet) saw (Allah) with, his heart}}

===Wudhu===

You should wash once
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||157|darussalam}}|
Narrated Ibn 'Abbas:
The Prophet performed ablution by washing the body parts only once.}}

You should wash twice
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||158|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Abdullah bin Zaid:
The Prophet performed ablution by washing the body parts twice.}}

You should wash thrice
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||159|darussalam}}| Narrated Humran:
(the slave of 'Uthman) I saw 'Uthman bin 'Affan asking for a tumbler of water (and when it was brought) he poured water over his hands and washed them thrice and then put his right hand in the water container and rinsed his mouth, washed his nose by putting water in it and then blowing it out. then he washed his face and forearrlns up to the elbows thrice, passed his wet hands over his head and washed his feet up to the ankles thrice. Then he said, "Allah's Apostle said 'If anyone Performs ablution like that of mine and offers a two-rak'at prayer during which he does not think of anything else (not related to the present prayer) then his past sins will be forgiven.' " After performing the ablution 'Uthman said, "I am going to tell you a Hadith which I would not have told you, had I not been compelled by a certain Holy Verse (the sub narrator 'Urwa said: This verse is: "Verily, those who conceal the clear signs and the guidance which we have sent down...)" (2:159). I heard the Prophet saying, 'If a man performs ablution perfectly and then offers the compulsory congregational prayer, Allah will forgive his sins committed between that (prayer) and the (next) prayer till he offers it. }}

===Do those with faith as small as a mustard seed ever enter the fire?===

Both hadiths use the same Arabic phrase "faith the weight of a mustard seed" (مِثْقَالُ حَبَّةِ خَرْدَلٍ مِنْ إِيمَانٍ).

Yes

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6560|darussalam}}|Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "When the people of Paradise have entered Paradise, and the people of the Fire have entered the Fire, Allah will say. 'Take out (of the Fire) whoever has got faith equal to a mustard seed in his heart.' They will come out, and by that time they would have burnt and became like coal, and then they will be thrown into the river of Al-Hayyat (life) and they will spring up just as a seed grows on the bank of a rainwater stream." The Prophet (ﷺ) said, "Don't you see that the germinating seed comes out yellow and twisted?"}}

No

{{Quote|{{Muslim||91b|reference}}| It is narrated on the authority of 'Abdullah b. Mas'ud that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) observed:
None shall enter the Fire (of Hell) who has in his heart the weight of a mustard seed of Iman and none shall enter Paradise who has in his heart the weight of a mustard seed of pride.}}

===Do evil omens exist?===

No.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2220b|reference}}|
Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: There is
no transitive disease, no evil omen, no safar, no hama…}}

Yes

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5772|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Abdullah bin Umar: Allah's Messenger said, "there is neither 'Adha nor Tiyara,
and an evil omen is only in three: a horse, a woman and a house."}}

===Protection from Dajjal===

The first ten al-Kahf verses

{{Quote|{{Muslim||809a|reference}}|
Abu Darda' reported Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) as saying: If anyone learns by heart the first ten verses of the Surah al-Kahf, he will be protected from the Dajja }}

The end al-Kahf?

{{Quote|{{Muslim||809b|reference}}|
This hadith has been transmitted by Qatada with the same chain of transmitters. But Shu'ba (one of the narrators) said: At the end of Surah al-Kahf, but Hammam said: At the beginning of Surah al-Kahf.}}

===Two rak'ats after Asr===

It's recommended to offer two rak'ats

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||592|darussalam}}|
Narrated ‘Aisha:
Allah’s Messenger never missed two Rakat before the Fajr prayer and after the Asr
prayer openly and secretly}}

It's forbidden to offer two rak'ats

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||592|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Huraira:
Allah’s Messenger forbade the offering of two prayers:
1. after the morning prayer till the sunrises.
2. after the ‘Asr prayer till the sun sets. }}

===Dajjal blind in which eye?===

Right eye

{{Quote|{{Muslim||169e|reference}}|
Ibn Umar reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him). made a mention of Dajjil in the presence of the people and said: Allah is not one-eyed and behold that Dajjal is blind of the right eye and his eye would be like a floating grape.}}

Left eye

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2934a|reference}}|
Hudhalfa reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: Dajjal is blind of left eye with thick hair and there would be a garden and fire with him and his fire would be a garden and his garden would be fire.}}

===Standing while drinking something===

Forbidden

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2024a|reference}}|
Anas reported Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) disapproved the drinking of water while standing.}}

Recommended

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2027a|reference}}|
Ibn Abbas reported: I served. (water of) Zamzam to Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him), and he drank it while standing.}}

===How long was Muhammad in Mecca for?===

Ten years

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5900|darussalam}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:
The Prophet was neither conspicuously tall, nor short; neither, very white, nor tawny.
His hair was neither much curled, nor very straight. Allah sent him (as an Messenger)
at the age of forty (and after that) he stayed for ten years in Makkah, and for ten
more years in Medina. Allah took him unto Him at the age of sixty, and he scarcely had
ten white hairs on his head and in his beard}}

Thirteen years

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3902|darussalam}}|
Narrated Ibn Abbas:
Allah's Messenger started receiving the Divine Inspiration at the age of forty. Then he
stayed in Makkah for thirteen years, receiving the Divine Revelation. Then he was
ordered to migrate and he lived as an Emigrant for ten years and then died at the age
of sixty-three (years).}}

Fifteen years

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2353e|reference}}|
Ibn 'Abbas reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) stayed in Makkah
for fifteen years (after his advent as a Prophet) and he heard the voice of Gabriel and
saw his radiance for seven years but did not see any visible form, and then received
revelation for ten years, and he stayed in Medina for ten years.}}

===Gold and Silver===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||2134|darussalam}}|
Narrated 'Umar bin Al-Khattab: Allah's Messenger said, "The bartering of gold for
silver is Riba (usury), except if it is from hand to hand and equal in amount}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4912|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abdur-Rahman bin Abu Bakra: that his father said, "The Prophet forbade
the selling of gold for gold and silver for silver except if they are equivalent in
weight, and allowed us to sell gold for silver and vice versa as we
wished.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4912|darussalam}}|
Narrated Abu Bakra: Allah's Messenger said, "Don't sell gold for gold unless equal in
weight, nor silver for silver unless equal in weight, but you could sell gold for silver
or silver for gold as you like."}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2353e|reference}}|
Ubida b. al-Simit (Allah be pleased with him) reported Allah's Messenger (peace be
upon him) as saying: [u]Gold is to be paid for by gold, silver by silver }}

===Who collected the Quran?===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5003|darussalam}}|
Narrated Qatada: I asked Anas bin Malik: Who collected the Qur'an at the time of the
Prophet ? He replied, Four, all of whom were from the Ansar, '''Ubai bin Ka'b, Muadh bin Jabal, Zaid bin Thabit and Abu Zaid'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||5004|darussalam}}|
Narrated Anas bin Malik:
When the Prophet died, none had collected the Qur'an but four persons: '''Abu Ad Darda, Mu'adh bin Jabal, Zaid bin Thabit and Abu Zaid'''. We were the inheritor (of Abu
Zaid) as he had no offspring .}}

===Prayer===
Is the prayer of a congregation 25 times or 27 times superior to the prayer of an individual?
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||645|darussalam}}| Narrated 'Abdullah bin Umar: Allah's Apostle said, "The prayer in congregation is twenty seven times superior to the prayer offered by person alone." }}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||646|darussalam}}| Narrated Abu Said Al-Khudri: The Prophet said, "The prayer in congregation is twenty five times superior to the prayer offered by person alone. }}

===Others===

*A Hadith recorded by Bukhari and Abu Dawud suggests that drawing blood violates one's [[fasting|fast]], while another Hadith recorded by the same scholars suggests Muhammad had his blood drawn while fasting.<ref name="nineteeners">Quranic.org, [http://www.quranic.org/quran_article/7/contradictory_hadiths.htm Contradictory Hadiths]</ref>

*Hanbal recorded a Hadith where Muhammad forbade the people to face towards the Qiblah while relieving themselves, while Bukhari recorded the opposite, that Muhammad had his own toilet point towards the Qiblah in order to discourage superstition.<ref name="nineteeners" />

*Ibn Kutayba wrote a book dealing solely with contradictory Hadith, such as one in which Muhammad kissed his wives while fasting, and one in which he answered a query by stating that kissing one's wife violated a fast.<ref name="nineteeners" />

*Although Bukhari records a Hadith where Muhammad urinated while standing, Sunneni Nesei stated that "if someone says to you that the Prophet urinated standing, do not believe him."<ref name="nineteeners" />

*Abu Dawud recorded two Hadith, one in which the speaker says he saw the Prophet standing and drinking water "like you and me," and another in which he forbids drinking water while standing upright.<ref name="nineteeners" />

*Hadith states that Muhammad had forbidden people to perform marriages, or seek spouses, while performing the [[Hajj]]. However, he is believed to have married Maymuna bint al-Harith while performing the pilgrimage himself.<ref name="nineteeners" />

*While Tahzibut Tazhib records that Muhammad ordered his followers to cover their calves as though they were part of their genitals, Hanbal recorded that Umar and Muhammad were both reclining with their calves uncovered when Abu Bakr requested entrance to their domicile; he was granted access and they did not cover themselves.<ref name="nineteeners" />

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Hadith|Hadith}}

[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

2025-12-11T18:46:53Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=2|Language=3|References=1}}
The '''Islamic Republic of Pakistan''', or simply ''Pakistan'', is a country in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman in the south, and it is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east, and China in the far northeast. Tajikistan is a close neighbor separated from the country by the narrow Wakhan Corridor.

Pakistan occupies a crossroads position between South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. The region forming modern Pakistan was at the heart of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. It has witnessed invasions or settlements by the Indo-Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Afghans, Mongols and the British.

Pakistan's history has been characterized by periods of military rule, political instability, and conflicts with neighboring India. It is the sixth most populous country in the world and has the second largest Muslim population after Indonesia. Pakistan also has the second largest [[Shiite|Shi'ite]] Muslim population. It is the only Muslim-majority nuclear state and is classified as a major non-NATO ally of the United States. It is one of the founders of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, and G20 developing nations.

{{stub}}

==See Also==
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]

Karen Armstrong

2025-12-11T18:46:38Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=3}}

'''Karen Armstrong''' (born 14 November 1944 in Wildmoor, Worcestershire, UK) is a British author of several books and articles on comparative religion. She is also a member of the UN Committee for Religious Affairs, and she is well known for her defense of [[Islam]].

In November 2009, Armstrong unveiled her "Charter for Compassion." The Charter urges all people and religions to embrace peace and "to ensure that youth are given accurate and respectful information about other traditions, religions and cultures."

== Views ==
In a 2005 interview with the Dutch television network Voor, Armstrong explained her view on the cause of suicide bombings in Iraq:{{Quote||because of the so called forgotten dead, 90,000 by allied forces during the attack against Saddam Hussain.}}

Armstrong has also asserted that “until the 20th century, [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] was not part of Islamic culture”; that [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Muhammad|Muhammad]] was a “peacemaker” who “respected” Jews and other non-Muslims; and that “until recently, no Muslim thinker had ever claimed [[Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Scholars on Jihad|violent Jihad]] was a central tenet of Islam."
==Criticism==
In a survey of recent scholarship on the life of Muhammad, Tilman Nagel mentions Armstrong's writings as an example of work based on Islamic hagiography:

{{Quote|Tilman Nagel, Muhammad's Mission, p. 263<ref>Tilman Nagel, ''Muhammad's Mission: Religion, Politics and Power at the birth of Islam''. Berlin and Boston: de Gruyter, 2020. p. 263</ref>|"They range from gushingly infatuated narratives inspired by the tradition of Islamic hagiography (examples: Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet [New York: HarperCollins, 1992] and Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the earliest sources...".}}

Some of Armstrong's work have been described as "strikingly" anti-Semitic.<ref>Andrea Levin - [http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=4&x_outlet=28&x_article=83 Karen Armstrong’s Unscholarly Prejudices] - Jerusalem Post, Febuary 2, 2001</ref> Her revisionist approach to discussing history has won her the praise of many readers, while earning her criticism from various historians including; Dr. Alfred Andrea,<ref> Andrea, A. J. - The Crusades in Perspective: The Crusades in Modern Islamic Perspective History Compass, 2003</ref> Dr. James Powell,<ref name="DJMP">Dr. James M. Powell - [http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/publications/Lecture.html Crusading 1099-1999: Inaugural Lecture, Malta Study Center Lecture Series] - Presented at Saint John's University, Collegeville, MN, October 28, 1999</ref> Dr. Thomas Madden,<ref>Dr. Thomas Madden - [http://www.americanoutlook.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=article_detail&id=1691 Crusades of History and Politics] - Hudson Institute, Spring 2002</ref> and the Israeli historian Efraim Karsh,<ref name="TPS">Efraim Karsh - [http://www.nysun.com/arts/perfect-surrender/40266/ The Perfect Surrender] - The New York Sun, September 25, 2006</ref> head of Mediterranean Studies at King's College London, who comments:

{{Quote||Ms. Armstrong goes out of her way to whitewash Muhammad's extermination of the Jewish presence in Medina, especially the beheading of the entire 600 to 800 male population of the Qurayzah tribe. "The Qurayzah were not killed on religious or racial ground," she claims, adding that "Muhammad had no ideological quarrel with the Jewish people." This is of course a travesty of the truth.<ref name="TPS">Efraim Karsh - [http://www.nysun.com/arts/perfect-surrender/40266/ The Perfect Surrender] - The New York Sun, September 25, 2006</ref>}}

Similar views are espoused by historian Dr. Thomas Madden. Commenting on one of Karen's books, he says:

{{Quote||Poorly researched and written, this book is largely an exercise in modern left-wing rhetoric about sensitivity, tolerance, and the evils of Western civilization. Her “triple vision” is blurred by a misguided approach to Islam and Judaism and outright hostility to Catholicism.<ref name="DJMP">Dr. James M. Powell - [http://www.hmml.org/centers/malta/publications/Lecture.html Crusading 1099-1999: Inaugural Lecture, Malta Study Center Lecture Series] - Presented at Saint John's University, Collegeville, MN, October 28, 1999</ref>}}

==See Also==

*[[Islamophilia]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.nysun.com/arts/perfect-surrender/40266/ The Perfect Surrender]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Modernism]]

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

2025-12-11T18:46:12Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=1}}
{{Infobox_Person
| name = Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
| residence =
| other_names = Algorithmi
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = c. 780
| birth_place = Khwarezm, Uzbekistan
| death_date = c. 850
| death_place = Baghdad, Iraq
| death_cause =
| known =
| occupation = mathematician, astronomer, geographer, historian
| title =
| salary =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| boards =
| religion =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| relations =
| notable_works = The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing (al-Jabr) Book of the Description of the Earth Astronomical tables of Siddhanta Extraction of the Jewish Era Book of History
| website =
| footnotes =
| employer = House of Wisdom
| height =
| weight =
}}
'''Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī''' (محمد بن موسی خوارزمی) was an influential 9th-century polymath from Islamic Persia who produced key works in mathematics, astronomy, geography, and history. Best known for his contributions to algebra (a field now eponymous with al-Khwarizmi's work ''al-Jabr'') and to the concept of the algorithm (also eponymous with the latinization of al-Khwarizmi's name, ''Algorithmi''), Khwarizmi also famously improved upon Ptolemy's ''Geography'', studied the history of calendars, and advanced key developments in trigonomerty. Prominent in his time as well as after, Khwarizmi was appointed head of library and resident astronomer at the famous House of Wisdom (بيت الحكمة) in Baghdad during the rule of al-Ma'mun in the Abbasid Golden Age (775-861), which, under the rule of the unorthodox and rationalist ''Mu'tazilites'', saw the translation of Greek works into Arabic.

==Reception==

===Islamic world===
Al-Khwarizmi was looked down upon by notable Sunni Islamic scholars who held him in contempt for his unorthodox religious views, which they deemed heretical. The Abbasid [[Caliph|caliphal]] patrons who had supported the work of al-Khwarizmi and his peers were themselves rationalist Mu'tazilites, who would be rejected by the scholars of the coming ''Ash'ari'', ''Maturidi'', and ''Hanbali'' orthodoxy.

[[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyyah]] wrote about al-Khwarizmi:
{{Quote|مجموع الفتاوى: 9/214 - 215|
انه وإن كان علمه صحيحا إلا إن العلوم الشرعية مستغنية عنه وعن غيره

Even if his science is correct, regardless, the Islamic sciences are dispensed of him and his likes.
}}

==See also==

*[[Ibn Taymiyyah]]
*[[Ibn Rushd]]
*[[Islam and Science]]
*[[Golden Age|Islamic Golden Age]]

Muhammad in the Dasatir-i-Asmani

2025-12-11T18:45:59Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
The '''Dasātīr-i-Asmani''' is a work of the Zoroastrian school of ''Ešrāqī'' (Illuminationists), founded by Āzar Kayvān (b. between 1529 and 1533; d. between 1609 and 1618).<ref>H. Corbin - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azar-kayvan-priest|2=2011-09-12}} Āzar Kayvān] - Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, December 15, 1987</ref> It contains fifteen sections which are said to have been revealed to fifteen successive prophets, and each section except the last concludes with a prophecy about the next prophet.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dasatir-i-Asmani&oldid=404240404 Dasatir-i-Asmani] - Wikipedia, accessed September 3, 2011</ref>

Islamic scholars such as Dr. [[Zakir Naik]] have claimed that [[Muhammad]] is one of the figures of the Dasātīr's prophecies: "The sum and substance of the prophecy mentioned in Dasatir is, that when the Zoroastrian people will forsake their religion and will become dissolute, a man will rise in Arabia, whose followers will conquer Persia and subjugate the arrogant Persians ... This Prophecy relates to no other person but to Muhammad (pbuh)."<ref>Dr. Zakir Naik - [http://www.irf.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=211&Itemid=185 Muhammad (pbuh) in the Parsi Scriptures] - Islamic Research Foundation, accessed September 3, 2011</ref>

The Dasātīr is written in a constructed language consisting of Persian, Hindi, Avestan, Sanskrit, and [[Arabic]] words, employing novel grammatical conventions and making frequent use of Persian prefixes or suffixes.<ref name="Fatḥ-Allāh">Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabaʾī - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dasatir|2=2011-09-12}} Dasātīr] - Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, December 15, 1994</ref> The accompanying Persian “translation” of the Dasātīr with commentary is ascribed to the sixteenth prophet, Sāsān V, who lived during the reign of of Khosrau II (590-628 AD). Both texts published in two volumes in 1818-19 under the title ''The Desātir, or the Sacred Writings of the Ancient Persian Prophets, Together with the Commentary of the Fifth Sāsān.''

Despite the claims of Sāsān's authorship, the linguistic characteristics of the Persian translation suggest a composition date of the 16th or 17th century.<ref name="Fatḥ-Allāh" /> As a result, most scholars consider both the original text and its translation to be the work of the Illuminationists' founder, Āzar Kayvān.<ref name="Fatḥ-Allāh"></ref><ref>Joseph H. Peterson - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.avesta.org/dabestan/dabestan.htm|2=2011-09-12}} The Dabestan-e Madaheb, or 'School of religious doctrines'] - Avesta, accessed September 3, 2011</ref>
==See Also==

{{Hub4|Muhammad in Other Scriptures|Muhammad in Other Scriptures}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dasatir Dasātīr] ''- Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, December 15, 1994''

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Muhammad in other scriptures]]

Muhammads Miracles

2025-12-11T18:45:37Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
This article examines Islamic beliefs regarding [[Muhammad]]'s ability to perform [[Islam and Miracles|miracles]].
==Introduction==

The hadith record that Muhammad denied being able to perform miracles, and the Qur'an states that he had maintained this denial when confronted by critics. Some suggest that Muhammad's only miracle was the revelation of the Qur'an, but other purported miracles, such as the so-called "[[Moon Split Miracle|Moon splitting miracle]]," are referenced in the Qur'an and endorsed in hadith literature. Some of the miracles alleged to occur in Muhammad's life share great similarities with miracle stories from [[People of the Book|earlier faiths]], and the Qur'an itself has a richly-documented [[Textual History of the Qur'an|textual history]], along with [[Contradictions in the Quran|claims of dubious reliability.]]

==Miracles==

===Moon Splitting Miracle===

{{Quote|{{Quran|54|1-3}}|The hour drew nigh and the moon did rend asunder.
And if they see a miracle they turn aside and say: Transient magic.
And they call (it) a lie, and follow their low desires; and every affair has its appointed term.}}

{{Quote|1=[http://web.archive.org/web/20080103182854/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/maududi/mau54.html The Meaning of the Qur'an: Al-Qamar] Syed Abu-Ala' Maududi|2=The amazing and wonderful phenomenon of the splitting of the Moon was a manifest sign of the truth that the Resurrection, of which the Holy Prophet was giving them the news, could take place and that it had approached near at hand. The great sphere of the Moon had split into two distinct parts in front of their very eyes. The two parts had separated and receded so much apart from each other that to the on-lookers one part had appeared on one side of the mountain and the other on the other side of it. Then, in an instant the two had rejoined.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3636|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah bin Masud: "During the lifetime of the Prophet the moon was split into two parts and on that the Prophet said, 'Bear witness (to thus).'"}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3637|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas: "That the Meccan people requested Allah's Apostle to show them a miracle, and so he showed them the splitting of the moon."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3638|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: "The moon was split into two parts during the lifetime of the Prophet."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3868|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: "The people of Mecca asked Allah's Apostle to show them a miracle. So he showed them the moon split in two halves between which they saw the Hiram' mountain."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3869|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah: "The moon was split ( into two pieces ) while we were with the Prophet in Mina. He said, "Be witnesses." Then a Piece of the moon went towards the mountain."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3870|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas: "During the lifetime of Allah's Apostle the moon was split (into two places)."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3871|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah: "The moon was split (into two pieces)."}}

===Water Creation Miracle===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||169|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: I saw Allah's Apostle when the 'Asr prayer was due and the people searched for water to perform ablution but they could not find it. Later on (a pot full of) water for ablution was brought to Allah's Apostle . He put his hand in that pot and ordered the people to perform ablution from it. I saw the water springing out from underneath his fingers till all of them performed the ablution (it was one of the miracles of the Prophet).}}

===Multiplied Bread Miracle===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4102|darussalam}}| Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: When the Trench was dug, I saw the Prophet in the state of severe hunger. So I returned to my wife and said, "Have you got anything (to eat), for I have seen Allah's Apostle in a state of severe hunger." She brought out for me, a bag containing one Sa of barley, and we had a domestic she animal (i.e. a kid) which I slaughtered then, and my wife ground the barley and she finished at the time I finished my job (i.e. slaughtering the kid). Then I cut the meat into pieces and put it in an earthenware (cooking) pot, and returned to Allah's Apostle . My wife said, "Do not disgrace me in front of Allah's Apostle and those who are with him." So I went to him and said to him secretly, "O Allah's Apostle! I have slaughtered a she-animal (i.e. kid) of ours, and we have ground a Sa of barley which was with us. So please come, you and another person along with you." The Prophet raised his voice and said, "O people of Trench! Jabir has prepared a meal so let us go." Allah's Apostle said to me, "Don't put down your earthenware meat pot (from the fireplace) or bake your dough till I come." So I came (to my house) and Allah's Apostle too, came, proceeding before the people. When I came to my wife, she said, "May Allah do so-and-so to you." I said, "I have told the Prophet of what you said." Then she brought out to him (i.e. the Prophet the dough, and he spat in it and invoked for Allah's Blessings in it. Then he proceeded towards our earthenware meat-pot and spat in it and invoked for Allah's Blessings in it. Then he said (to my wife). Call a lady-baker to bake along with you and keep on taking out scoops from your earthenware meat-pot, and do not put it down from its fireplace." They were one-thousand (who took their meals), and by Allah they all ate, and when they left the food and went away, our earthenware pot was still bubbling (full of meat) as if it had not decreased, and our dough was still being baked as if nothing had been taken from it.}}

==Analysis==

===Bukhari's criteria===

When determining [[sahih]] [[hadith]] narrations, the burden of proof is on the person who claims a certain narration is not authentic to provide the [[Daleel|evidence]] for its inauthenticity.

Imam Bukhari developed three criteria to determine whether a narration was sahih. His third criteria regards ''mat'n'' (text), i.e. the text/content of a narration must not contradict the Qur'an. The only exception to this rule is narrations regarded as ''Qudsi'', or narrations which contain non-Qur'anic words from Allah.

====Hadith Evidence====

The hadith record that Muhammad, when challenged by skeptics, denied being able to perform any miracles. He admitted that although other prophets before him could perform miracles, his only miracle was the Qur'an:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7274|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, "There was no prophet among the prophets but was given miracles because of which people had security or had belief, but what I was given was the Divine Inspiration which Allah revealed to me. So I hope that my followers will be more than those of any other prophet on the Day of Resurrection."}}

====Qur'anic Evidence====

Muhammad acknowledges in the following verse that other prophets before him came with miracles or clear signs but were still rejected, demonstrating the futility of miracles as proof of revelation:

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|138}}|They (also) said: "Allah took our promise not to believe in an messenger unless He showed us a sacrifice consumed by Fire (From heaven)." Say: "There came to you messengers before me, with clear Signs and even with what ye ask for: why then did ye slay them, if ye speak the truth?" if you are truthful?}}

In another verse, nonbelievers asked Muhammad to perform a miracle so that they too could believe.

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|90}}|They say: "We shall not believe in thee, until thou cause a spring to gush forth for us from the earth,}}

And he would reply:
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|93}}|Say: "Glory to my Lord! Am I aught but a man,- a messenger?"}}

According to the Qur'an, Muhammad was doubted due to his seeming lack of extraordinary or miraculous characteristics:

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|94}}|And naught prevented mankind from believing when the guidance came unto them save that they said: Hath Allah sent a mortal as (His) messenger?}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|25|7|8}}| And they say: "What sort of a messenger is this, who eats food, and walks through the streets? Why has not an angel been sent down to him to give admonition with him? "Or (Why) has not a treasure been bestowed on him, or why has he (not) a garden for enjoyment?" The wicked say: "Ye follow none other than a man bewitched."}}

Muhammad maintained that he was just an ordinary man, not an angel, meaning people should not expect miracles from him:

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|95}}|Say: Had there been in the earth angels walking about as settlers, We would certainly have sent down to them from the heaven an angel as a messenger.}}

Another verse records another instance where miracles are requested of Muhammad:

{{Quote|{{Quran|15|6}}|Why do you not bring to us the angels if you are of the truthful ones?}}

To this, Muhammad responded:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|7|8}}|We send not the angels down except for just cause: if they came (to the ungodly), behold! no respite would they have!

“And the Unbelievers say: "Why is not a sign sent down to him from his Lord?" But thou art truly a warner, and to every people a guide.”}}

The Quraishites continued asked for a sign or a miracle to believe, but Muhammad repeated that he was only a warner:

{{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|“And the Unbelievers say: "Why is not a sign sent down to him from his Lord?" But thou art truly a warner, and to every people a guide.”}}

The following verse seems to suggest that miracles are insufficient grounds for prophethood, since magicians can achieve feats that resemble miracles:

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|3}}|Their hearts toying as with trifles. The wrong-doers conceal their private counsels, (saying), "Is this (one) more than a man like yourselves? Will ye go to witchcraft with your eyes open?"}}These verses, which consistently deny Muhammad's ability to perform miracles, stand in sharp contrast to hadith which record Muhammad's purported miracles.

==== Modern Historian Views of Quran Verse 54:1 ====
Many modern academics view the moon splitting verse in the Qur'an as a natural astronomical phenomenon that may have occurred during the time of Muhammad, which Muhammad took as an omen of significance. Similar beliefs appear in antique Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian writings,<ref>For examples of this in Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrianism literature in the centuries preceding Islam, see Shoemaker, Stephen J. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv16t6jmh. ''The Apocalypse of Empire: Imperial Eschatology in Late Antiquity and Early Islam.''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018. ''Chapters 1 - 4''

For Muslim's similar beliefs in early Islam, see ''Chapters 5 and 6''.</ref> accounts of which later commentators and biographers may have exaggerated as a literal, miraculous splitting. Uri Rubin and Rudi Paret, for example, suggest it was a partial lunar eclipse,<ref>''Muhammad’s message in Mecca: warnings, signs, and miracles [The case of the splitting of the moon (Q 54:1-2)].'' Uri Rubin in Jonathan E. Brockopp, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (Cambridge, 2010), 39-60. Noting Rudi Paret's opinion in footnote 9 pp. 44.

</ref> while David Cook notes it may have been a comet.<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J.. The Death of a Prophet ''(Divinations: Rereading Late Ancient Religion) (p. 161).'' University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.. Kindle Edition. </ref>
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 56 - 58). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|The assertion that the “hour” is near picks up on a threatening sign that had already been used once in early Mecca (in Q 79:42). “The Hour” was there the subject of the question: yasʾalūnaka ʿani l-sāʿati ayāna mursāhā (“They ask you about the hour when it will come”; see HC 1, 246, on Q 79:42), but which did not allow an answer...

...In the spirit of this awareness, the reality of the ‘drawing near hour’ is affirmed in v. 1. This happens for the first time through an empirically observed natural phenomenon: a ‘moon splitting,’ perhaps a lunar eclipse, if one wishes to follow Rubin (2010) with the interpretation of the word in the sense of a poetic-pictorial dressing of the well-known phenomenon. The listeners are familiar with such changes in the celestial bodies from the eschatological predictions clothed in so-called idhā series (see the text type SKMS, 188ff.). Thus a change in the moon in Q 75:8 stands in the context of an eschatological scene. The short sentence Q 75:7–13 rhymes with the same schema 3Car as Q 54, it is obviously evoked here. In Q 75 the ‘disappearance’ of the moon is followed by the prediction of a merging of the sun and moon and finally the projection of the last day... ...A phenomenon known from apocalyptic literature as a sign of the end of the world, which had already been part of the proclamation, is explained as being present in the now: the change in a celestial body has now actually occurred; so the “hour” is near. However, this upgrading of the natural phenomenon was met with ridicule from the opponents...

..As Bell (1939: 544ff.) and Paret (KKK, 495) have already emphasized, v. 1 is about a natural event that may have actually taken place at the time of the Meccan proclamation. The interpretation of iqtarabat (and inshaqqat) as “Perfectum propheticum,” as an indication of a future event, which older translators advocate (cf. Blachère 1949: 140ff.), is anachronistic, obviously owing its origins to Islamic tradition. It occurs because the “sign” of the splitting of the moon, which according to a hadith of Ibn Masʿūd was observed by Masʿūd himself and therefore had early relevance in the biography of the prophet, could no longer function as an eschatological sign that had already occurred, as the associated announcement of the imminent end of the world had not come true. It was now understood by some as a mere prediction of an apparition, by others as a sign actually wrought by the prophet himself, a confirming miracle (see Andrae 1918: 55–57; Schimmel 1985: 69–71; and especially Rubin 2010; for the discussions of the theologians who, like al-Naẓẓām [d. 844/845], had to deal with the nonfulfillment of the prediction of the end of the world, see van Ess 1992: 415ff. and 1995: 167ff.).}}

==See Also==

* [[Muhammad's Revelations]] ''- A hub page that leads to other articles related to Muhammad's Revelations''

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Revelation]]

{{page_title|Muhammad's Miracles}}
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Allah]]

Muhammads Miracles

2025-12-11T18:45:29Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=4|References=2}}
This article examines Islamic beliefs regarding [[Muhammad]]'s ability to perform [[Islam and Miracles|miracles]].
==Introduction==

The hadith record that Muhammad denied being able to perform miracles, and the Qur'an states that he had maintained this denial when confronted by critics. Some suggest that Muhammad's only miracle was the revelation of the Qur'an, but other purported miracles, such as the so-called "[[Moon Split Miracle|Moon splitting miracle]]," are referenced in the Qur'an and endorsed in hadith literature. Some of the miracles alleged to occur in Muhammad's life share great similarities with miracle stories from [[People of the Book|earlier faiths]], and the Qur'an itself has a richly-documented [[Textual History of the Qur'an|textual history]], along with [[Contradictions in the Quran|claims of dubious reliability.]]

==Miracles==

===Moon Splitting Miracle===

{{Quote|{{Quran|54|1-3}}|The hour drew nigh and the moon did rend asunder.
And if they see a miracle they turn aside and say: Transient magic.
And they call (it) a lie, and follow their low desires; and every affair has its appointed term.}}

{{Quote|1=[http://web.archive.org/web/20080103182854/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/maududi/mau54.html The Meaning of the Qur'an: Al-Qamar] Syed Abu-Ala' Maududi|2=The amazing and wonderful phenomenon of the splitting of the Moon was a manifest sign of the truth that the Resurrection, of which the Holy Prophet was giving them the news, could take place and that it had approached near at hand. The great sphere of the Moon had split into two distinct parts in front of their very eyes. The two parts had separated and receded so much apart from each other that to the on-lookers one part had appeared on one side of the mountain and the other on the other side of it. Then, in an instant the two had rejoined.}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3636|darussalam}}|Narrated Abdullah bin Masud: "During the lifetime of the Prophet the moon was split into two parts and on that the Prophet said, 'Bear witness (to thus).'"}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3637|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas: "That the Meccan people requested Allah's Apostle to show them a miracle, and so he showed them the splitting of the moon."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3638|darussalam}}|Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: "The moon was split into two parts during the lifetime of the Prophet."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3868|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: "The people of Mecca asked Allah's Apostle to show them a miracle. So he showed them the moon split in two halves between which they saw the Hiram' mountain."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3869|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah: "The moon was split ( into two pieces ) while we were with the Prophet in Mina. He said, "Be witnesses." Then a Piece of the moon went towards the mountain."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3870|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas: "During the lifetime of Allah's Apostle the moon was split (into two places)."}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3871|darussalam}}|Narrated 'Abdullah: "The moon was split (into two pieces)."}}

===Water Creation Miracle===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||169|darussalam}}|Narrated Anas bin Malik: I saw Allah's Apostle when the 'Asr prayer was due and the people searched for water to perform ablution but they could not find it. Later on (a pot full of) water for ablution was brought to Allah's Apostle . He put his hand in that pot and ordered the people to perform ablution from it. I saw the water springing out from underneath his fingers till all of them performed the ablution (it was one of the miracles of the Prophet).}}

===Multiplied Bread Miracle===

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||4102|darussalam}}| Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: When the Trench was dug, I saw the Prophet in the state of severe hunger. So I returned to my wife and said, "Have you got anything (to eat), for I have seen Allah's Apostle in a state of severe hunger." She brought out for me, a bag containing one Sa of barley, and we had a domestic she animal (i.e. a kid) which I slaughtered then, and my wife ground the barley and she finished at the time I finished my job (i.e. slaughtering the kid). Then I cut the meat into pieces and put it in an earthenware (cooking) pot, and returned to Allah's Apostle . My wife said, "Do not disgrace me in front of Allah's Apostle and those who are with him." So I went to him and said to him secretly, "O Allah's Apostle! I have slaughtered a she-animal (i.e. kid) of ours, and we have ground a Sa of barley which was with us. So please come, you and another person along with you." The Prophet raised his voice and said, "O people of Trench! Jabir has prepared a meal so let us go." Allah's Apostle said to me, "Don't put down your earthenware meat pot (from the fireplace) or bake your dough till I come." So I came (to my house) and Allah's Apostle too, came, proceeding before the people. When I came to my wife, she said, "May Allah do so-and-so to you." I said, "I have told the Prophet of what you said." Then she brought out to him (i.e. the Prophet the dough, and he spat in it and invoked for Allah's Blessings in it. Then he proceeded towards our earthenware meat-pot and spat in it and invoked for Allah's Blessings in it. Then he said (to my wife). Call a lady-baker to bake along with you and keep on taking out scoops from your earthenware meat-pot, and do not put it down from its fireplace." They were one-thousand (who took their meals), and by Allah they all ate, and when they left the food and went away, our earthenware pot was still bubbling (full of meat) as if it had not decreased, and our dough was still being baked as if nothing had been taken from it.}}

==Analysis==

===Bukhari's criteria===

When determining [[sahih]] [[hadith]] narrations, the burden of proof is on the person who claims a certain narration is not authentic to provide the [[Daleel|evidence]] for its inauthenticity.

Imam Bukhari developed three criteria to determine whether a narration was sahih. His third criteria regards ''mat'n'' (text), i.e. the text/content of a narration must not contradict the Qur'an. The only exception to this rule is narrations regarded as ''Qudsi'', or narrations which contain non-Qur'anic words from Allah.

====Hadith Evidence====

The hadith record that Muhammad, when challenged by skeptics, denied being able to perform any miracles. He admitted that although other prophets before him could perform miracles, his only miracle was the Qur'an:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7274|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, "There was no prophet among the prophets but was given miracles because of which people had security or had belief, but what I was given was the Divine Inspiration which Allah revealed to me. So I hope that my followers will be more than those of any other prophet on the Day of Resurrection."}}

====Qur'anic Evidence====

Muhammad acknowledges in the following verse that other prophets before him came with miracles or clear signs but were still rejected, demonstrating the futility of miracles as proof of revelation:

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|138}}|They (also) said: "Allah took our promise not to believe in an messenger unless He showed us a sacrifice consumed by Fire (From heaven)." Say: "There came to you messengers before me, with clear Signs and even with what ye ask for: why then did ye slay them, if ye speak the truth?" if you are truthful?}}

In another verse, nonbelievers asked Muhammad to perform a miracle so that they too could believe.

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|90}}|They say: "We shall not believe in thee, until thou cause a spring to gush forth for us from the earth,}}

And he would reply:
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|93}}|Say: "Glory to my Lord! Am I aught but a man,- a messenger?"}}

According to the Qur'an, Muhammad was doubted due to his seeming lack of extraordinary or miraculous characteristics:

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|94}}|And naught prevented mankind from believing when the guidance came unto them save that they said: Hath Allah sent a mortal as (His) messenger?}}

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|25|7|8}}| And they say: "What sort of a messenger is this, who eats food, and walks through the streets? Why has not an angel been sent down to him to give admonition with him? "Or (Why) has not a treasure been bestowed on him, or why has he (not) a garden for enjoyment?" The wicked say: "Ye follow none other than a man bewitched."}}

Muhammad maintained that he was just an ordinary man, not an angel, meaning people should not expect miracles from him:

{{Quote|{{Quran|17|95}}|Say: Had there been in the earth angels walking about as settlers, We would certainly have sent down to them from the heaven an angel as a messenger.}}

Another verse records another instance where miracles are requested of Muhammad:

{{Quote|{{Quran|15|6}}|Why do you not bring to us the angels if you are of the truthful ones?}}

To this, Muhammad responded:

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|15|7|8}}|We send not the angels down except for just cause: if they came (to the ungodly), behold! no respite would they have!

“And the Unbelievers say: "Why is not a sign sent down to him from his Lord?" But thou art truly a warner, and to every people a guide.”}}

The Quraishites continued asked for a sign or a miracle to believe, but Muhammad repeated that he was only a warner:

{{Quote|{{Quran|13|7}}|“And the Unbelievers say: "Why is not a sign sent down to him from his Lord?" But thou art truly a warner, and to every people a guide.”}}

The following verse seems to suggest that miracles are insufficient grounds for prophethood, since magicians can achieve feats that resemble miracles:

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|3}}|Their hearts toying as with trifles. The wrong-doers conceal their private counsels, (saying), "Is this (one) more than a man like yourselves? Will ye go to witchcraft with your eyes open?"}}These verses, which consistently deny Muhammad's ability to perform miracles, stand in sharp contrast to hadith which record Muhammad's purported miracles.

==== Modern Historian Views of Quran Verse 54:1 ====
Many modern academics view the moon splitting verse in the Qur'an as a natural astronomical phenomenon that may have occurred during the time of Muhammad, which Muhammad took as an omen of significance. Similar beliefs appear in antique Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian writings,<ref>For examples of this in Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrianism literature in the centuries preceding Islam, see Shoemaker, Stephen J. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv16t6jmh. ''The Apocalypse of Empire: Imperial Eschatology in Late Antiquity and Early Islam.''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018. ''Chapters 1 - 4''

For Muslim's similar beliefs in early Islam, see ''Chapters 5 and 6''.</ref> accounts of which later commentators and biographers may have exaggerated as a literal, miraculous splitting. Uri Rubin and Rudi Paret, for example, suggest it was a partial lunar eclipse,<ref>''Muhammad’s message in Mecca: warnings, signs, and miracles [The case of the splitting of the moon (Q 54:1-2)].'' Uri Rubin in Jonathan E. Brockopp, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (Cambridge, 2010), 39-60. Noting Rudi Paret's opinion in footnote 9 pp. 44.

</ref> while David Cook notes it may have been a comet.<ref>Shoemaker, Stephen J.. The Death of a Prophet ''(Divinations: Rereading Late Ancient Religion) (p. 161).'' University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.. Kindle Edition. </ref>
{{Quote|Neuwirth, Angelika. The Qur'an: Text and Commentary, Volume 2.1: Early Middle Meccan Suras: The New Elect (p. 56 - 58). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|The assertion that the “hour” is near picks up on a threatening sign that had already been used once in early Mecca (in Q 79:42). “The Hour” was there the subject of the question: yasʾalūnaka ʿani l-sāʿati ayāna mursāhā (“They ask you about the hour when it will come”; see HC 1, 246, on Q 79:42), but which did not allow an answer...

...In the spirit of this awareness, the reality of the ‘drawing near hour’ is affirmed in v. 1. This happens for the first time through an empirically observed natural phenomenon: a ‘moon splitting,’ perhaps a lunar eclipse, if one wishes to follow Rubin (2010) with the interpretation of the word in the sense of a poetic-pictorial dressing of the well-known phenomenon. The listeners are familiar with such changes in the celestial bodies from the eschatological predictions clothed in so-called idhā series (see the text type SKMS, 188ff.). Thus a change in the moon in Q 75:8 stands in the context of an eschatological scene. The short sentence Q 75:7–13 rhymes with the same schema 3Car as Q 54, it is obviously evoked here. In Q 75 the ‘disappearance’ of the moon is followed by the prediction of a merging of the sun and moon and finally the projection of the last day... ...A phenomenon known from apocalyptic literature as a sign of the end of the world, which had already been part of the proclamation, is explained as being present in the now: the change in a celestial body has now actually occurred; so the “hour” is near. However, this upgrading of the natural phenomenon was met with ridicule from the opponents...

..As Bell (1939: 544ff.) and Paret (KKK, 495) have already emphasized, v. 1 is about a natural event that may have actually taken place at the time of the Meccan proclamation. The interpretation of iqtarabat (and inshaqqat) as “Perfectum propheticum,” as an indication of a future event, which older translators advocate (cf. Blachère 1949: 140ff.), is anachronistic, obviously owing its origins to Islamic tradition. It occurs because the “sign” of the splitting of the moon, which according to a hadith of Ibn Masʿūd was observed by Masʿūd himself and therefore had early relevance in the biography of the prophet, could no longer function as an eschatological sign that had already occurred, as the associated announcement of the imminent end of the world had not come true. It was now understood by some as a mere prediction of an apparition, by others as a sign actually wrought by the prophet himself, a confirming miracle (see Andrae 1918: 55–57; Schimmel 1985: 69–71; and especially Rubin 2010; for the discussions of the theologians who, like al-Naẓẓām [d. 844/845], had to deal with the nonfulfillment of the prediction of the end of the world, see van Ess 1992: 415ff. and 1995: 167ff.).}}

==See Also==

* [[Muhammad's Revelations]] ''- A hub page that leads to other articles related to Muhammad's Revelations''

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Revelation]]

{{page_title|Muhammad's Miracles}}
[[Category:Miracles]]
[[Category:Hadith]]
[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Allah]]

Persecution of Baha'is in Iran

2025-12-11T18:44:26Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
The Baha'i Faith is an Abrahamic [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] religion founded in Persia in the 19th century which claims to share the same values and origins of its predecessors. Its founder, Baha'u'llah, is regarded by Baha'is as "the most recent in the line of Messengers of [[God]] that stretches back beyond recorded time and that includes [[Ibrahim|Abraham]], Moses, Buddha, Krishna, Zoroaster, [[Jesus|Christ]] and [[Muhammad|Mohammed]]." The current estimates for the total number of Baha'is around the world ranges from 5 million<ref>[http://news.bahai.org/media-information/statistics/ Statistics] - Bahá'í World News Service</ref><ref>Hutter, Manfred (2005). "Bahā'īs". in Jones, Lindsay. Encyclopedia of Religion. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference US. pp. 737–740. ISBN 0028657330.</ref> to 7.9 million.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#people World: People: Religions] - CIA World Factbook</ref>

Since the religion's inception, the Bahá'ís of Iran have been persecuted. While the Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian minorities are also persecuted, they have certain limited rights, whereas Baha'is have none.<ref>[http://www.marzeporgohar.org/v2/index.php?l=1&cat=25&scat=&artid=1166 Stop the Persecution of non-Muslim Iranians] - Human Rights Council of the Marze Por Gohar Party</ref> Since the Islamic Revolution in 1979, this persecution has become systematized. Unofficial figures have put the number of Baha'i deaths into the thousands, but officially, more than 200 have been executed or killed, hundreds more have been imprisoned, and tens of thousands have been deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses, and educational opportunities. All national and local Bahá'í administrative institutions have been banned by the Government, and Bahá'í holy places, cemeteries, and community properties have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed.<ref>Friedrich W. Affolter - [http://www.aa.psu.edu/journals/war-crimes/articles/V1/v1n1a3.pdf The Specter of Ideological Genocide: The Bahá’ís of Iran] - War Crimes, Genocide, & Crimes against Humanity, Volume 1, January, 2005</ref>

This treatment of Baha'is is justified by [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]] through [[Islam and Apostasy|apostasy]] laws, because traditional Islamic law mandates that anyone who leaves [[Islam]] be killed. According to many scholars, since the Baha'i faith is an offshoot of Shi'ite Islam, Baha'is are apostates and can therefore be justifiably killed. Many Baha'is continue to conceal their religion and often call themselves Muslims.

Over time, the international community has become more aware of Baha'i persecution due to advocacy which has brought the United Nations, Amnesty International, the European Union, and the United States into discussions with representatives of the faith.

Post-Islamic monotheistic religions such as the [[Ahmadiyya]] and Bahá'í faiths pose unique challenges to Islamic authorities. It is difficult to dismiss the followers of such religions as "benighted heathens," like the polytheists of Asia and the animists of Africa, or as "outdated precursors," like Jews and Christians. Moreover, their existence presents a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the perfection and finality of Muhammad's revelation.

The following is a directive from the Iranian Interior Ministry sent to all provincial governments to collect detailed information about Baha’i activities and individuals:

{{Quote|1=[http://www.marzeporgohar.org/v2/index.php?l=1&cat=25&scat=&artid=1166 Stop the Persecution of non-Muslim Iranians] Human Rights Council of the Marze Por Gohar Party|2=Emblem of the IRI
Islamic Republic of Iran
Ministry of Interior

Date: August 19th 2006 Number: 43.70878

In His Lofty Name

(To) Honorable Political-Security Deputies of Provincial Governments of the Entire Country

Salaam Aleikom,
Respectfully, according to the information sent (to us), certain elements of the perverting Baha’i cult are attempting to advocate and propagate the ideology of Baha’ism under the cover of business and social activities. Since this cult is illegal and is being used by international organizations (human rights etc…) and Zionist circles against the Islamic Republic regime, it is (hereby) reques ted that you order the relevant institutions (intelligence departments) to manage and monitor their social behavior, delicately and seriously. In the meantime, complete the requested information according to the attached form and send it to this Vice Ministry for processing by the sixth of September (2006). CODE

Seyyed (Title of Decendants of Prophet Mohammad) Mohammad-Reza Mavali-Zadeh

Director General of the Political Bureau

Signature

<nowiki>************</nowiki>

The Attached Form is entitled:
“The Situation of the Perverting Baha’i Cult in Each Province”

The requested information categories are:

City Population Economic Situation: Income, Occupation Social Interaction Social Information Political and Social Activities Principal Elements (leaders) Contacts with Foreign Circles Miscellaneous}}

Bani Dugal, the principal representative of the Baha'i International Community to the United Nations, has also criticized Iran's claim that seven leaders of the community who were imprisoned in Iran were held for security reasons and not because of their faith, calling the assertion "utterly baseless." He argued that Iran's practice of connecting the group to Zionism, the underlying political philosophy of Israel, was a "distortion" and an attempt to "stir animosity" among the Iranian public.<ref>Christopher Buck. Islam and Minorities: The Case of the Bahá'ís. Studies in Contemporary Islam, 5(1):83–106, 2003.</ref>

==External links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/71346/Azl|2=2012-12-19}} The Baabis and Baha’is are not Muslims] ''- Fatwa from Islam Q&A''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://frontpagemag.com/2011/02/04/irans-decades-of-christian-persecution|2=2012-12-19}} Iran’s Decades of Christian Persecution]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.neirr.org/bahai1.htm|2=2012-12-19}} A Closer Look at Baha'i]'' - From the "Short List of "Cults", Aberrational Christian, and Other Controversial Groups"''

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{page_title|Persecution of Baha'is in Iran}}
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Apostasy]]

European Court of Human Rights on Shariah Law

2025-12-11T18:41:52Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
[[File:European Court of Human Rights logo.svg|right|thumb]]
The '''European Court of Human Rights''' (ECtHR; French: ''Cour européenne des droits de l’homme'') is an international court established on January 21, 1959 by the European Convention on Human Rights. It hears applications alleging that a contracting state has breached one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention and its protocols. The Convention was adopted by the Council of Europe, and all of its 46 member states are signatories to the Convention. The Court is based in Strasbourg, France.

==Shari'ah==

With the banning of Turkey's Islamist Welfare Party (''Refah Partisi'', RP) and a ban on its leaders sitting in Parliament or holding certain other political offices for five years, the European Court of Human Rights determined on July 31, 2001, that "the institution of Sharia law and a theocratic regime, were incompatible with the requirements of a democratic society." The Court held that the sanctions imposed on the applicants could reasonably be considered to meet a pressing social need for the protection of democratic society, since "the leaders of the Refah Partisi had declared their intention to establish a plurality of legal systems based on differences in religious belief, to institute Islamic law (the Sharia), a system of law that was in marked contrast to the values embodied in the Convention."<ref name="ECtHR2001">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20010811161803/http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2001/July/RefahPartisi2001jude.htm|2=2013-09-14}} ECtHR Judgment in the case of Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) Erbakan, Kazan and Tekdal v Turkey] (Press Release 31.7.2001; Judgment 31.7.2001)</ref>

The ban was upheld by the ECtHR on February 13, 2003. Noting that the Welfare Party had pledged to set up a regime based on the [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]], the Court found that "a sharia-based regime was incompatible with the Convention, in particular, as regards the rules of criminal law and procedure, the place given to women in the legal order and its interference in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts."<ref name="ECtHR2003a">European Court of Human Rights, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Annual_report_2003_ENG.pdf|2=2013-09-14}} "Annual Report 2003"], (2004) pp. 5-6.</ref> It further opined that "sharia, which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by religion, is stable and invariable."<ref name="ECtHR2003">European Court of Human Rights, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Annual_report_2003_ENG.pdf|2=2013-09-14}} "Annual Report 2003"], (2004) p. 21.</ref>

===Texts===

====Press Release (July 2001)====

{{Quote||<center>JUDGMENT IN THE CASE OF REFAH PARTISI (THE WELFARE PARTY) ERBAKAN, KAZAN AND TEKDAL v. TURKEY</center>

In a judgment<ref>[fn1] Under Article 43 of the European Convention on Human Rights, within three months from the date of a Chamber judgment, any party to the case may, in exceptional cases, request that the case be referred to the 17-member Grand Chamber of the Court. In that event, a panel of five judges considers whether the case raises a serious question affecting the interpretation or application of the Convention or its Protocols, or a serious issue of general importance, in which case the Grand Chamber will deliver a final judgment. If no such question or issue arises, the panel will reject the request, at which point the judgment becomes final. Otherwise Chamber judgments become final on the expiry of the three-month period or earlier if the parties declare that they do not intend to make a request to refer the case to the Grand Chamber.</ref> delivered at Strasbourg on 31 July 2001 in the case of ''Refah Partisi, Erbakan, Kazan and Tekdal v. Turkey'' (nos. 41340/98 & 41342-4/98), the European Court of Human Rights held, by four votes to three, that there had been no violation of Article 11 (freedom of assembly and association) of the European Convention on Human Rights and unanimously that no separate issues arose under Articles 9, 10, 14, 17 and 18 of the Convention and Articles 1 and 3 of Protocol No. 1.

'''1. Principal facts'''

The first applicant, Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party, hereafter the "''RP''") was a political party that had been founded on 19 July 1983. It was represented by its Chairman, Necmettin Erbakan. He is the second applicant and was a Member of Parliament at the material time. The third and fourth applicants, Şevket Kazan and Ahmet Tekdal, are politicians and lawyers and were at the material time Members of Parliament and Vice-Chairmen of the ''RP''.

On 21 May 1997 the Principal State Counsel at the Court of Cassation brought proceedings in the Turkish Constitutional Court seeking the dissolution of the ''RP'', which he accused of having become "a centre of activities against the principle of secularism". In support of his application, he relied on various writings and declarations made by leaders and members of the RP which he said indicated that some of the party’s objectives, such as the institution of ''Sharia'' law and a theocratic regime, were incompatible with the requirements of a democratic society.

Before the Constitutional Court the applicant’s representatives argued that the prosecution had relied on mere extracts from the speeches concerned, thereby altering their meaning and without looking at the documents as a whole. They also maintained that the ''RP'', which at the material time had been in power for a year as part of a coalition, had consistently observed the principle of secularism and respected all religious beliefs and consequently was not to be confused with political parties that sought the establishment of a totalitarian regime. They added that some of the ''RP''’s leaders had only become aware of certain of the remarks impugned in the case after the Principal State Counsel’s application for the dissolution of the party was served on them and that they had nonetheless expelled those responsible from the party to avoid the ''RP'' being seen as a "centre" of illegal activities for the purposes of the law on the regulation of political parties.

On 16 January 1998 the Constitutional Court made an order dissolving the ''RP'' on the ground that it had become a "centre of activities against the principle of secularism". It also declared that the ''RP''’s assets were to be transferred by operation of law to the Treasury. The Constitutional Court further held that the public declarations of the ''RP''’s leaders, and in particular Necmettin Erbakan, Şevket Kazan and Ahmet Tekdal, had a direct bearing on the constitutionality of the ''RP''’s activities. Consequently, it imposed a further sanction in the form of a ban on their sitting in Parliament or holding certain other forms of political office for a period of five years.

'''2. Procedure and composition of the Court'''

The applications were lodged on 22 May 1998 and declared partly admissible on 3 October 2000. A hearing on the merits was held on 16 January 2001. Judgment was given by a Chamber of seven judges, composed as follows:

Jean-Paul Costa (French), ''President'', Willi Fuhrmann (Austrian), Loukis Loucaides (Cypriot), Riza Türmen (Turkish), Nicolas Bratza (British), Hanne Sophie Greve (Norwegian), Kristaq Traja (Albanian), ''judges'',

and also Sally Dollé, ''Section Registrar''.

'''3. Summary of the judgment'''<ref>[fn2] This summary by the Registry does not bind the Court.</ref>

'''Complaints'''

The applicants complained of a violation of Articles 9 (freedom of thought), 10 (freedom of expression), 11 (freedom of association), 14 (prohibition of discrimination), 17 (prohibition of abuse of rights) and 18 (limitations on use of restrictions on rights) of the European Convention on Human Rights, and of Article 1 (protection of property) and 3 (right to free elections) of Protocol No. 1.

'''Decision of the Court'''

The Court considered that, when campaigning for changes in legislation or to the legal or constitutional structures of the State, political parties continued to enjoy the protection of the provisions of the Convention and of Article 11 in particular provided they complied with two conditions: (1) the means used to those ends had to be lawful and democratic from all standpoints and (2) the proposed changes had to be compatible with fundamental democratic principles. It necessarily followed that political parties whose leaders incited others to use violence and/or supported political aims that were inconsistent with one or more rules of democracy or sought the destruction of democracy and the suppression of the rights and freedoms it recognised could not rely on the Convention to protect them from sanctions imposed as a result.

The Court held that the sanctions imposed on the applicants could reasonably be considered to meet a pressing social need for the protection of democratic society, since, on the pretext of giving a different meaning to the principle of secularism, the leaders of the Refah Partisi had declared their intention to establish a plurality of legal systems based on differences in religious belief, to institute Islamic law (the ''Sharia''), a system of law that was in marked contrast to the values embodied in the Convention. They had also left in doubt their position regarding recourse to force in order to come to power and, more particularly, to retain power.

The Court considered that even if States’ margin of appreciation was narrow in the area of the dissolution of political parties, since pluralism of ideas and parties was an inherent element of democracy, the State concerned could reasonably prevent the implementation of such a political programme, which was incompatible with Convention norms, before it was given effect through specific acts that might jeopardise civil peace and the country’s democratic regime.

Judges Fuhrmann, Loucaides and Bratza expressed a dissenting opinion, which is annexed to the judgment.

<center><nowiki>***</nowiki></center>

The Court’s judgments are accessible on its Internet site (<nowiki>http://www.echr.coe.int</nowiki>).

'''Registry of the European Court of Human Rights F – 67075 Strasbourg Cedex Contacts: Roderick Liddell (telephone: (0)3 88 41 24 92) Emma Hellyer (telephone: (0)3 90 21 42 15) Fax: (0)3 88 41 27 91'''

''The European Court of Human Rights was set up in Strasbourg in 1959 to deal with alleged violations of the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights. On 1 November 1998 a full-time Court was established, replacing the original two-tier system of a part-time Commission and Court.''<ref name="ECtHR2001"></ref>}}

====Annual Report 2003 (May 2004)====

From the Foreword by Luzius Wildhaber, the President of the European Court of Human Rights (November 1, 1998 – January 18, 2007):

{{Quote||The Court’s Annual Reports always provide an ideal opportunity to look back over the past year and to take stock of the events that marked it. So what is to be gleaned from 2003?

The first thing that stands out every year is the way in which, through the Court’s caselaw, solutions to a wide range of situations and issues are to be found in the handful of substantive Convention provisions. . . . 
Out of the 703 judgments delivered in 2003, I have selected two which, through both their differences and their complementarity, reflect the dual role played by the Court. These are the judgments in the cases of Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey<ref>[GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, to be reported in ECHR 2003-II.</ref> and Jakupovic v. Austria,<ref>No. 36757/97.</ref> which were delivered on 13 and 6 February 2003 respectively.

The first is a unanimous Grand Chamber decision and is one of a series of judgments over the past few years in which the Court has sought to define the bases of the democratic system on which the Convention is founded. . . . 
the Court, aided by the pan-European consensus provided by the Convention, has a role to play in identifying the constituent elements of democracy and in reminding everyone of the minimum essential requirements of a political system if human rights within the meaning of the Convention are to be protected. It has in the past applied itself to establishing the basic principles of the rule of law, the role of political parties, and the limits on freedom of political expression and parliamentary immunity. In Refah Partisi, it carried out a thorough examination of the relationship between the Convention, democracy, political parties and religion, and found that a sharia-based regime was incompatible with the Convention, in particular, as regards the rules of criminal law and procedure, the place given to women in the legal order and its interference in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts.<ref name="ECtHR2003a"></ref>}}

From the speech given by Luzius Wildhaber on the occasion of the opening of the judicial year, January 22, 2004:

{{Quote||As I do every year, I will tonight outline some of the main messages which emerge from our case-law over the past year. This year I shall talk about four cases.

The first concerned the dissolution, by the Turkish Constitutional Court, of a political party, the Welfare Party, on the grounds that it wanted to introduce sharia law and a theocratic regime. A Grand Chamber of the Court found unanimously that there had been no violation of Article 11 of the Convention, which protects freedom of association. This case gave the Court the opportunity to conduct an in-depth analysis of the relationship between the Convention and democracy, political parties, and religion.

In its judgment,<ref>Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey [GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, judgment of 13 February 2003, to be reported in ECHR 2003-II.</ref> the Court first noted that freedom of thought, of religion, of expression and of association as guaranteed by the Convention could not deprive the authorities of a State in which an association, through its activities, jeopardised that State’s institutions, of the right to protect those institutions. It necessarily followed that a political party whose leaders incited to violence or put forward a policy which failed to respect democracy or which was aimed at the destruction of democracy and the flouting of the rights and freedoms recognised in a democracy, could not lay claim to the Convention’s protection against penalties imposed on those grounds. Such penalties could even, where there was a sufficiently established and imminent danger for democracy, take the form of preventive intervention.

Noting that the Welfare Party had pledged to set up a regime based on sharia law, the Court found that sharia was incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy as set forth in the Convention. It considered that “sharia, which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by religion, is stable and invariable. Principles such as pluralism in the political sphere or the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it”. According to the Court, it was difficult to declare one’s respect for democracy and human rights while at the same time supporting a regime based on sharia, which clearly diverged from Convention values, particularly with regard to its criminal law and criminal procedure, its rules on the legal status of women and the way it intervened in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts.

There is no doubt that this judgment is one of the major judgments of the Court in which it endeavours to define the shape and the boundaries of democracy and the rule of law.<ref name="ECtHR2003"></ref>}}

==See Also==

*[[Portal: Islam and Human Rights]]

==External Links==

*{{external link| url = http://politicsreligion.eu/issues-we-work-on/secularism-and-sharia-law/| title = Secularism and sharia law| publisher = The European Parliament Platform for Secularism in Politics| author = | date = August 2010| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fpoliticsreligion.eu%2Fissues-we-work-on%2Fsecularism-and-sharia-law%2F&date=2013-09-14| deadurl = no}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{page_title|European Court of Human Rights on Shari'ah Law}}
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Critics of Islam]]
[[fr:La cour europénne des droits de l'Homme et la Shariah]]

European Court of Human Rights on Shariah Law

2025-12-11T18:41:32Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=4|References=2}}
[[File:European Court of Human Rights logo.svg|right|thumb]]
The '''European Court of Human Rights''' (ECtHR; French: ''Cour européenne des droits de l’homme'') is an international court established on January 21, 1959 by the European Convention on Human Rights. It hears applications alleging that a contracting state has breached one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention and its protocols. The Convention was adopted by the Council of Europe, and all of its 46 member states are signatories to the Convention. The Court is based in Strasbourg, France.

==Shari'ah==

With the banning of Turkey's Islamist Welfare Party (''Refah Partisi'', RP) and a ban on its leaders sitting in Parliament or holding certain other political offices for five years, the European Court of Human Rights determined on July 31, 2001, that "the institution of Sharia law and a theocratic regime, were incompatible with the requirements of a democratic society." The Court held that the sanctions imposed on the applicants could reasonably be considered to meet a pressing social need for the protection of democratic society, since "the leaders of the Refah Partisi had declared their intention to establish a plurality of legal systems based on differences in religious belief, to institute Islamic law (the Sharia), a system of law that was in marked contrast to the values embodied in the Convention."<ref name="ECtHR2001">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20010811161803/http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2001/July/RefahPartisi2001jude.htm|2=2013-09-14}} ECtHR Judgment in the case of Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) Erbakan, Kazan and Tekdal v Turkey] (Press Release 31.7.2001; Judgment 31.7.2001)</ref>

The ban was upheld by the ECtHR on February 13, 2003. Noting that the Welfare Party had pledged to set up a regime based on the [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]], the Court found that "a sharia-based regime was incompatible with the Convention, in particular, as regards the rules of criminal law and procedure, the place given to women in the legal order and its interference in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts."<ref name="ECtHR2003a">European Court of Human Rights, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Annual_report_2003_ENG.pdf|2=2013-09-14}} "Annual Report 2003"], (2004) pp. 5-6.</ref> It further opined that "sharia, which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by religion, is stable and invariable."<ref name="ECtHR2003">European Court of Human Rights, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Annual_report_2003_ENG.pdf|2=2013-09-14}} "Annual Report 2003"], (2004) p. 21.</ref>

===Texts===

====Press Release (July 2001)====

{{Quote||<center>JUDGMENT IN THE CASE OF REFAH PARTISI (THE WELFARE PARTY) ERBAKAN, KAZAN AND TEKDAL v. TURKEY</center>

In a judgment<ref>[fn1] Under Article 43 of the European Convention on Human Rights, within three months from the date of a Chamber judgment, any party to the case may, in exceptional cases, request that the case be referred to the 17-member Grand Chamber of the Court. In that event, a panel of five judges considers whether the case raises a serious question affecting the interpretation or application of the Convention or its Protocols, or a serious issue of general importance, in which case the Grand Chamber will deliver a final judgment. If no such question or issue arises, the panel will reject the request, at which point the judgment becomes final. Otherwise Chamber judgments become final on the expiry of the three-month period or earlier if the parties declare that they do not intend to make a request to refer the case to the Grand Chamber.</ref> delivered at Strasbourg on 31 July 2001 in the case of ''Refah Partisi, Erbakan, Kazan and Tekdal v. Turkey'' (nos. 41340/98 & 41342-4/98), the European Court of Human Rights held, by four votes to three, that there had been no violation of Article 11 (freedom of assembly and association) of the European Convention on Human Rights and unanimously that no separate issues arose under Articles 9, 10, 14, 17 and 18 of the Convention and Articles 1 and 3 of Protocol No. 1.

'''1. Principal facts'''

The first applicant, Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party, hereafter the "''RP''") was a political party that had been founded on 19 July 1983. It was represented by its Chairman, Necmettin Erbakan. He is the second applicant and was a Member of Parliament at the material time. The third and fourth applicants, Şevket Kazan and Ahmet Tekdal, are politicians and lawyers and were at the material time Members of Parliament and Vice-Chairmen of the ''RP''.

On 21 May 1997 the Principal State Counsel at the Court of Cassation brought proceedings in the Turkish Constitutional Court seeking the dissolution of the ''RP'', which he accused of having become "a centre of activities against the principle of secularism". In support of his application, he relied on various writings and declarations made by leaders and members of the RP which he said indicated that some of the party’s objectives, such as the institution of ''Sharia'' law and a theocratic regime, were incompatible with the requirements of a democratic society.

Before the Constitutional Court the applicant’s representatives argued that the prosecution had relied on mere extracts from the speeches concerned, thereby altering their meaning and without looking at the documents as a whole. They also maintained that the ''RP'', which at the material time had been in power for a year as part of a coalition, had consistently observed the principle of secularism and respected all religious beliefs and consequently was not to be confused with political parties that sought the establishment of a totalitarian regime. They added that some of the ''RP''’s leaders had only become aware of certain of the remarks impugned in the case after the Principal State Counsel’s application for the dissolution of the party was served on them and that they had nonetheless expelled those responsible from the party to avoid the ''RP'' being seen as a "centre" of illegal activities for the purposes of the law on the regulation of political parties.

On 16 January 1998 the Constitutional Court made an order dissolving the ''RP'' on the ground that it had become a "centre of activities against the principle of secularism". It also declared that the ''RP''’s assets were to be transferred by operation of law to the Treasury. The Constitutional Court further held that the public declarations of the ''RP''’s leaders, and in particular Necmettin Erbakan, Şevket Kazan and Ahmet Tekdal, had a direct bearing on the constitutionality of the ''RP''’s activities. Consequently, it imposed a further sanction in the form of a ban on their sitting in Parliament or holding certain other forms of political office for a period of five years.

'''2. Procedure and composition of the Court'''

The applications were lodged on 22 May 1998 and declared partly admissible on 3 October 2000. A hearing on the merits was held on 16 January 2001. Judgment was given by a Chamber of seven judges, composed as follows:

Jean-Paul Costa (French), ''President'', Willi Fuhrmann (Austrian), Loukis Loucaides (Cypriot), Riza Türmen (Turkish), Nicolas Bratza (British), Hanne Sophie Greve (Norwegian), Kristaq Traja (Albanian), ''judges'',

and also Sally Dollé, ''Section Registrar''.

'''3. Summary of the judgment'''<ref>[fn2] This summary by the Registry does not bind the Court.</ref>

'''Complaints'''

The applicants complained of a violation of Articles 9 (freedom of thought), 10 (freedom of expression), 11 (freedom of association), 14 (prohibition of discrimination), 17 (prohibition of abuse of rights) and 18 (limitations on use of restrictions on rights) of the European Convention on Human Rights, and of Article 1 (protection of property) and 3 (right to free elections) of Protocol No. 1.

'''Decision of the Court'''

The Court considered that, when campaigning for changes in legislation or to the legal or constitutional structures of the State, political parties continued to enjoy the protection of the provisions of the Convention and of Article 11 in particular provided they complied with two conditions: (1) the means used to those ends had to be lawful and democratic from all standpoints and (2) the proposed changes had to be compatible with fundamental democratic principles. It necessarily followed that political parties whose leaders incited others to use violence and/or supported political aims that were inconsistent with one or more rules of democracy or sought the destruction of democracy and the suppression of the rights and freedoms it recognised could not rely on the Convention to protect them from sanctions imposed as a result.

The Court held that the sanctions imposed on the applicants could reasonably be considered to meet a pressing social need for the protection of democratic society, since, on the pretext of giving a different meaning to the principle of secularism, the leaders of the Refah Partisi had declared their intention to establish a plurality of legal systems based on differences in religious belief, to institute Islamic law (the ''Sharia''), a system of law that was in marked contrast to the values embodied in the Convention. They had also left in doubt their position regarding recourse to force in order to come to power and, more particularly, to retain power.

The Court considered that even if States’ margin of appreciation was narrow in the area of the dissolution of political parties, since pluralism of ideas and parties was an inherent element of democracy, the State concerned could reasonably prevent the implementation of such a political programme, which was incompatible with Convention norms, before it was given effect through specific acts that might jeopardise civil peace and the country’s democratic regime.

Judges Fuhrmann, Loucaides and Bratza expressed a dissenting opinion, which is annexed to the judgment.

<center><nowiki>***</nowiki></center>

The Court’s judgments are accessible on its Internet site (<nowiki>http://www.echr.coe.int</nowiki>).

'''Registry of the European Court of Human Rights F – 67075 Strasbourg Cedex Contacts: Roderick Liddell (telephone: (0)3 88 41 24 92) Emma Hellyer (telephone: (0)3 90 21 42 15) Fax: (0)3 88 41 27 91'''

''The European Court of Human Rights was set up in Strasbourg in 1959 to deal with alleged violations of the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights. On 1 November 1998 a full-time Court was established, replacing the original two-tier system of a part-time Commission and Court.''<ref name="ECtHR2001"></ref>}}

====Annual Report 2003 (May 2004)====

From the Foreword by Luzius Wildhaber, the President of the European Court of Human Rights (November 1, 1998 – January 18, 2007):

{{Quote||The Court’s Annual Reports always provide an ideal opportunity to look back over the past year and to take stock of the events that marked it. So what is to be gleaned from 2003?

The first thing that stands out every year is the way in which, through the Court’s caselaw, solutions to a wide range of situations and issues are to be found in the handful of substantive Convention provisions. . . . 
Out of the 703 judgments delivered in 2003, I have selected two which, through both their differences and their complementarity, reflect the dual role played by the Court. These are the judgments in the cases of Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey<ref>[GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, to be reported in ECHR 2003-II.</ref> and Jakupovic v. Austria,<ref>No. 36757/97.</ref> which were delivered on 13 and 6 February 2003 respectively.

The first is a unanimous Grand Chamber decision and is one of a series of judgments over the past few years in which the Court has sought to define the bases of the democratic system on which the Convention is founded. . . . 
the Court, aided by the pan-European consensus provided by the Convention, has a role to play in identifying the constituent elements of democracy and in reminding everyone of the minimum essential requirements of a political system if human rights within the meaning of the Convention are to be protected. It has in the past applied itself to establishing the basic principles of the rule of law, the role of political parties, and the limits on freedom of political expression and parliamentary immunity. In Refah Partisi, it carried out a thorough examination of the relationship between the Convention, democracy, political parties and religion, and found that a sharia-based regime was incompatible with the Convention, in particular, as regards the rules of criminal law and procedure, the place given to women in the legal order and its interference in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts.<ref name="ECtHR2003a"></ref>}}

From the speech given by Luzius Wildhaber on the occasion of the opening of the judicial year, January 22, 2004:

{{Quote||As I do every year, I will tonight outline some of the main messages which emerge from our case-law over the past year. This year I shall talk about four cases.

The first concerned the dissolution, by the Turkish Constitutional Court, of a political party, the Welfare Party, on the grounds that it wanted to introduce sharia law and a theocratic regime. A Grand Chamber of the Court found unanimously that there had been no violation of Article 11 of the Convention, which protects freedom of association. This case gave the Court the opportunity to conduct an in-depth analysis of the relationship between the Convention and democracy, political parties, and religion.

In its judgment,<ref>Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey [GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, judgment of 13 February 2003, to be reported in ECHR 2003-II.</ref> the Court first noted that freedom of thought, of religion, of expression and of association as guaranteed by the Convention could not deprive the authorities of a State in which an association, through its activities, jeopardised that State’s institutions, of the right to protect those institutions. It necessarily followed that a political party whose leaders incited to violence or put forward a policy which failed to respect democracy or which was aimed at the destruction of democracy and the flouting of the rights and freedoms recognised in a democracy, could not lay claim to the Convention’s protection against penalties imposed on those grounds. Such penalties could even, where there was a sufficiently established and imminent danger for democracy, take the form of preventive intervention.

Noting that the Welfare Party had pledged to set up a regime based on sharia law, the Court found that sharia was incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy as set forth in the Convention. It considered that “sharia, which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by religion, is stable and invariable. Principles such as pluralism in the political sphere or the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it”. According to the Court, it was difficult to declare one’s respect for democracy and human rights while at the same time supporting a regime based on sharia, which clearly diverged from Convention values, particularly with regard to its criminal law and criminal procedure, its rules on the legal status of women and the way it intervened in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts.

There is no doubt that this judgment is one of the major judgments of the Court in which it endeavours to define the shape and the boundaries of democracy and the rule of law.<ref name="ECtHR2003"></ref>}}

==See Also==

*[[Portal: Islam and Human Rights]]

==External Links==

*{{external link| url = http://politicsreligion.eu/issues-we-work-on/secularism-and-sharia-law/| title = Secularism and sharia law| publisher = The European Parliament Platform for Secularism in Politics| author = | date = August 2010| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fpoliticsreligion.eu%2Fissues-we-work-on%2Fsecularism-and-sharia-law%2F&date=2013-09-14| deadurl = no}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{page_title|European Court of Human Rights on Shari'ah Law}}
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Critics of Islam]]
[[fr:La cour europénne des droits de l'Homme et la Shariah]]

Jihad as Obligation (Fard)

2025-12-11T18:40:26Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=3|References=3}}
Depending on the school of Islamic thought, [[jihad]] is classified either as an ''individual duty'' (فرض العين fard al-'ayn) (obligatory for all Muslims) or a ''sufficiency duty'' (فرض الكفائي‎ fard al-kifaya) (community responsibility). Scholarly discussions of these two views revolve especially around {{Quran|2|216}} and {{Quran|9|122}}.<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam'', New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 60-61</ref>

Modern voices differentiate between a ''personal'' "greater jihad" and a military "lesser jihad." This dichotomy does not appear in classical or early Islamic literature or scripture, which refer to jihad largely as a doctrine of military conquest. Some have additionally argued that references to "internal struggle" in early Islamic literature are metaphorically used, making jihad an exclusively military concept.
==Scholars==

===Hanafi Fiqh===

{{Quote|Hanafi Madhhab|Ibn Aabidin said: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn if the enemy attacks one of the borders of the Muslims, and it becomes Fard Ayn upon those close by. For those who are far away, it is Fard Kifaya, if their assistance is not required. If they are needed, perhaps because those nearby the attack cannot resist the enemy, or are indolent and do not fight Jihad, then it becomes Fard Ayn upon those behind them, like the obligation to pray and fast. There is no room for them to leave it. If they too are unable, then it becomes Fard Ayn upon those behind them, and so on in the same manner until the jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon the whole Ummah of Islam from the East to the West". And the following have like Fatawa: Al Kassani, Ibn Najim and Ibn Hammam.<ref name="Islamic Emirate">[http://www.islamicemirate.com/fiqh-jurisprudence/jihad/1544-offensive-jihad-vs-defensive-jihad.html Offensive Jihad Vs. Defensive Jihad] - Islamic Emirate Online, The Fiqh Department</ref>}}

===Maliki Fiqh===

{{Quote|Maliki Madhhab|In Hashiyat ad Dussuqi it is stated: Jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon a surprise attack by the enemy. Dussuqi said: "Wherever this happens, jihad immediately becomes Fard Ayn upon everybody, even women, slaves and children, and they march out even if their guardians, husbands and creditors forbid them to.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun Ibn Khaldun] (1332 - 1406), a renowned Maliki jurist, philosopher, historian, and sociologist, wrote:

{{Quote||In the Muslim community, the holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the [Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. Therefore, caliphate and royal authority are united [in Islam], so that the person in charge can devote the available strength to both of them [i.e. religion and politics] at the same time. The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save only for purposes of defense. ... Islam is under obligation to gain power over other nations. ... 
Thereafter, there were dissensions among the Christians with regard to their religion and to Christology. ... We do not think that we should blacken the pages of this book with discussion of their dogmas of unbelief. In general, they are well known. All of them are unbelief. This is clearly stated in the noble Qur'an. [To] discuss or argue those things with them is not up to us. It is [for them to choose between] conversion to Islam, payment of the poll tax, or death.<ref>Ibn Khaldun, ''The Muqudimmah: An Introduction to History'', trans. Franz Rosenthal, vol. 1 (New York: Pantheon, 1958), pp. 60, 473, 480.</ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes Ibn Rushd (Averroes)] (1126 - 1198), an Andalusian-Arab master of Islamic law, philosopher, physician and mathematician, wrote:

{{Quote||'''''The legal qualification (hukm) of this activity and the persons obliged to take part in it''''' Scholars agree that the jihad is a collective not a personal obligation. Only 'Abd Allah Ibn al-Hasan professed it to be a recommendable act. According to the majority of scholars, the compulsory nature of the jihad is founded on [K 2:216] "''Fighting is prescribed for you, though it is distasteful to you.''"That this obligation is a collective and not a personal one, i.e., that the obligation, when it can be properly carried out by a limited number of individuals, is canceled for the remaining Moslems, is founded on [K 9:112]: "''It is not for the believers to march out all together,'' and, lastly, on the fact that the Prophet never went to battle without leaving some people behind. All this together implies that this activity is a collective obligation. The obligation to participate in the jihad applies to adult free men who have the means at their disposal to go to war and who are healthy, that is, not ill or suffering from chronic diseases. ... '''''The enemy''''' Scholars agree that all polytheists should be fought. This is founded on [K 8:39]: "''Fight them until there is no Fitnah and the religion is entirely Allah's''." ... '''''The damage allowed to be inflicted upon the different categories of enemies''''' Damage inflicted upon the enemy may consist in damage to his property, injury to his person or violation of his personal liberty, i.e., that he is made a slave and is appropriated. This may be done, according to the ''Consensus (idjma)'' to all polytheists: men, women, young and old, important and unimportant. Only with regard to monks do opinions vary; for some take it that they must be left in peace and that they must not be captured ... Most scholars are agreed that, in his dealings with captives, carious policies are open to the Imam. He may pardon them, kill them, or release them either on ransom or as ''dhimmi'', in which latter case the released captive is obliged to pay poll-tax." ... It is only allowed to slay the enemy on the condition that ''aman'' [safe conduct] has not been granted. There is no dissension about this among the Moslems. There is controversy, however, concerning who is entitled to grant ''aman''. Everyone is agreed that the Imam is entitled to this. ... As regards injury to the person, that is, the slaying of the enemy, the Moslems agree that in times of war, all adult, able bodied, unbelieving males may be slain. ... There is controversy about the question whether it is allowed to slay hermits who have retired from the world, the blind, the chronically ill and the insane, those who are old and unable to fight any longer, peasants, and serfs. ... '''''The prerequisites for warfare''''' According to all scholars, the prerequisite for warfare is that the enemy must have heard the summons to Islam. This implies that it is not allowed to attack them before the summons has reached them. All Moslems are agreed about this because of [K 17:15]: "''We have not be accustomed to punish until We have sent a messenger.''" However, there is controversy about the question whether the summons should be repeated when the war is resumed. ...
 '''''The maximum number of enemies against which one is obliged to stand one's ground''''' The maximum number of enemies against which one is obliged to stand one's group is twice the number [of one's won troops]. About this, everybody agrees on account of [K 8:66]: "Now Allah hath made it lighter for you and knoweth that there is weakness among you.''" ... '''''The aims of warfare''''' The Moslems are agreed that the aim of warfare against the People of the Book, with the exception of those belonging to the Quraysh-tribe and Arab Christians, is twofold: either conversion to Islam, or payment of poll-tax (''djizyah''). This is based on [K 9:29]: "''Fight against those who do not believe in Allah nor in the last Day, and do not make forbidden what Allah and His messenger have made forbidden, and do not practice the religion of truth, of those who have been given the Book, until they pay the jizya off-hand, being subdued.''" Most lawyers likewise agree that poll-tax may also be collected from Zoroastrians on the strength of the words of the Prophet: "''Treat them like the People of the Book''." There is, however, controversy with regard to polytheists who are not People of the Book: is it allowed to accept poll-tax from them or not? ...<ref>Excerpted from ''Bidayat al-Mudjtahid'', in Rudolph Peters, ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam: The Chapters on Jihad from Averroes' Legal Handbook "Bidayat al-mudjtahid,''" trans. and annotated by Rudolph Peters (Leiden: Brill, 1977), pp. 9-25.</ref>}}

===Shafi'i Fiqh===

{{Quote|Shaffi Madhhab|In the Nihayat al Mahtaj by Ramli: "If they approach one of our lands and the distance between them and us becomes less than the distance permitting the shortening of prayers, then the people of that territory must defend it and it becomes Fard Ayn even upon the people for whom there is usually no jihad; the poor, the children, the slaves, the debtor and the women.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafi'i] (767 - 820), widely considered the greatest Imam from among the Four Imams of Fiqh, wrote:

{{Quote||40. Shafi'i replied: God has imposed the [duty of] jihad as laid down in His Book and uttered by His Prophet's tongue. He stressed the calling [of men to fulfill] the jihad [duty] as follows:
<blockquote>God has brought from the believers their selves and their possessions against [the gift of] Paradise. They fight in the way of God; they kill, and are killed; that is a promise binding upon God in the Torah and Gospel and the Qur'an; and who fulfills his covenant better than God? So rejoice in the bargain you have made with Him. That is the mightly triumph. [Q. 9:112] 
And He said: 
Fight the polytheists totally as they fight you totally; and know that God is with the godfearing. [Q. 9:36] 
And He said: 
Slay the polytheists wherever you find them, and take them, and confine them, and lie in ambush for them everywhere. But if they repent and perform the prayer and pay the zakat, then set them free. God is All-forgiving, All-compassionate. [Q. 9:5] 
And He said: 
Fight those who do not believe in God nor in the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and His Apostle have made forbidden, and who do not practice the religion of truth, of those who have been given the Book, until they pay the jizya out of hand and have been humbled. [Q. 9:29]</blockquote> 
41. Abd al-Aziz b. Muhammad as-Darawardi told us from Muhammed b. Amr b. Alqama from Abu Salama [b. Abd al-Rahman] from Abu Hurayra, who said that the Apostle of God said: 
<blockquote>I shall continue to fight the unbelievers until they say: "There is no god but God," if they make this pronouncement they shall be secured in their blood and property, unless taken for its price, and their reward shall be given by God. 
And God, gloried by His praise, said: 
O believers, what is the matter with you, that when it is said to you: "Go forth in the way of God," you sink down to the ground? Are you so content with this present life as to neglect the Here-after? The enjoyment of this life is little in comparison with the Hereafter. If you do not go forth, He will inflict upon you a painful punishment, and instead of you He will substitute another people; and you will not hurt Him at all, for God is powerful over everything. [Q. 9:38-39] 
And he said: 
Go forth, light and heavy! Struggle in God's way with your possessions and yourselves! That is better for you, did you but know. [Q. 9:41]</blockquote> 
42. Shafi'i said: These communications mean that the jihad, and rising up in arms in particular, is obligatory for all able-bodied [believers], exempting no one, just as prayer, pilgrimage and [payment of] alms are performed, and no person is permitted to perform the duty for another, since performance by one will not fulfil the duty for another. They may also mean that the duty of [jihad] is a collective (kifaya) duty different from that of prayer: Those who perform it in the war against the polytheists will fulfill their duty and reciever the supererogatory merit, thereby preventing those who stayed behind from falling into error. But God has not put the two [categories of men] on equal footing, for He said: 
<blockquote>Such believers who sit at home - unless they have an injury - are not the equals of those who fight in the path of God with their possessions and their selves. God has given precedence to those who fight with their possessions and their selves over those who sit at home. Hod has promised the best of things to both, and He has preferred those who fight over those who fit at home by [granting them] a might reward. [Q. 4:97]</blockquote>
. . . 
So far as I have been informed, the Muslims have continued to act as I have stated, from the time of the Prophet to the present. Only a few men must know the law, attend the funeral service, perform the jihad and respond to greeting, while others are exempt. So those who know the law, perform the jihad, attend the funeral service, and respond to a greeting will be rewarded, while others do not fall into error since a sufficient number fulfill the [collective] duty.<ref>Excerpted from Majid Khadduri, trans., ''al-Imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shaf'i's al-Risala fi us ul al-fiqh: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence'' (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1997), pp. 82-87.</ref>}}

{{Quote|Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik|
o9.0 (O: Jihad means to war against non-Muslims, and is etymologically derived from the word mujahada, signifying warfare to establish the religion. o9.1 '''Jihad is a communal obligation''' (def: c3.2). When enough people perform it to successfully accomplish it, it is no longer obligatory upon others. o9.8 The caliph makes war upon Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians [kafirs] (N: provided he has first invited them to enter Islam in faith and practice, and if they will not, then invited them to enter the social order of Islam by paying the non-Muslim poll tax (jizya, def: o11.4) - which is the significance of their paying it, not the money itself-while remaining in their ancestral regions) (O: and the war continues) until they become Muslim or else pay the non-Muslim poll tax (O: in accordance with the word of Allah Most High. (A: though if there is no caliph (def: o25), no permission is required).<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>}}

===Hanbali Fiqh===

{{Quote|Hanafi Madhhab|In Al Mughni by Ibn al Qadamah: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn in three situations:
1) If the two sides meet in battle and they approach each other. 
2) If the Kuffar enter a land, jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon its people. 3) If the Imam calls a people to march forward it is obligatory upon them to march forward.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}

[[w:Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya |Ibn Qayyim]] (1292-1350), an Islamic jurist, commentator on the Qur'an, astronomer, chemist, philosopher, psychologist, scientist and theologian, wrote:

{{Quote||…thereafter it became an obligation upon them to fight the Mushrikeen (idolaters, disbelievers) completely. When such an action was initially haram (prohibited), then made permissible (by Allah (swt)); then made an obligation against those who began the aggression and finally (they were) ordered to fight the Kuffar entirely. Such a duty is either Fard ‘Ayn (an individual obligation) or Fard Kifayah according to the more famous opinion of the scholars.<ref>Referenced in '[http://downloads.islambase.info/booksEN/RulingJihad.pdf The Rulings on Jihad and its Divisions]', by Shaykh Yusuf al Uyayree, translated by Abu Osama</ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Qudamah Ibn Qudamah] (1147-1223), an Islamic scholar born in Jerusalem, wrote:

{{Quote||Legal war (jihad) is an obligatory social duty (''fard-kifaya''); when one group of Muslims guarantees that it is being carried out in a satisfactory manner, the others are exempted. The jihad becomes a strictly binding personal duty (fard-'ain) for all Muslims who are enlisted or whose country has been [invaded] by the enemy. It is obligatory only for free men who have reached puberty, are endowed with reason and capable of fighting. Jihad is the best of the works of supererogation. ... Naval expeditions are more meritorious than campaigns on land. One must fight under every leader, whether it be a respectable man or a corrupt man. Every nation must fight the enemies that are its immediate neighbors. A full stint of service in a frontier post (''ribat'') is of forty days' duration. ... No one can engage in jihad without the permission of his father and mother, if they are alive and Muslims, unless the jihad is an individual duty that strictly obliges. Only elderly women are permitted to venture into the war zone in order to replenish the water supply and to care for the wounded. No one should enlist the services of an infidel except in case of need. ... It is permitted to surprise the infidels under cover of night, to bombard them with mangonels and to attack them without declaring battle (du'a). ... The chief of state decides on the fate of the men who are taken prisoners; he can have them put to death, reduce them to slavery, free them in return for a ransom or grant them their freedom as a gift. ... The head tax can be demanded only from the People of the Book (''ahl-al-kitab'') and from Zoroastrians (''Magus''), who pledge to pay it and submit to the laws of the community. ... It cannot be demanded from children who have not reached the age of puberty, from women, helpless old men, the sick, the blind, or slaves, nor from poor people who are unable to pay it. An infidel subject to the head tax who converts to Islam is free of this obligation. When an infidel dies, his heirs are responsible for the head tax.<ref>Excerpted from Henri Laoust, trans., ''Le precis de droit d'Ibn Qudama, jurisconsulte musulman d'ecole hanbalite ne a Jerusalem en 541/1146, mort a Damas en 620/1123'', Livre 20, "La Guerre Legale" (Beirut, 1950), pp. 273-76, 281. English translation by Michael J. Miller.</ref>}}

===Other / Unknown===

{{Quote|[http://downloads.islambase.info/booksEN/RulingJihad.pdf Thawaabit ala darb al Jihad (Constants on The Path of Jihad)] Shaykh al Uyayree|This is the request and call, from the Muslims to the Kuffar (disbelievers) in their lands and dwelling places to enter Islam and to fight them if they do not accept the rule of the Islamic authority over them. This type of Jihad [offensive] is a collective obligation (Fard ul-Kifaya) upon the Muslims. There are numerous evidences detailing this type of Jihad in both the Qur’an and the Sunnah.}}

==Hadith==

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1910|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: One who died but did not fight in the way of Allah nor did he express any desire (or determination) for Jihad died the death of a hypocrite. }}

{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5708 Jihad is made Obligatory] Sahih hadith, Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=Whoever dies but neither fought (i.e., in Allah's cause), nor sincerely considered fighting, will die a death of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era of ignorance.}}

==Quran==

===Fighting is good for you (2:216)===

====Verse====

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|216}}|Fighting is prescribed for you, and ye dislike it. But it is possible that ye dislike a thing which is good for you, and that ye love a thing which is bad for you. But Allah knoweth, and ye know not}}

====Meaning====

{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5708 Jihad is made Obligatory] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2='''Jihad is made Obligatory'''

In this Ayah, Allah made it obligatory for the Muslims to fight in Jihad against the evil of the enemy who transgress against Islam. '''Az-Zuhri said, "Jihad is required from every person, whether he actually joins the fighting or remains behind. Whoever remains behind is required to give support, if support is warranted; to provide aid, if aid is needed; and to march forth, if he is commanded to do so. If he is not needed, then he remains behind.''' It is reported in the Sahih:

(Whoever dies but neither fought (i.e., in Allah's cause), nor sincerely considered fighting, will die a death of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era of ignorance).)'''

On the day of Al-Fath (when he conquered Makkah), the Prophet said:

(There is no Hijrah (migration from Makkah to Al-Madinah) after the victory, but only Jihad and good intention. If you were required to march forth, then march forth.)

Allah's statement:

(...though you dislike it) means, `Fighting is difficult and heavy on your hearts.' Indeed, fighting is as the Ayah describes it, as it includes being killed, wounded, striving against the enemies and enduring the hardship of travel. Allah then said:

(. ..and it may be that you dislike a thing which is good for you) meaning, fighting is followed by victory, dominance over the enemy, taking over their lands, money and offspring. Allah continues:

(...and that you like a thing which is bad for you.)

This Ayah is general in meaning. Hence, one might covet something, yet in reality it is not good or beneficial for him, such as refraining from joining the Jihad, for it might lead to the enemy taking over the land and the government. Then, Allah said:

(Allah knows, but you do not know.) meaning, He has better knowledge than you of how things will turn out to be in the end, and of what benefits you in this earthly life and the Hereafter. Hence, obey Him and adhere to His commands, so that you may acquire the true guidance.}}

{{Quote|1=[http://quran.com/2/216 Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:216] Tafsir al-Jalalayn|2=Prescribed for you, obligatory [for you], is fighting, disbelievers, though it be hateful to you, by nature, because of the hardship involved. Yet it may happen that you hate a thing which is good for you; and it may happen that you love a thing which is bad for you: because the soul inclines towards those desires which result in its destruction and its rejection of the religious obligations that would bring about its happiness.}}

===Go forth light and heavy (9:41)===

====Verse====

{{Quote|{{Quran|9|41}}|Go forth light and heavy, and strive hard in Allah's way with your property and your persons; this is better for you, if you know.}}

====Meaning====

{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&tid=21210 Jihad is required in all Conditions] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2='''Jihad is required in all Conditions'''

Sufyan Ath-Thawri narrated from his father from Abu Ad-Duha, Muslim bin Subayh, who said, "This Ayah,

(March forth, whether you are light or heavy) `Ali bin Zayd narrated that Anas said that Abu Talhah commented (on this Ayah), "Whether you are old or young, '''Allah did not leave an excuse for anyone'''.'' Abu Talhah marched to Ash-Sham and fought until he was killed. In another narration, Abu Talhah recited Surah Bara'ah until he reached this Ayah,

(March forth, whether you are light or heavy, and strive hard with your wealth and your lives in the cause of Allah.) He then said, "I see that Allah had called us to mobilize whether we are old or young. O my children! Prepare my supplies.'' His children said, `May Allah grant you His mercy! You conducted Jihad along with the Messenger of Allah until he died, then with Abu Bakr until he died, then with `Umar until he died. Let us perform Jihad in your place.'' Abu Talhah refused and he went to the sea [under the command of Mu`awiyah] where he died. They could not find an island to bury him on until nine days later, during which his body did not deteriorate or change and they buried him on the island. As-Suddi said,

(March forth, whether you are light or heavy), whether you are rich, poor, strong, or weak. A man came forward, and he was fat, complained, and asked for permission to stay behind [from Jihad], but the Prophet refused. Then this Ayah,}}

==Encyclopaedia of Islam Online==

{{Quote|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|The duty of the jihad exists as long as the universal domination of Islam has not been attained. Peace with non-Muslim nations is, therefore, a provisional state of affairs only; the chance of circumstances alone can justify it temporarily. Furthermore there can be no question of genuine peace treaties with these nations; only truces, whose duration ought not, in principle, to exceed ten years, are authorized. But even such truces are precarious, inasmuch as they can, before they expire, be repudiated unilaterally should it appear more profitable for Islam to resume the conflict.<ref>[http://www.brill.nl/publications/online-resources/encyclopaedia-islam-online "Encyclopaedia of Islam Online"]. BRILL. 2007. Retrieved October 2008.</ref>}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]

Khula

2025-12-11T18:40:11Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=3|References=2}}

''Talaq'' (طلاق) (divorce) is the right of a man to end his marriage in Islamic law, which is permitted for any reason. According to traditional [[Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)|fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)]], women do not share this right. Although modern Islamic feminists have challenged this inequality, it remains the position of the major madhaahab (schools of jurisprudence) of Islamic law. A woman who wishes to divorce her husband must instead obtain permission "through the (Islamic) court" by means of a process known as ''khula'' or ''Khul''' (خلع)<ref>[https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/women-in-islamic-law-examining-five-prevalent-myths Women in Islamic Law: Examining Five Prevalent Myths] </ref> <ref>{{Cite web| title = Can Muslim women divorce?| author = Yaqeen Institute | work = YouTube| date = 17 December 2019| access-date = 20 October 2021| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OY8KtRQWzrg}}</ref>.

Khul' is subject to several conditions and restrictions not applied to talaq.

*Khul' is not considered a right, and a woman's husband has the right to either grant or deny it.
*With the exception of a few specific circumstances, traditional [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]] does not allow Islamic courts to compel a husband to grant his wife's wish to divorce.
*Khul' requires that a woman financially compensa<nowiki/>te her husband in order to divorce him. If the husband accepts her offer, the divorce may proceed; if he does not accept, the woman must remain in the marriage.
*While physical abuse is generally not accepted as grounds to override the husband's veto, an exception exists for cases where the husband inflicts extremely serious injuries, such as broken bones. In such cases, a court can force the dissolution of the marriage over the husband's objection, though the woman must still compensate the husband financially.

Khul' is sometimes confused with the 'Faskh' (فسخ) of Nikah (dissolution of marriage).

In 'Faskh' (i.e. dissolution of marriage):

*A woman may obtain a dissolution of her marriage without the requirement to offer financial compensation.
*Faskh can take place only under a small number of special circumstances, such as a husband's failure to financially support his wife, mental illness, or his whereabouts being unknown. In these cases, the woman is still compelled to wait for several years before the dissolution of the marriage.

==Quranic Verse about the Khul'==
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|229}}|الطَّلاَقُ مَرَّتَانِ فَإِمْسَاكٌ بِمَعْرُوفٍ أَوْ تَسْرِيحٌ بِإِحْسَانٍ وَلاَ يَحِلُّ لَكُمْ أَن تَأْخُذُواْ مِمَّا آتَيْتُمُوهُنَّ شَيْئًا إِلاَّ أَن يَخَافَا أَلاَّ يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللّهِ فَإِنْ خِفْتُمْ أَلاَّ يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللّهِ فَلاَ جُنَاحَ عَلَيْهِمَا فِيمَا افْتَدَتْ بِهِ 
A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold Together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness. It is not lawful for you, (Men), to take back any of your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah. If ye (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah, there is no blame on either of them '''if she gives something for her freedom ( Arabic word:افْتَدَتْ which means Ransom money)'''.}}

==Physical abuse leaving bruises==
According to Sahih Bukhari, even a brutal beating resulting in bruises is not enough to dissolve a marriage through Khul' or in any other way:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari||77|42|in-book}}|Rifa`a divorced his wife whereupon `AbdurRahman married her. `Aisha said that the lady (came), wearing a green veil, and complained to her (Aisha) of her husband '''and showed her a green spot on her skin caused by beating.''' It was the habit of ladies to support each other, so when Allah's Messenger came, `Aisha said, '''"I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"'''

When `AbdurRahman heard that his wife had gone to the Prophet, he came with his two sons from another wife.

She said, '''"By Allah! I have done no wrong to him but he is impotent and is as useless to me''' as this," holding and showing the fringe of her garment,

`Abdur-Rahman said, "By Allah, O Allah's Messenger! She has told a lie! I am very strong and can satisfy her '''but she is disobedient and wants to go back to (her first husband) Rifa`a.

" Allah's Messenger said, to her, "If that is your intention (i.e. to do Halala), then know that it is unlawful for you to remarry Rifa`a unless `Abdur-Rahman has had sexual intercourse with you."

Then the Prophet saw two boys with `Abdur- Rahman and asked (him), "Are these your sons?" On that `AbdurRahman said, "Yes." The Prophet said, "You claim what you claim (i.e.. that he is impotent)? But by Allah, these boys resemble him as a crow resembles a crow"}}

==Physical abuse resulting in broken bones==
{{Quote|{{Bukhari||13|54|in-book}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Habibah daughter of Sahl was the wife of Thabit ibn Qays Shimmas. '''He beat her and broke some of her part'''. So she came to the Prophet after morning, and complained to him against her husband. The Prophet called on Thabit ibn Qays and said (to him): '''Take a part of her property and separate yourself from her'''. He asked: Is that right, Messenger of Allah? He said: Yes. He said: '''I have given her two gardens of mine as a dower''', and they are already in her possession. The Prophet said: '''Take them (as the ransom money) and separate yourself from her'''.

Sheikh Albani declared this Hadith to be “Sahih” (authentic)}}

==Husband's infertility==
All four schools of Sunni [[fiqh]] agree that the wife cannot be granted a divorce on the grounds that her husband is infertile.

{{Quote|[https://web.archive.org/web/20211011105923/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/21592/ruling-on-asking-for-a-divorce-from-a-husband-who-has-some-medical-problems Fatwa Website Islam Question and Answer]|With regard to the man’s sterility, i.e., his inability to father children, this is not counted as a fault that would necessitate annulment of the marriage, according to the majority of scholars, apart from the view of al-Hasan al-Basri, and Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah}}

On the other hand, if woman is infertile, Islamic law stipulates that a husband may immediately divorce her, as in the case of Umar Ibn Khattab<ref>Umar Ibn Khattab divorced his wife due to the fault of her being infertile.[https://web.archive.org/web/20211010131320/https://www.islamweb.org/en/fatwa/93808/the-status-of-the-barren-women-in-islam]</ref>.

==Character of women who seek divorce==
Some hadith report that women who seek khul' are hypocrites and will not enter paradise.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|11|1186}}|عَنْ ثَوْبَانَ، عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏"‏ الْمُخْتَلِعَاتُ هُنَّ الْمُنَافِقَاتُ ‏"‏

The Prophet said: "The women who seek a Khul are hypocrites."
Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|11|1187}}|عَنْ ثَوْبَانَ أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏ "‏ أَيُّمَا امْرَأَةٍ سَأَلَتْ زَوْجَهَا طَلاَقًا مِنْ غَيْرِ بَأْسٍ فَحَرَامٌ عَلَيْهَا رَائِحَةُ الْجَنَّةِ

The Messenger of Allah said: "Whichever woman seeks a Khul from her husband without harm, then the scent of Paradise will be unlawful for her."
Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}
No hadith attributes similar charges to men who seek divorce.

==Influence of Islamic law on modern legislation==
The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Muslim_Marriages_Act,_1939 'Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939'] shows influence from the ideas of Faskh. The law was written by Muslim scholars of the Indian subcontinent and later became official legislation in Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as personal/family law for Muslims in India.

{{Quote|[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Muslim_Marriages_Act,_1939 Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939]|'''Grounds for divorce'''
Under the act a woman married under Muslim Law shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds,[1]

(i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of '''four years''' ;

(ii) that the husband has neglected or has failed to provide for her maintenance for a period of '''two years''' ;

(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of '''seven years''' or upwards ;

(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause his marital obligations for a period of '''three years''' ; continues to be so:

(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and

(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of '''two years''' or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease ;

(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of fifteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years : '''Provided that the marriage has not been consummated''' (''i.e. if the husband has slept with her before she becomes 18 years old, then she will loose her right to get divorce'') ;}}

==Women's movement against the rulings of Khul' and Faskh rulings in Pakistan and Bangladesh==
Women's protests against Khul' and Faskh regulations began shortly after Pakistan gained independence from the British Crown in 1947. The Supreme Court of Pakistan ruled that women may divorce their husbands through Khul' without offering their husbands financial compensation. The same rule took effect in Bangladesh after it gained its independence in 1971.<ref>Judicial Law-Making: An Analysis of Case Law on Khul‘ in [https://www.iiu.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/downloads/journals/ilr/volume1/num-1/Article_1_Vol1_1_010817.pdf Pakistan]</ref> During this period, the wait times prescribed in Faskh regulations were also reduced.

The Supreme Court of Pakistan's ruling had been subject to criticism from Islamic scholars, who consider it incompatible with the [[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]]<ref>Right of Women to Divorce: Adjudication of Redemption (Khul') In Islamic Law and Pakistani Law, A Critical Analysis of the Orthodox Islamic Scholars and Recommendations of Pakistani Courts On The Basis of Legal Opinion (Ijtehad)[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281634445_Right_of_Women_to_Divorce_Adjudication_of_Redemption_Khul'_In_Islamic_Law_and_Pakistani_Law_A_Critical_Analysis_of_the_Orthodox_Islamic_Scholars_and_Recommendations_of_Pakistani_Courts_On_The_Basis_of]</ref>.

{{Quote|[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281634445_Right_of_Women_to_Divorce_Adjudication_of_Redemption_Khul'_In_Islamic_Law_and_Pakistani_Law_A_Critical_Analysis_of_the_Orthodox_Islamic_Scholars_and_Recommendations_of_Pakistani_Courts_On_The_Basis_of Right of Women to Divorce: Adjudication of Redemption (Khul') In Islamic Law and Pakistani Law, A Critical Analysis of the Orthodox Islamic Scholars and Recommendations of Pakistani Courts On The Basis of Legal Opinion (Ijtehad)]|'''Abstract''':
Pakistan is an Islamic country. The laws made by the Parliament and Judiciary are administered according to the injunction of Islam. There are many laws made for the protections of women. Among these rights granted, right of women to khul " is also awarded by Islamic Law. Khul " is the proposal given to the husband by the wife for divorce. Judicial Khul " is exercised in Pakistani courts, according to Article 2(ix) of dissolution of Muslims Marriages Act 1939. '''A large number of Ulama (Islamic Jurists) even today, refuse to recognize khul " granted by courts without the consent of the husband as a valid divorce. Confusion is caused by two parallel and conflicting interpretations of the Islamic Law. On one hand, there is the statutory law and interpretation by the Superior Courts of Pakistan and on the other hand, is the interpretation of Jurists of Islamic Law with strong arguments from Qur " an and Sunnah'''.}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

List of Genocides, Cultural Genocides and Ethnic Cleansings under Islam

2025-12-11T18:39:54Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=3|References=4}}
This article lists genocides, cultural genocides, and acts of ethnic cleansing under islamic regimes from the origin of Islam to present day.

Such acts are not uniquely perpetrated by any particular religion or culture, and [[w:Persecution of Muslims|Muslims themselves suffer persecution]] in various parts of the world. Muslims have themselves suffered genocide, for example [[w:Bosnian genocide|in Bosnia]]. Nevertheless, regimes in the Islamic world have also perpetrated such atrocities.

Excluded from the list below are mutual population exchanges, massacres, and war crimes involving non-Muslims and Muslims (such as Greece–Turkey, India–Pakistan or Israel–Palestine).

==Main Table==

Key:

*No color: Non-Muslims targeted
*Light green: Predominantly Muslims targeted
*Orange: Both Muslims and Non-Muslims targeted
*Dark green: Mainly Shia perpetrators

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" width="100%"
!No.!!Victims!!Region!! style="width: 180px;" |Country (Present-Day Geographical Location)!!Perpetrators!!Period!!Notes
|-
|1||Arab polytheists||Arabian peninsula||{{nameandflag|Saudi Arabia}}|| ||600s AD||

|-
|2||Jews||Arabian peninsula|| || ||600s AD||

|-
|3||Christians||Arabian peninsula|| || ||600s AD||

|-
| ||Traditional Berber religion||North Africa|| ||Arab Muslims||647 onwards||

|-
| ||Berber Christians|| ||Algeria||Umayyad Caliphate<ref>''The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam'' C. J. Speel, II Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec., 1960), pp. 379-397</ref>||647 onwards||

|-
| ||Zoroastrians||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}}, {{nameandflag|Iraq}}||Arab and Persian Muslims||642-early 10th century||<ref>Stepaniants 2002, p. 163</ref><ref>Boyce 2001, p. 148</ref><ref name="gatha">{{cite web|url=http://www.gatha.org/english/articles/000258.html |title=The History of Zoroastrians After Arab Invasion |author=Dr. Daryush Jahanian |work=European Centre for Zoroastrian Studies |publisher= |accessdate=20 October 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414093548/http://www.gatha.org/english/articles/000258.html |archivedate=14 April 2009 }}</ref>

|-
| ||Hindus|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}|| || ||

|-
| ||Buddhists||Kabul valley, Bamiyan etc.||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||[[w:Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid dynasty]]||9th century AD||<ref> Hamid Wahed Alikuzai, ''A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes, Volume 14'' Trafford Publishing, 2013. 1490714413. p.120</ref>

|-
| ||Dards||Kashmir and northern Pakistan||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Arab invaders, Swat princely state||c. 700 AD and 1858-1969||Most Dards were converted to Islam<ref name="Inam-ur-Rahim, Alain M. Viaro">{{cite web|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p_9tAAAAMAAJ&q=dard+people+swati&dq=dard+people+swati&lr=&cd=1|title = Swat: an Afghan society in Pakistan : urbanisation and change in tribal environment|publisher = City Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Minahan|first=James B.|title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|language=English |isbn=9781610690188|page=205|quote=Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called ''imr'o'' or ''imra'' by the Nuristani tribes. Around 700 CE, Arab invaders swept through the region now known as Afghanistan, destroying or forcibly converting the population to their new Islamic religion. Refugees from the invaders fled into the higher valleys to escape the onslaught. In their mountain strongholds, the Nuristani escaped conversion conversion to Islam and retained their ancient religion and culture. The surrounding Muslim peoples used the name ''Kafir'', meaning "unbeliever" or "infidel," to describe the independent Nuristani tribes and called their highland homeland Kafiristan.}}</ref>

|-
| ||Turgesh Turks, Sogdians||Transoxiana||{{nameandflag|Uzbekistan}}, {{nameandflag|Tajikistan}}, {{nameandflag|Kyrgyzstan}}||Umayyad Caliphate||721 onwards||The culture and heritage of the Sogdians was destroyed, and it is almost impossible to reconstruct their history.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Roudik|title=The History of the Central Asian Republics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-8_3jbZU9ikC&pg=PT48&dq=sogdian+islam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUpcz5uu3OAhXJ0RQKHeXYCoEQ6AEIMjAD#v=onepage&q=sogdian%20islam&f=false|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-34013-0|pages=48–}}</ref> In the post-Umayyad period, Islam had firmly established itself here.

|-
| ||Coptic Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||Caliph al-Mamun and Muslim mobs||c.832-837||In a clash between Spanish Muslim invaders and Egyptian Muslims, Copts supported the former. Their churches were looted and destroyed in retaliation. The caliph also subdued their rebellion by massacring them. Many monks were killed and monasteries destroyed in later years.<ref>Robert Morgan ''History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt''. FriesenPress, 21-Sep-2016. ISBN 9781460280270 p.203-205</ref>
|-
| ||Buddhists, proto-Iranian Hindus, Shamanists, Manichaeans||Xinjiang province||Western {{nameandflag|China}}||Kara Khanids<ref>Dust in the Wind: Retracing Dharma Master Xuanzang's Western Pilgrimage. Rhythms Monthly. 2006. pp. 479–. ISBN 978-986-81419-8-8.</ref>||900s to 1500s||There were centuries-long attacks in this region.<ref>Zhang, Longxi; Schneider, Axel, eds. (7 June 2013). "Lecture 4 The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for its Sealing". Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang. Brill's Humanities in China Library. 5. BRILL. pp. 132–. ISBN 90-04-25233-9.</ref> Buddhist monuments and artifacts were also destroyed on a large scale. The area was largely Islamized.

|-
| ||Hindus and Buddhists||Gandhara||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Mahmud of Ghazni||998-1030||Mass conversions and coercions<ref>Afghanistan: a new history By Martin Ewans Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Routledge, 2002, Page 15, ISBN 0-415-29826-1, ISBN 978-0-415-29826-1</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Siege of Cordoba||{{nameandflag|Spain}}||Berber Muslims led by Umayyad ruler||1013||The inhabitants of Cordoba, including Jews, were massacred and looted. 2,000 were reportedly killed.<ref>Kantor, Máttis (2005-11-01). Codex Judaica: Chronological index of Jewish history, covering 5,764 years of Biblical, Talmudic & post-Talmudic history. Zichron Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-9670378-3-7.
</ref><ref>(Fletcher, Richard (2006-05-05). Moorish Spain. University of California Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-520-24840-3.)</ref><ref> Morris, Benny (1999). ''Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict'', 1881-2001. Random House, Inc. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-679-42120-7.</ref><ref>Brann, Ross (2009-12-21). ''Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Islamic Spain''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14673-7.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Fez||{{nameandflag|Morocco}}||Berber soldiers||1033||In this pogrom, Muslims killed more than 6,000 Jews, kidnapped women, and pillaged belongings.<ref>{{Cite web| publisher = Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa | last = Assaleh | first = Abu-Mohammed | others = Jozé de Santo Antonio Moura (trans.) | title = Historia dos soberanos mohametanos: das primeiras quatro dysnastias e de parte da quinta, que reinarao na Mauritania | location = Lisbon | accessdate = 2011-03-30 | year = 1828 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WFUpAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | page=117 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | publisher = Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa | pages = 47–140 | last = Moura | first = Jozé de Santo Antonio | title = Memórias de Academia das Ciências de Lisboa | chapter = Memoria sobre as dinastias mohammetanas, que tem reinado na Mauritania, com a serie chronologica dos soberanos de cada huma dellas | location = Lisbon | accessdate = 2011-03-30 | year = 1827 | chapterurl = https://books.google.com/books?id=E9NOAAAAYAAJ&dq=fez+1033+tamim&source=gbs_navlinks_s }}</ref><ref>Morris, Jan (1959). The Hashemite kings. Pantheon. p. 85</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish communities of the world |last=Beker |first=Avi |year=1998 |page=203 |publisher=Lerner Publications|isbn=0-8225-1934-8}}</ref>


|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Ismaili Shias||Sindh, in the Indian subcontinent||{{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Mahmud of Ghazni||1025||Mahmud defeated the Shia ruler and slaughtered many Ismailis.<ref>Sarah F. D. Ansari. ''Sufi Saints and State Power: The Pirs of Sind, 1843-1947''. Issue 50 of Cambridge South Asian Studies, ISSN 0575-6863, Volume 50 of South Asian studies. Cambridge University Press (1992). ISBN 0521405300. p.16.</ref><ref>Mushirul Hasan, ‎Asim Roy. ''Living Together Separately: Cultural India in History and Politics'' Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195669215 p.156.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Serer religion|Serer religion]]||Tekrur||{{nameandflag|Senegal}} {{nameandflag|Gambia}} and nearby areas||King War Jabi, his Almoravid allies and many other African Muslims||1035-1867||The Serer were under pressure to embrace Islam for centuries. An unknown number of them died in these jihads, but many of them scattered.<ref>Page, Willie F., "Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)", pp 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), ISBN 0-8160-4472-4</ref><ref>Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture,'' (2010), p 11, ISBN 9987-9322-2-3</ref><ref>Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), ISBN 1-57505-951-7</ref><ref>Oliver, Roland Anthony, Fage, J. D., "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref>James Stuart Olson (1996). [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=MdaAdBC-_S4C&pg=PA516&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary]. Greenwood. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-313-27918-8.</ref>

|-
| ||Armenian Christians||Ani||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan||1064||Part of the Muslim conquest of Anatolia.<ref> John Julius (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. New York: Viking. pp. 342–343. ISBN 978-0-394-53779-5.</ref><ref>Johnstone p.43</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Granada||{{nameandflag|Spain}}|| ||1066||Muslims crucified the Jewish vizier and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |title=GRANADA |publisher=Jewish Encyclopedia |author=Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815121443/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>Laqueur, Walter (2006). The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9. LCCN 2005030491. OCLC 62127914.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Maghreb and Andalusia||{{nameandflag|Morocco}}, {{nameandflag|Spain}} (southern), {{nameandflag|Portugal}}, {{nameandflag|Tunisia}}||Almohad Caliphate||1126-1269||Jews were expelled, killed or forced to convert to Islam.<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170309123848/http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/39129/1/Almohad.MEAH.pdf</ref><ref>Frank and Leaman, ''The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy''. 2003, pp. 137–138</ref><ref>M.J. Viguera. "Almohads." Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Executive Editor: Norman A. Stillman. Brill Online, 2014</ref>

|-
| ||Jains|| ||{{nameandflag|India}}||Various Muslim invaders||1100s-1600s||Through the centuries, Muslims killed numerous Jains, destroyed many of their temples and idols, looted treasures, and burned books. This persecution was frequent until the 17th century.<ref>von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&q=74#v=snippet&q=74&f=false ''Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation''] [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted: 1999), ISBN 81-208-1376-6 pp.73-74 p.81.</ref><ref>Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], ''The Jains'' (Second ed.), London and New York City: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26605-X pp. 145-146, 83, 124, p.163, pp. 220-221</ref><ref>{{cite web|quote=The rich body of medieval Jain literature is notable for its strident assertion of the power of the faith and images to withstand the Islamic onslaught. Images that had retreated or gone into exile reappear more powerful than ever, and even those mutilated reveal increased ability to perform miracles. Jain literature discusses the entire gamut of problems related to image worship in the medieval era, including the appropriate medium in which to fashion icons in times of Muslim threat, the sufferings of the true faith in an age of declining virtue, the necessity of hiding images for safety, the divine order to unearth images and resume their worship, the smashing of images by those wicked Muslims and their final restitution through the agency of a devotee.|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630173749/http://hindureview.com/2004/04/20/review-romila-thapar%C2%92s-%C2%93somanatha-many-voices-history/ |first=Meenakshi | last=Jain| url=http://hindureview.com/2004/04/20/review-romila-thapar%C2%92s-%C2%93somanatha-many-voices-history/ |title=Review of Romila Thapar’s Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History |work=The Pioneer | date=21 March 2004}}</ref>

|-
| ||Buddhists||Bihar||{{nameandflag|India}}||Bakhtiyar Khilji||c.1197-1203||Famous Buddhist monasteries and universities were also destroyed<ref>Ishwari Prasad, ''Medieval India'' (Allahabad, Fourth Publication, 1940), p.138.</ref><ref>The Indian Antiquary, Vol. IV, pp.366-67.</ref><ref>Habibullah, Abul Barkat Muhammad. ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India''. (Allahabad, 1961). p.147.</ref>

|-
| ||Christians||Anatolia||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Muslim Turks|| ||

|-
| ||Buddhists|| ||{{nameandflag|Maldives}}|| ||c. 1200s onwards||

|-
| ||Kanuri people||Kanem empire||{{nameandflag|Chad}}, {{nameandflag|Nigeria}}, {{nameandflag|Cameroon}}||[[w:Dunama Dabbalemi|Dunama Dabbalemi]]||1203 to 1243||All Kanuris converted to Islam.<ref>Barkindo, Bawuro, "The early states of the Central Sudan: Kanem, Borno and some of their neighbours to c. 1500 A.D.", in: J. Ajayi und M. Crowder (ed.), ''History of West Africa'', vol. I, 3. ed. Harlow 1985, 225-254.</ref><ref>"Three Continents, One History: Birmingham, the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Caribbean", p. 18, by Clive Harris.</ref>

|-
| ||Mongol converts to Islam<ref>Smith, Vincent A. ''The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911'', Chapter 2, pp 231-235, Oxford University Press.</ref>||Delhi||{{nameandflag|India}}||[[w:Alauddin Khilji|Alauddin Khilji]]||1298||15,000-30,000 were killed.

|-
| ||Assyrian Christians||Irbil/Arbela||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}||Kurds and Arabs||1310||After the siege of Irbil, about 150,000 of its Christians were massacred.<ref> Grousset, René, ''The Empire of the Steppes'' (French), translated by Naomi Walford, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press (1970) p. 383</ref><ref name="Jonston49">Johnstone p.49</ref>


|-
| ||Hindus||Kashmir||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||[[w:Sikandar Butshikan|Sikandar Butshikan]]||1389-1413||<ref>Kaw, K.; Kashmir Education, Culture, and Science Society (2004). [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC ''Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society'']. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. ISBN 9788176485371. Retrieved 7 July 2015.</ref><ref>Haidar Malik Chãdurãh. ''Tãrîkh-i-Kashmîr''. edited and translated into English by Razia Bano, Delhi, 1991. p. 55.</ref>

|-
| ||Coptic Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||Mamluk Sultanate||1300s-1517||Rampant discrimination and persecution under the Pact of Umar forced a majority of Copts to convert to Islam.<ref>Stilt, Kristen (2011). ''Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199602438. p.120.</ref> The Mamluks destroyed most of the churches and killed an estimated 300,000 Copts over the 13th century.<ref>Johnstone p.49</ref>

|-
| ||Maronites and Greek Orthodox Christians||Coast of the Levant||{{nameandflag|Lebanon}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}||Mamluk Sultanate||1300s||These communities were expelled and their settlements were destroyed.<ref>Teule, Herman G. B. (2013). "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516". In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=dgy7SN3ZixsC&pg=PA11&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350-1500)]''. p.11. Brill. ISBN 9789004252783.</ref>

|-
| ||Nestorian Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Iran}}, {{nameandflag|Uzbekistan}}||[[w:Timur|Timur]]||1380s-1405||Timur's raids and slaughters nearly exterminated the followers of the Nestorian Church in the Near East.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorians</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Fez||{{nameandflag|Morocco}}|| ||1465||Muslim subjects overthrew the last Marinid ruler who had appointed many Jews to high positions. This had angered many Muslims and was one of the main pretexts for them to massacre the entire Jewish community of Fez.<ref> Haddad, Heskel M. (1984). ''Jews of Arab and Islamic countries: history, problems, solutions''. Shengold Publishers. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-88400-100-3.</ref><ref>Maya Shatzmiller, ''The Berbers And The Islamic State:The Marinid Experience In Pre-Protectorate Morocco'', Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2000, p. 67.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Songhai Empire||{{nameandflag|Mali}}||[[w:Askia Mohammad I|Askia Mohammad I]]||1492||Askia decreed that Jews must convert to Islam or leave, destroying their synagogue. Most of the Jews converted to Islam, and Malian intolerance towards them was reported as recently as the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kulanu.org:80/timbuktu/timbuktu.html |title=The Renewal of Jewish Identity in Timbuktu |publisher= |author=Karen Primack |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041017005023/http://www.kulanu.org:80/timbuktu/timbuktu.html |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

|-
| ||Zoroastrians||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}}|| style="background:#8F9779" |Persian Muslims under the Safavid dynasty||1502-1747||<ref>Jahanian, Daryoush. ''The History of Zoroastrians after Arab Invasion; Alien in Their Homeland.'' The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies. 1996 and 2001.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Sunnis||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}} , {{nameandflag|Iraq}}<ref>Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict, By William Spencer, pg.51</ref> {{nameandflag|Azerbaijan}}<ref>''Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces'', By Steven R. Ward, pg.43</ref>|| style="background:#8F9779" |Safavid dynasty||1502-1722||

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Takkalu tribe||Persia|| || style="background:#8F9779" |Shah Ismail|| ||


|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Shias||Kashmir||{{nameandflag|India}}|| ||1500s to 1800s||<ref>http://www.tehelka.com/2013/11/are-kashmiri-shias-the-next-pandits/</ref>

|-
| ||Yazidis||Baghdad, Mosul, Diyarbakir, etc.||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}, {{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Empire||1500s to 1800s||A large Yazidi community existed in Syria, but they declined due to persecution by the Ottoman Empire. Several expeditions were launched against the Yazidis by the Ottoman governors (Wāli) of Diyarbakir, Mosul and Baghdad. The aim of these attacks was the forced conversion of Yazidis to Sunni Hanafi Islam.<ref>Commins, David Dean. ''Historical Dictionary of Syria.'' Scarecrow Press. p. 282. ISBN 0-8108-4934-8.</ref><ref>Ghareeb, Edmund A. (2004). ''Historical Dictionary of Iraq''. Scarecrow Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-8108-4330-7.</ref><ref>Hastings, James (2003). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 18. Kessinger. p. 769. ISBN 0-7661-3695-7.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Alevis||Anatolia||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Selim I||1514||Sultan Selim, nicknamed "Selim the Grim", carried out a massacre of Alevis in 1514. The death toll reportedly reached 40,000.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=az2LBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195&lpg=PA195&dq=Selim+the+Grim+massacres+40,000+Anatolian+Shi%27ites&source=bl&ots=2OQitRL8m6&sig=wWPSTMCwAPI1c5_5mOcYYAS1Ruk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjr3fyt9qzVAhUDrJQKHahrDtcQ6AEIOjAF#v=onepage&q=Selim%20the%20Grim%20massacres%2040%2C000%20Anatolian%20Shi'ites&f=false |title=Routledge International Handbook of Diversity Studies |publisher=Routledge |chapter=PART II Historical geographies of diversity
|author=Steven Vertovec |date=20-Nov-2014 | isbn=9781317600695 |edition=Revised| page=195 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Safed||present-day {{nameandflag|Israel}}||Retreating Mamluk army of Egypt and Arab civilians||1517||Jews were evicted from their homes, robbed, and forced to flee their homes naked.<ref>Shmuelevitz, Aryeh (1999). '' history and society: Jewish sources''. Isis Press. p. 15: "[Rabbi Elijah] Capsali, relying on Jewish informants, was perhaps better informed about what was happening to Jewish communities in remote parts of the Empire. He wrote about Jews suffering in time of war: the pogrom in Safed during Selim I's campaign against the Mamluks for the conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt; and preparations for a pogrom against the Jewish community in Cairo on the eve of Selim’s conquest of the city.'</ref><ref>David, Abraham (2010). ''To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in 16th-Century Eretz-Israel''. Translated by Dena Ordan. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5643-9. p.97.</ref><ref>David, Abraham (1999). ''In Zion and Jerusalem: the itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola (1521-1523)''. Translated by Dena Ordan. Bar-Ilan University. ISBN 978-9-6522-2926-7. p.62.</ref><ref>Finkelstein, Louis (1970). "Eretz Yisrael Under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1917". The Jews: Their History. Schocken Books. p.407.</ref><ref>Fine, Lawrence (2003). ''Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and His Kabbalistic Fellowship.'' Stanford University Press. p.44.</ref>

|-
| ||Greek Cypriots||Nicosia||{{nameandflag|Cyprus}}||Ottoman army||1570||20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Only women and boys who were captured to be sold as slaves survived.<ref>Hopkins, T. C. F. (2007). Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom Vs. Islam. Macmillan p.82</ref><ref>Turnbull, Stephen (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (Essential Histories Series #62). Osprey Publishing. p. 58</ref><ref>Johnstone p.52</ref>

|-
| ||Portuguese|| ||{{nameandflag|India}}||Shah Jahan||1632||[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=1T8KAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT503&dq=Shahjahan+attacked+the+Portuguese+in+1632&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiit9LN-srUAhWEs48KHS_AAfYQ6AEIODAE#v=onepage&q=Shahjahan%20attacked%20the%20Portuguese%20in%201632&f=false] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Vp_q_MjupOIC&pg=PA132&dq=Shahjahan+attacked+the+Portuguese+in+1632&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiit9LN-srUAhWEs48KHS_AAfYQ6AEIPzAF#v=onepage&q=Shahjahan%20attacked%20the%20Portuguese%20in%201632&f=false] When negotiations with Portuguese merchants broke down, Shah Jahan massacred their men and enslaved 4,000 women and children.<ref>Stephen Howarth, ''The Koh-I-Noor Diamond: The History and the Legend'', Quartet Books (1980), ISBN 0704322153 p.74</ref><ref>Diana Preston, Michael Preston. ''A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time: The Story of the Taj Mahal'' [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=K3wMt3WW-gYC&pg=PT229&lpg=PT229&dq=Jahan+besieged+and+took+the+Portuguese+settlement+at+Hugli,+and+sent+some+four+thousand+captives+to+Agra&source=bl&ots=k817n86Ez5&sig=2oq32BGZ8Ils01u0LIpEbgdeWQ0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjr-66y_srUAhUHsI8KHVCwBaUQ6AEIIzAB#v=onepage&q=Jahan%20besieged%20and%20took%20the%20Portuguese%20settlement%20at%20Hugli%2C%20and%20sent%20some%20four%20thousand%20captives%20to%20Agra&f=false] Random House, 2010. ISBN 1446421465, 416 pages.</ref>

|-
| ||Sikhs||Punjab||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Aurangzeb<ref>McLeod, Hew (1987). "Sikhs and Muslims in the Punjab". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 22 (s1): 155–165. doi:10.1080/00856408708723379.</ref>||1658 onwards||Aurangzeb frequently persecuted the Sikhs<ref>Surinder Singh Bakhshi (2009), ''Sikhs in the Diaspora,'' pp.68-69, 0956072801</ref><ref>Latham, Martin. "The Sikhs." ''The Round Table'', 74 no. 293 (1985): 21-29.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Yemen}}||Imam of Yemen (Rassid dynasty)||1679–1680||Nearly all Jews in Yemen were exiled to a remote desert and left to die. Their property was also confiscated.<ref>Yosef Tobi, ''The Jews of Yemen (Studies in Their History and Culture)'', Brill: Leiden 1999, pp. 77-79</ref><ref>Yosef Qafiḥ (ed.), ''“Qorot Yisra’el be-Teman by Rabbi Ḥayim Ḥibshush,”'' Sefunot, Volume 2, Ben-Zvi Institute: Jerusalem 1958, pp. 246-286 (Hebrew). Yosef Qafiḥ, Ketavim (Collected Papers), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, p. 714 (Hebrew)</ref><ref>Yemenite Jewry: Origins, Culture and Literature, by Rueben Aharoni, Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1986, pp. 121–135</ref><ref>P.S. van Koningsveld, J. Sadan & Q. Al-Samarrai, ''Yemenite Authorities and Jewish Messianism'', Leiden University 1990, pp. 156-158. ISBN 9071220079</ref>

|-
| ||Austrian civilians||Perchtoldsdorf||{{nameandflag|Austria}}||Ottoman Empire||1683||<ref>''Condé Nast's Traveler'', Volume 32. "Vienna Woods". Condé Nast Publications. 1997. "''The first thing I did was to search out the local museum, which was in the mayor's office. Herr Heiduschka, the mayor, was only too happy to show me around, and we started with the painting on the wall behind his desk. There were headless corpses sprawled on the ground, blood spurting out of their necks like ghoulish fountains designed by Dracula. Women on their knees begged for mercy from swarthy turbaned men on horseback with scimitars whose blades were crimson and dripping. I couldn't appreciate his village, the mayor declared, until I understood that picture. "Here you see the massacre of the people of Perchtoldsdorf by the Osmanli in 1683," he told me. "They killed everybody - men, women, and children. Only a single family, who had managed to hide deep in a cellar, survived." The mayor pointed to the very wall where they had hidden. "And their descendants, by the name of Rabl, still live here even today," he concluded with deep pride.''"</ref>

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Civilians||Delhi||{{nameandflag|India}}||Nadir Shah||1739||In 7 hours, Nadir Shah had 20,000 men, women and children massacred in an incident termed as ''Qatl-e-aam'' in Persian. He also seized large amounts of treasure.<ref>Michael Axworthy, ''The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant''. Hardcover. p8 (26 July 2006) Publisher: I.B. Tauris Language: English ISBN 1-85043-706-8</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA38&dq=nadir+shah+delhi&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=nadir%20shah%20delhi&f=false |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813 |page=38 |chapter=Decline of the Mughal Empire |publisher=Sterling Publishers |author=Jaswant Lal Mehta |date=2005 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no |isbn=9781932705546}}</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Sikh|Sikhs]]|| ||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Mughal Empire vassals and Afghan soldiers||1746-62||<ref>Hari Ram Gupta, A History of the Sikhs from Nadir Shah's Invasion to the Rise of Ranjit Singh (1739–1799); Volume I: Evolution of the Sikh Confederacies (1739–1768), Simla, Minerva Book Shop, 1952, pp. 79–83.</ref>


|-
| ||Kashmiri Pandits||Kashmir valley||{{nameandflag|India}}||Afghans||1764-1820s||<ref>Col. Tej K Tikoo. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=iuURFTHTU0EC&pg=PT69&dq=afghan+rule+in+kashmir&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiF0LKM4tnTAhUIO48KHV2GCtMQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=afghan%20rule%20in%20kashmir&f=false Kashmir: Its Aborigines and Their Exodus]'' Lancer Publishers. ISBN 1935501585.</ref>

|-
| ||Mangalorean Catholics||Kingdom of Mysore||{{nameandflag|India}}|| style="background:#8F9779" |Tipu Sultan||1784-1799||Catholics were driven out of their homes, forced onto a death march, and kept as captives for 15 years. Many faced torture, murder, and forced conversions. Out of about 60,000 Catholics, at least 30,000 died en route or in captivity.<ref>Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999), Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians, I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8. p. 216.</ref> Only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.<ref>Prabhu p. xiv</ref>

|-
| ||Nair Hindus||Kingdom of Mysore||{{nameandflag|India}}||Tipu Sultan|| ||Nair Hindus were subjected to forced conversions to Islam, execution, and torture.<ref>Fernandes 1969, p. 120</ref><ref>Knight 1858, p. 94</ref><ref>Sharma 1991, pp. 34–35</ref> <ref>Palsokar 1969, pp. 75–79</ref><ref>Punganuri 1849, p. 40</ref> Out of 30,000 Nairs put to captivity (including women and children), only a few hundred returned alive.<ref>Prabhu 1999, p. 250</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (Great Britain)|year=1842|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA494 |page=494}}</ref>

|-
| ||Zoroastrians||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}}||Persian Muslims under the Qajar dynasty||1796-1925||Zoroastrians regard this period as one of their worst. They were frequently massacred, taken as captives, robbed, overtaxed, converted or married by force, and denied basic rights.<ref> Price Massoume (2005), ''Iran's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook'' (Illustrated ed.), ABC-CLIO, ISBN 9781576079935. p. 111.</ref><ref>Shahmardan, Rashid. ''History of Zoroastrians past Sasanians''. p.125.</ref><ref>Browne 1893, ''A year amongst the Persians'', Adam and Charles Black, p. 372</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Mandaeism|Mandaeans]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Iran}}||Qajar dynasty of Persia||18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, ''The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People'', New York: Oxford University Press 2002. p.6.</ref>||

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Civilians (mostly Shia)||Karbala||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||1801 or 1802||The Saudis killed 2,000–5,000 people in one day. They also plundered and destroyed the tomb of Husayn ibn Ali.<ref>Khatab, Sayed. Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis of Al-Qa'ida's Political Tactics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9789774164996. p.74</ref><ref>Litvak, Meir (2010).{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karbala |title=KARBALA |publisher=| work=Iranica Online |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517070800/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karbala |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>Vassiliev, Alexei. ''The History of Saudi Arabia''. Saqi. ISBN 9780863567797</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Mamluks||Cairo and other places||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||[[w:Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali of Egypt]]||1805-1811||About 3,000 descendants of this slave-warrior clan were massacred. It was the end of the Mamluks in Egypt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/mamelukes-are-massacred-egypt |title=The Mamelukes are massacred in Egypt |publisher= |author= Richard Cavendish |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601185447/http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/mamelukes-are-massacred-egypt |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|-
| ||Melkite Christians||Aleppo||{{nameandflag|Syria}}||Ottoman Empire||1817-18||Most of this community fled from Syria, and those who stayed were massacred.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/chistory/syriahis.htm |title=OVERVIEW OF RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF SYRIA |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060856/http://www.ewtn.com/library/chistory/syriahis.htm |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/melkite-church/oclc/233994580 |title=The Melkite Church |page=103 |publisher= |author=Yūsuf Shammās |date=1992 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}} OCLC Number: 233994580</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Bektashis|| ||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II||1826||The Bektashi order was outlawed, and 4,000 to 7,500 of them were executed. Their shrines were destroyed.<ref>İsmail Özmen & Koçak Yunus: ''Hamdullah Çelebi'nin Savunması - Bir inanç abidesinin çileli yaşamı'', Ankara, 2008, p. 74, 205 & 207</ref>

|-
| ||Assyrian Christians||Bohtan and Hakkari||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Badr Khan and Nurallah of Hakkari||1843-47||More than 1,000 Christians were killed.<ref>Gaunt, D; Beṯ-Şawoce, J (2006), ''Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I'', Gorgias Press LLC, ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0. p. 32.</ref> The Muslim armies destroyed several villages and took prisoners as war booty.<ref>Aboona, Hirmis (2008), ''Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire'', Cambria Press, ISBN 978-1-60497-583-3. pp.218-219</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Throughout the Middle East and North Africa|| || ||1840-1908||Following the [[w:Damascus affair|Damascus affair]], riots and massacres of Jews occurred in Aleppo (1850, 1875), Damascus (1840, 1848, 1890), Beirut (1862, 1874), Dayr al-Qamar (1847), Jerusalem (1847), Cairo (1844, 1890, 1901–02), Mansura (1877), Alexandria (1870, 1882, 1901–07), Port Said (1903, 1908), Damanhur (1871, 1873, 1877, 1891), Istanbul (1870, 1874), Buyukdere (1864), Kuzguncuk (1866), Eyub (1868), Edirne (1872), and Izmir (1872, 1874).<ref name="Benny">Morris, Benny. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict'', 1881–2001. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Mashhad, Barfurush||{{nameandflag|Iran}}|| ||1839, 1867||Mashhad witnessed forced conversions of Jews to Islam to avert a massarce. In Barfurush, Jews were massacred.<ref name="Benny" /><ref>Patai, Raphael (1997). Jadid al-Islam: The Jewish "New Muslims" of Meshhed. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2652-8.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Bábís|| ||{{nameandflag|Iran}}|| ||1852||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bahai-library.com/pdf/a/affolter_ideological_genocide.pdf |title=The Specter of Ideological Genocide: The Bahá’ís of Iran* |publisher= |author=Friedrich W. Affolter |date=2005 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619204921/http://bahai-library.com/pdf/a/affolter_ideological_genocide.pdf |deadurl=no}} ''War Crimes, Genocide, & Crimes against Humanity.'' Volume 1, no. 1. p.79</ref>

|-
| ||Polytheists||[[w:Kafiristan|Kafiristan]]||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}|| ||1890s||

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Hazara Shias|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Pashtuns||1888-90, 1892, 1893||Emir Abdul Rehman eliminated an estimated 60% of the Hazara population by massacres, enslavement, and the looting and pillaging of homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d693d.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Afghanistan : Hazaras |publisher=[[w:UNHCR|UNHCR]] and Minority Rights Group International |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230557/http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d693d.html |deadurl=no}}</ref> Many of the survivors fled.<ref>"HAZĀRA: ii. HISTORY". Alessandro Monsutti (Online ed.). United States: ''Encyclopædia Iranica''. December 15, 2003. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hazara-2</ref><ref>Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, NY: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Hamidian massacres|Armenians and Assyrians]]|| |Eastern Turkey||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Empire Kurdish and Turkoman irregulars||1894–1896||100,000–300,000 were killed.<ref>[[Taner Akcam|Akçam, Taner]]. ''A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility''. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.</ref>

|-
| ||Serbs||Kolašin and other areas<ref>Bataković, Dušan T. (1988) [1987]. "[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pqxqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA309&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Погибија руског конзула Г. С. Шчербине у Митровици 1903. године]". ''Историјски институт''. XXXIV: 309–325.</ref>||{{nameandflag|Kosovo}} (present day)||Albanians under the Ottoman Empire||1901||The Serbs were targeted in several massacres, rapes, looting and eviction.<ref>''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NX5pAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y Kosovsko-Metohijski zbornik]''. '''3'''. SANU. 2005. p. 191.</ref><ref>Skendi, Stavro (2015). The Albanian National Awakening. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4776-1. p.201, p.293</ref>

|-
| ||Uighur Christians||Xinjiang||{{nameandflag|China}}||First East Turkestan Republic||1894-1938||Most Uighur converts to Christianity were killed, tortured and jailed.<ref>Missionary Review of the World ; 1878-1939. Princeton Press. 1939. p. 130. vol.62. </ref><ref>Claydon, David (2005). [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=gV32uPMChgAC&pg=PA385&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call]. William Carey Library. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-87808-363-3.</ref><ref>Uhalley, Stephen; Wu, Xiaoxin (2015). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=iPnqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future]''. London: Routledge. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-317-47501-9.</ref> Some Hindus were murdered and Christian missionaries were expelled.<ref> Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA84&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 84, 87. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Ahmediyyas|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Kings of Afghanistan||1900-1924||Ahmadis, a small religious minority in Afghanistan, were exterminated via killings and forced conversions to Sunni Islam.<ref>Frank A. Martin, Under the Absolute Amir, ISBN 978-1-4304-9488-1, p.204</ref><ref>Adil Hussain Khan. ''From Sufism to Ahmadiyya: A Muslim Minority Movement in South Asia'' Indiana University Press, 6 April 2015 pp.131-133</ref><ref>Yohanan Friedmann. ''Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background'', Oxford University Press India 2003, pg 26–29</ref><ref>Vincent Littrell. [Islam: Ahmadiyya]. World Association of International Studies. (John Eipper, USA, 02/17/06).</ref>

|-
| ||Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}|| ||1900s-1951||The Afghan Jewish community declined from about 40,000 in the early 20th Century to 5,000 in 1934.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1934/07/11/archive/trials-of-jews-in-afghanistan-bared-in-persia |title=Trials of Jews in Afghanistan Bared in Persia | Jewish Telegraphic Agency |publisher=JTA |date=1934-07-11 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref> Many Jews were expelled from their homes and robbed of their property.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1929/05/20/archive/soviet-press-reports-anti-jewish-pogrom-occurred-in-afghanistan |title=Soviet Press Reports Anti-jewish Pogrom Occurred in Afghanistan | Jewish Telegraphic Agency |publisher=JTA |date=1929-05-20 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Roland">{{cite book|author=Joan G. Roland|title=The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&pg=PA349|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-3748-4|page=349}}</ref><ref>On wings of eagles: the plight, exodus, and homecoming of oriental Jewry by Joseph Schechtman pp 258-259</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://jtn.stparchive.com/Archive/JTN/JTN01191934P07.php |title=The Jewish Transcript January 19, 1934 Page 7 |publisher=Jtn.stparchive.com |date=1934-01-19 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref> After 1951, most Jews moved to Israel and the United States.<ref>New York, 19 June 2007 ([[Radio Free Europe|RFE/RL]]), [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/6/c837c590-c06b-4c30-9017-36f29fc98437.html U.S.: Afghan Jews Keep Traditions Alive Far From Home]</ref>

|-
| ||Armenians||Adana Vilayet||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Young Turk government under the Ottoman Empire||1909||15,000–30,000 were killed.<ref>Akcam, Taner. ''A Shameful Act''. 2006, page 69–70: "fifteen to twenty thousand Armenians were killed"</ref><ref>''Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views'' By Samuel. Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny</ref>

|-
| ||Bulgarians||Thrace||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Young Turk government under the Ottoman Empire||1913||50,000–60,000 Thracian Bulgarians were murdered, which was around 20 % of the Bulgarian population in Thrace at that time. Most of the villages with predominantly Bulgarian populations were destroyed and the survivors expelled from their places of origin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-13719-3_4 | chapter=Resettlement Waves, Historical Memory and Identity Construction: The Case of Thracian Refugees in Bulgaria |page=63-84 | isbn=9783319137186 |publisher=Springer International |title=Migration in the Southern Balkans |author=Nikolai Vukov |date=2015 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-13719-3_4&date=2017-07-22 |deadurl=no}} doi 10.1007/978-3-319-13719-3</ref><ref>Carnegie (1914). ''Report of the international commission to inquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan Wars''. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. pp. 123–135.</ref>

|-
| ||Maronite Christians||Mount Lebanon||{{nameandflag|Lebanon}}||Ottoman Empire||1915-1918||The Ottomans deliberately cut off food supplies to the Maronites in order to feed their military.<ref>Harris, William (2012). ''Lebanon: A History, 600–2011.'' Oxford University Press. pp. 173–179. ISBN 9780195181111.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Assyrian genocide|Assyrian Christians]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}, {{nameandflag|Iran}}<ref>Alexander Laban Hinton,Thomas La Pointe,Douglas Irvin-Erickson. ''Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory''. pp 117. Rutgers University Press, ISBN 0813561647.</ref>|| ||1914-1918||200,000 to 275,000 were killed.<ref>Travis, Hannibal. '''Native Christians Massacred: The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I.'' Genocide Studies and Prevention, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2006, pp. 327–371.</ref><ref>(French) Yacoub, Joseph. ''La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938)'', 4 vol., thèse Lyon, 1985, p. 156.</ref> About half of the Assyrian population in the Ottoman Empire perished.<ref>Jones, Adam (2010). ''Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction''. "The Assyrian Genocide." Routledge. ISBN 9781136937965. </ref>

|-
| ||Armenians|| ||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Empire, Young Turks||1915-1918 or 1923||An estimated 600,000–1,800,000 Armenians were systematically massacred.<ref>Göçek, Fatma Müge (2015). Denial of violence : Ottoman past, Turkish present and collective violence against the Armenians, 1789-2009. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 019933420X.</ref><ref>Auron, Yair (2000). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=nnUR4hSTb8gC&pg=PA44&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The banality of indifference: Zionism & the Armenian genocide]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7658-0881-3.</ref> The Turkish government currently denies the genocide. Considered the first modern genocide by scholars.

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Kurds||Zilan river valley||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}|| ||1930||[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilan_massacre]

|-
| ||Jews||Thrace||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Turkish mobs||1934||The Thrace pogroms of Jews occurred in four cities. 1,500 Jews fled the region and many soon left Turkey. Casualties unknown.<ref>Özkimirli, Umut; Sofos, Spyros A (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780231700528. OCLC 608489245.</ref><ref>Bayraktar, Hatice (May 2006), "The anti-Jewish pogrom in Eastern Thrace in 1934: new evidence for the responsibility of the Turkish government", Patterns of Prejudice, Routledge, 40 (2): 95–111, doi:10.1080/00313220600634238</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||[[w:Alevi|Alevi]] Kurds||Dersim||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}|| ||1937-38||13,000-40,000 killed.<ref>David McDowall. ''A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition'' p. 209, I.B.Tauris, 2004. ISBN 1850434166.</ref>

|-
| ||Tibetans||Qinghai Province||{{nameandflag|China}}||Ma Bufang and his Muslim soldiers||1932-41||Thousands of casualties occurred in an attempted ethnic cleansing of Tibetans.<ref>Rab-brtan-rdo-rje (Ñag-roṅ-pa.) (translated by Jamyang Norbu) (1979). Horseman in the snow: the story of Aten, an old Khampa warrior. Information Office, Central Tibetan Secretariat. p. 134.</ref><ref>Jamyang Norbu (1986). Warriors of Tibet: the story of Aten, and the Khampas' fight for the freedom of their country. Wisdom Publications. p. gbooks says 46, (the actual paper says 146). ISBN 0-86171-050-9.</ref><ref>Hsaio-ting Lin (1 January 2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49. UBC Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-7748-5988-2.</ref><ref>David S. G. Goodman (2004). ''China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives''. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-521-61349-3.</ref><ref>Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002). ''Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity''. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 0-7425-1144-8.</ref>


|-
| ||Hindus|| ||{{nameandflag|Pakistan}}|| ||1947-present||

|-
| ||Hindus|| ||{{nameandflag|Bangladesh}}|| ||1947-present||

|-
| ||Christians<ref>{{cite web |quote=“I call it a ‘drip drip genocide’, because it’s the most dangerous kind of wiping out of religious communities,” said Ispahani, whose book ‘Purifying the Land of the Pure’ was launched in the US this month. “It (genocide) doesn’t happen in one day. It doesn’t happen over a few months. Little by little by little, laws and institutions and bureaucracies and penal codes, textbooks that malign other communities, until you come to the point of having this sort of jihadi culture that is running rampant”. |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/religious-minorities-experiencing-genocide-in-pakistan-scholar/story-t49a0hvBKq1Q0zbOYx5G0N.html |title=Religious minorities experiencing genocide in Pakistan: Scholar |publisher=HT |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301050934/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/religious-minorities-experiencing-genocide-in-pakistan-scholar/story-t49a0hvBKq1Q0zbOYx5G0N.html |deadurl=no}}</ref>|| ||{{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Pakistani Muslim civilians and terrorists||2000s-present||In recent decades, Pakistani Christians have increasingly become victims of riots, bombings, church demolitions and imprisonment on mere allegations of blasphemy.

|-
| ||Egyptian Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}|| ||1948-1957||
|-
| ||Iraqi and Kurdish Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||1941 and 1950s-1969||<ref>''Republic of fear: the politics of modern Iraq'' By Kanan Makiya, chapter 2 "A World of Fear", University of California 1998</ref> See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhud]

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||[[w:Harki|Harkis]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Algeria}}|| || ||An estimated 30,000 (and possibly as many as 150,000) Muslim supporters of the French colonizers were killed.<ref>Sheehan, James. ''The Monopoly of Violence''. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-571-22086-1.</ref><ref>John Keegan (1993), p.55, ''A History of Warfare''. Random House. ISBN 0-09-174527-6</ref><ref>Horne, Alistair. ''A Savage War of Peace''. p. 537. ISBN 0-670-61964-7.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Igbo people|Igbo people]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Nigeria}}||Hausa and Fulani tribes (both Muslim)||1966||10,000 to 30,000 Igbos were killed.<ref>Akinyemi, A.B. (October 1972). "The British Press and the Nigerian Civil War". ''African Affairs''. Oxford University Press. 71 (285): 408–426. JSTOR 720847.</ref><ref>McKenna, Joseph C. (1969). "Elements of a Nigerian Peace". ''Foreign Affairs''. 47 (4): 668. JSTOR 20039407. doi:10.2307/20039407.</ref> These events led to a civil war.<ref>Abbott, Charles; Anthony, Douglas A. (2003). "Poison and Medicine: Ethnicity, Power, and Violence in a Nigerian City, 1966-86". ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies''. 36 (1): 133. JSTOR 3559324. doi:10.2307/3559324. </ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Bihari Muslims and West Pakistanis|| ||{{nameandflag|Bangladesh}}||Mukti Bahini militias and other Bengali Muslims||1971-72||About 30,000-200,000 were killed during and after the war of independence of Bangladesh.<ref>Gerlach, Christian (2010). ''Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World'' (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70681-0.
p.148. [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA148&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false] </ref><ref>Bennett Jones, Owen (2003). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm (2nd revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-300-10147-8.</ref><ref>Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 978-0415486194.</ref><ref>Saikia, Yasmin (2011). Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh: Remembering 1971. Duke University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-8223-5038-5.</ref>

|-
| || || ||{{nameandflag|East Timor}}||{{nameandflag|Indonesia}}||1975-1999||Described as a genocide

|-
| ||Chakma, Marma, Tripuri and other indigenous people||Chittagong Hill Tracts||{{nameandflag|Bangladesh}}||Bangladeshi army and Muslim settlers||1977-1997||<ref>Nagendra K. Singh (2003). Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 222–223. ISBN 81-261-1390-1.</ref><ref>Shelley, Mizanur Rahman (1992). The Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: The untold story. Centre for Development Research, Bangladesh. p. 129.</ref>

|-
| ||Dinka people||Diein||{{nameandflag|Sudan}}||Rizeigat Muslims||1987||<ref>{{cite book|url= |title=Let the Nations Be Glad!: The Supremacy of God in Missions |publisher=Baker Academic |author=John Piper |page=103 |date=2010 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no |isbn=9781441207647 |edition=3}}</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/07/world/hundreds-of-villagers-reported-slain-in-the-sudan.html</ref>

|-
| ||Kashmiri Pandits and other Hindus||Kashmir valley||{{nameandflag|India}}||Kashmiri Muslim mobs and Pakistani terrorists||1989-2001||

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Kurds||Iraqi Kurdistan||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}||Saddam Hussein||1986-89||50,000-182,000 civilians killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ |title=Iraqi Anfal|publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=1993 |accessdate=2013-08-31}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/iraq501/events_anfal.html The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign] PBS Frontline.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Isaaq clan (Muslim) of Somalis|| ||{{nameandflag|Somalia}}||[[w:Siad Barre|Siad Barre]]||1988-1990||50,000-100,000 killed (possibly up to 200,000)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tOgOwSXB164C&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=50,000&source=bl&ots=gDxdHZNEgV&sig=tQB8KBkmIN2qBGzghefetUE7ITo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig3YSDnsjRAhVI1BoKHbKaBUEQ6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q=50,000%20isaaq%20deaths&f=false|title=Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention|last=Peifer|first=Douglas C.|date=2009-05-01|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=9781437912814|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mKWiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149&dq=&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi17-PMzMzRAhXLVhoKHZERA3w4ChDoAQg-MAc#v=onepage&q=%22large%20systematic%20scale%22&f=false|title=Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa|last=Straus|first=Scott|date=2015-03-24|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9780801455674|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jones">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZybbAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=By+then,+any+surviving+urban+Isaaks+-|title=Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity|last=Jones|first=Adam|date=2017-01-22|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=9781842771914|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/investigating-genocide-somaliland-20142310820367509.html|title=Investigating genocide in Somaliland|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Bantu people (Christians, Muslims and Traditional African religion)||Jubba Valley||{{nameandflag|Somalia}}||Somali militias||1991 onwards||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/ |title=Genocide in Somalia’s Jubba Valley and Somali Bantu Refugees in the U.S. |publisher=Social Science Research Council |author=Catherine L. Besteman |date=April 9 2007 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20160327033104/http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/ |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Hazara Shias||Mazar-e-Sharif, Bamiyan||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Taliban||1998||More than 8,000 noncombatants were reported killed after the Taliban captured the city.<ref>Goodson, Larry P.''Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban'', University of Washington Press (2001), ISBN 0295981113 p.79</ref> Goats and donkeys were also killed.<ref>Ahmed Rashid. ''Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia'' (2000), p.73.</ref>

|-
| ||Serbian Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Kosovo}}|| ||1999-2004||Many Serbs were expelled from entire villages and churches, and symbols of Serb heritage were destroyed in this period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2015&mm=03&dd=17&nav_id=93505 |title=11 years since "March Pogrom" of Serbs in Kosovo |publisher=B92 |date=17 March 2015 |accessdate=7 September 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/apr/9/20050409-102733-9741r/ Anti-Serb programs in Kosovo], By The Washington Times</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ERP KiM Info|title=Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja|work=B92 Specijal|date=26 April 2004|publisher=B92|url=http://www.b92.net/specijal/kosovo2004/unistenecrkve.php|ref=harv}}</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Muslim Roma, Ashkalis and purported Egyptians|| ||{{nameandflag|Kosovo}}||Albanian Muslims||1999 onwards||The persecution of these communities began during the Yugoslav wars but escalated after 1999. Most of them were expelled from Kosovo and their houses were destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|author=Claude Cahn |author-link= |year=2007 |title=Birth of a Nation: Kosovo and the Persecution of Pariah Minorities |journal=German Law Journal |volume=8 |issue=1 |issn=2071-8322 |url=http://www.germanlawjournal.org/pdfs/Vol08No01/PDF_Vol_08_No_01_81-94_SI_Cahn.pdf |mode=cs1 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215183028/http://www.germanlawjournal.org/pdfs/Vol08No01/PDF_Vol_08_No_01_81-94_SI_Cahn.pdf |archivedate=15 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gfbv.it/2c-stampa/2005/050201en.html |title=Memorandum of the Society for Threatened People on the Issue of Lead Poisoning of Roma in IDP Camps in Kosovo |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Non-Arab and Black tribes (Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa)||Darfur||{{nameandflag|Sudan}}||Omar al-Bashir and janjaweed militias||2003-present||

|-
| ||Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Somalia}}||Al Shabab||2005 onwards||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14707279 |title=Somalia's embattled Christians: Almost expunged |publisher=The Economist |author= |date= |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20160413054603/http://www.economist.com/node/14707279 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|-
| ||Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Palestine}}||Hamas, Muslim mobs, Islamic terorrist groups||2002 onwards||Muslims targeted Christians frequently in the West Bank and Gaza, burning churches and seizing properties. The Christian population fell from about 3,000 in 2007 to 1,400 in 2011. They were also the target of bomb attacks, murders, and discrimination under Hamas rule.<ref>{{cite web|last=Radin|first=Charles A.|title=Defendants killed in court; mob fears grow in West Bank|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-7705112.html|accessdate=|work=The Boston Globe|date=6 February 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=de Quetteville|first=Harry|title='Islamic mafia' accused of persecuting Holy Land Christians|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/palestinianauthority/1498033/Islamic-mafia-accused-of-persecuting-Holy-Land-Christians.html|accessdate= |work=The Daily Telegraph|date=9 September 2005|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Muslim attacks against Christians on the rise in West Bank |url=http://www.worldnewstribune.com/2012/05/28/muslim-attacks-against-christians-on-the-rise-in-west-bank/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212000435/http://www.worldnewstribune.com/2012/05/28/muslim-attacks-against-christians-on-the-rise-in-west-bank/ |deadurl=yes |archive-date=12 February 2016 |accessdate= |work=World Tribune |date=28 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hadid|first=Diaa|title=For Gaza's Christians, new reality unsettling|url=http://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/article/For-Gaza-s-Christians-new-reality-unsettling-1807109.php|accessdate=|work=The Houston Chronicle|date=27 June 2007|agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Abu Toameh|first=Khaled|title=Christian-Muslim tensions heat up|url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast//Article.aspx?id=76420|accessdate=|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=25 April 2007|authorlink=Khaled Abu Toameh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Silver|first=Eric|title=Gaza's Christian bookseller killed|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/gazas-christian-bookseller-killed-396283.html|accessdate=|work=The Independent|date=8 October 2007|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Militants bomb Gaza YMCA library|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7246454.stm|accessdate=|work=BBC News|date=15 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Greenwood|first=Phoebe|title=Gaza Christians long for days before Hamas cancelled Christmas|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/gaza-christians-hamas-cancelled-christmas|accessdate=|work=The Guardian|date=23 December 2011|location=London}}</ref>

|-
| ||Mandaeans|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||2003 onwards||<ref>http://www.aina.org/reports/mhrar200803.pdf</ref>

|-
| ||Assyrian Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||1933-2014||<ref>http://www.aina.org/articles/contestednations.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.aina.org/reports/ig.pdf</ref><ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/oct/06/religion.iraq</ref>

|-
| ||Yazidis||Iraqi Kurdistan||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}||ISIS||2014-||

|-
| ||Arab Christians, Levantines, Armenians, Arameans, Assyrians (Syriacs or Chaldeans) and Copts|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}, {{nameandflag|Libya}}||ISIS||2014-||At least 1,000 casualties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/2015/12/24/460906980/as-christians-flee-governments-pressured-to-declare-isis-guilty-of-genocide|title=As Christians Flee, Governments Pressured To Declare ISIS Guilty Of Genocide|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=24 December 2015|quote=At least a thousand Christians have been killed. Hundreds of thousands have fled.}}</ref> Described as a genocide by the EU.<ref>2014. [http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/24/us-libya-egyptians-idUSBREA1N13V20140224 Seven Egyptian Christians found shot execution-style on Libyan beach] Reuters.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Moore|first=Jack|date=February 4, 2016|title=European Parliament Recognizes ISIS Killing of Religious Minorities as Genocide|url=http://www.newsweek.com/european-parliament-recognizes-isis-killing-religious-minorities-genocide-423008 |newspaper=[[Newsweek]]}}</ref><ref name="Kaplan">{{cite news|last=Kaplan|first=Michael|date=February 4, 2016|title=ISIS Genocide Against Christians, Yazidis? European Parliament Recognizes Islamic State Targeting Religious Minorities|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/isis-genocide-against-christians-yazidis-european-parliament-recognizes-islamic-state-2294384 |newspaper=[[International Business Times]] |quote=The European Parliament characterized the persecution as "genocide" Thursday.}}</ref><ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bMOTION%2bP8-RC-2016-0149%2b0%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN JOINT MOTION FOR A RESOLUTION], European Parliament.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Shias (including ethnic Turkmen and Shabak)|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}||[[w:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]]||2014-Present||<ref>{{cite web|title = Isis accused of ethnic cleansing as story of Shia prison massacre emerges|url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/25/isis-ethnic-cleansing-shia-prisoners-iraq-mosul|website = the Guardian|accessdate = 2015-12-22|first = Luke|last = Harding|first2 = Fazel Hawramy |last2 = Irbil}}</ref><ref>http://europe.newsweek.com/isis-genocide-kerry-yazidis-christians-shia-437944?rm=eu</ref>

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Christians and Muslims|| ||{{nameandflag|Nigeria}}||Boko Haram||2014-present||<ref>http://genocidewatch.net/2016/02/09/justice-for-jos-project-and-us-nigeria-law-group-on-boko-haram-attacks/</ref><ref>https://www.naij.com/1097991-catholic-bishop-reveals-boko-haram-killed-500-priests-borno-state.html Archive at [https://web-beta.archive.org/web/20170406214448/https://www.naij.com/1097991-catholic-bishop-reveals-boko-haram-killed-500-priests-borno-state.html]</ref>

|-
| ||Coptic Christians||North Sinai||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||[[w:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]]||Feb 2017-present||<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170308101839/http://www.aina.org/news/20170308034228.htm</ref><ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170309063403/http://www.financialexpress.com/world-news/isis-butchering-egyptian-christians-in-their-own-homes/580189/</ref><ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170308190158/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/egypt-coptic-christians-flee-sinai-ismailiya-170226154942356.html</ref>

|} 

==Miscellaneous==

*The Serbian church was persecuted for centuries under Turkish rule and severely weakened by the 18th century. This caused the emigration of many Serbs from their native region and a failed revolt.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=JmFetR5Wqd8C&pg=PT1111&lpg=PT1111&dq=ottoman+persecution+orthodox&source=bl&ots=SptLtIlsKK&sig=Br-7RQXh6EYrgANkBEv_BGKXz0Y&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyuqPWkIHVAhUCTI8KHSN8BvAQ6AEIVDAI#v=onepage&q=ottoman%20persecution%20orthodox&f=false |title=The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |author=John Anthony McGuckin |date=2010 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no |chapter=Serbian Church Under Ottoman And Habsburg Rule | isbn=9781444392548}}</ref>
*Since the mid-1980s, more than 20,000 Shia Muslims and hundreds of Ahmadis have been killed in Pakistan by Sunni terrorists sponsored by generals of the Pakistani Army.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http%3A%2F%2Fabna.ir%2Fdata.asp%3Flang%3D3%26id%3D365815|2=2012-11-21}} Over the last several decades 6000 Shia children killed in Pakistan + Pic] - ABNA, November 18, 2012 See also [http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12278919], archived at [https://web.archive.org/web/20170827055925/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12278919].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==

*Boyce, Mary (2001), [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Zoroastrians,+their+religious+beliefs+and+practices&pg=PP1&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Zoroastrians, their religious beliefs and practices] (2 ed.), New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 148-252, ISBN 9780415239028
*Stepaniants, Marietta (2002), "The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press, 52 (2): pp. 159–172, doi:10.1353/pew.2002.0030, ISSN 0031-8221, JSTOR 1399963.
*Johnstone, Patrick. [https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possiblities] InterVarsity Press, 17 Jan 2014. ISBN 0830856951

==See also==

*[[The Turkish Genocides]]

[[Category:Islamic History]]

Muhammads Marriages of Political Necessity

2025-12-11T18:39:40Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=3|Language=3|References=2}}
Some Islamic scholars and religious leaders suggest that the Prophet Muhammad engaged in [[Polygamy in Islamic Law|polygamy]] only for reasons of political necessity.

Others point out that polygamy was common in seventh-century Arabia, meaning Muhammad's conduct in marrying multiple women was morally acceptable by the standards of his time (although the Prophet is notably considered an [[Uswa Hasana|objectively perfect role model]], independent of cultural and historical contingencies).

Muhammad was given special status in the number of wives he was permitted to have. While he limited other Muslims to four wives, he at one point had eleven wives with the intention of marrying more. Upon Ghaylan ibn Salama's conversion to Islam in 630 CE, he was required to divorce six of his ten wives, even as Muhammad at that point also had ten wives.

Writings that address the question of what political circumstances necessitated Muhammad's multiple marriages, going beyond even the allowance of the four wives granted to other Muslim men, most often address the political advantages each marriage purportedly conferred, rather than on possible reasons each marriage was necessary for the survival of Islam.

The following is a list of major political crises Muhammad faced with brief notes on how each was handled.

#616-619. The Quraysh enforced a trade blockade against the Hashim clan in Mecca. The Muslims survived by living on the wealth of Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife. Although Muslim historians do not state this directly, the blockade was probably lifted because Muhammad agreed to the [[Satanic Verses]] compromise.
#622. The Quraysh pronounced a death sentence for Muhammad. He survived by escaping to Medina and moving his community there.
#624-627. The Jews in Medina announced that they did not believe Muhammad was the Messiah, which seriously damaged his credibility with the local pagans. He ejected two of the tribes and killed the third, becoming the "Duke" of Medina. The [[angel Jibreel]] purportedly delivered urgent messages regarding the Jews' treachery to Muhammad's wife Hind.
#627. The Meccans, together with a few Bedouin chiefs and exiled Jews, besieged Medina, hoping to kill Muhammad. Muhammad dug a trench around Medina and the siege failed. Muhammad then conquered a Kilab tribe and secured a trade blockade against Mecca. By the time Muhammad agreed to end the blockade, the Meccans had learned not to attack Muhammad directly.
#628. Muhammad took a pre-emptive strike against the surviving Jews. After a war of conquest against Khaybar, every Jew in Arabia was reduced to vassalage. There was a danger that their Ghatafan allies would retaliate, leading Muhammad to stockpile weapons in anticipation. Muhammad's wife Hind reportedly carried the first aid box to Khaybar.
#630. After Mecca was starved out, Muhammad mustered an army of 10,000 and marched in to conquer the city. The “Duke” of Mecca was converted by force and the city surrendered. This served as a warning to the Ghatafans, and the Yemenites negotiated an “alliance” rather than face the Muslim armies.
#630–632. Muhammad conquered what was left of Arabia.

Pro-Islamic writers argue that Muhammad's marriages to Aisha, Sawdah, and Hafsah were politically expedient, helping Muhammad to raise money, although he was able to acquire financial resources through plundering and taxation as well.

Muhammad's marriage to his cousin, Zaynab bint Jahsh, was the first to break his "four wives" rule and caused him substantial social embarrassment.

Muhammad's marriage to Asma, who possessed some political importance, later ended in divorce.

Four of Muhammad's wives were slave-concubines.

Three of Muhammad's marriages, all of them occurring in 628, were political to varying degrees.

#Juwayriyah, the daughter of a petty chief, married Muhammad only after her tribe was flattened and subjugated.
#Ramlah, the daughter of Abu Sufyan, the “Duke” of Mecca, had defected to Islam several years prior and cut contact with her father almost completely. During this time, Muhammad continued to engage in open hostilities with her family, killing her brother and sending assassins after her father. When Abu Sufyan tried to negotiate through his daughter for peace with Muhammad, she refused to cooperate.
#[[Safiyah]], the First Lady of Khaybar, was related to important figures in the Jewish community. Muhammad married her after he had humiliated Khaybar. On [[Muhammad's Death|his deathbed]], Muhammad nevertheless stated in her presence that he wanted all remaining Jews ejected from Arabia.

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Muhammad's wives and concubines|Muhammad's wives and concubines}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Muhammad's wives and concubines]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sahabah (companions)]]
[[Category:Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House)]]

{{page_title|Muhammad's Marriages of Political Necessity}}

Al-Wala' wal-Bara' (Loyalty and Disavowal)

2025-12-11T18:39:04Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=3|References=3}}
The [[Islam|Islamic]] concept of '''Al Wala' Wal Bara'''' (loyalty and disavowal) refers to "love for the sake of [[Allah]]" and "hate for the sake of Allah." According to this concept, Muslims must love what Allah loves and hate what Allah hates.

==Qur'an==

===Verse 60:4===

{{Quote|{{Quran|60|4}}|Indeed, '''there is for you a good example in Ibrahim and those with him when they said to their people:''' Surely we are clear of you and of what you serve besides Allah; we declare ourselves to be clear of you, and '''enmity and hatred have appeared between us and you forever until you believe in Allah alone'''-- but not in what Ibrahim said to his father: I would certainly ask forgiveness for you, and I do not control for you aught from Allah-- Our Lord! on Thee do we rely, and to Thee do we turn, and to Thee is the eventual coming:}}

====Tafsir of Verse====

=====Harshness=====

{{Quote|[http://www.theholybook.org/content/view/8636/2/ Qualities of the Faithful Believers and Their Refinement] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|Allah declares that without doubt, Muhammad is truly His Messenger,

(Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.) and this quality includes every beautiful description. Allah praises the Companions of the Messenger , may Allah be pleased with them all,

(And '''those who are with him are severe against disbelievers, merciful among themselves'''.) just as He, the Exalted and Most Honored, said in another Ayah,

(Allah will bring a people whom He will love and they will love Him; humble towards the believers, stern towards the disbelievers.)(5:54) '''This is the description of the believers; harsh with the disbelievers, merciful and kind to the believers, angry without smiling before the disbelievers, smiling and beaming with pleasure before his believing brother'''. Allah the Exalted said in another Ayah,

(O you who believe! Fight those of the disbelievers who are close to you, and let them find harshness in you.) (9:123) The Prophet said,

(The parable of the believers in their kindness and mercy for each other, is that of the body: when one of its organs falls ill, the rest of the body responds with fever and sleeplessness.) The Prophet also said,

(A believer to another believer is like a building whose different parts enforce each other.)}}

=====Hate=====

{{Quote|[http://www.theholybook.org/content/view/8801/2/ The Good Example of Ibrahim and His Followers, when They disowned Their Disbelieving People] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|Allah the Exalted says to His faithful servants, whom '''He commanded to disown the disbelievers, to be enemies with them, and to distant themselves and separate from them''':

(Indeed there has been an excellent example for you in Ibrahim and those with him,) meaning, his followers who believed in him,

(when they said to their people: "Verily we are free from you...) '''meaning, `we disown you,'''

(and whatever you worship besides Allah: we rejected you,) meaning, `we disbelieve in your religion and way,'

(and there has started between us and you, hostility and hatred forever) meaning, `Animosity and enmity have appeared between us and you from now and as long as you remain on your disbelief; '''we will always disown you and hate you''','

(until you believe in Allah alone,) meaning, `unless, and until, you worship Allah alone without partners and disbelieve in the idols and rivals that you worship besides Him.' Allah's statement,}}

==Hadith==

{{Quote|[{{Compendium-of-muslim-texts-base-url}}/hadith/qudsi.php Hadith Qudsi 24]|On the authority of Abu Hurayrah (may Allah be pleased with him), who said that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said:

If Allah has loved a servant [of His] He calls Gabriel (on whom be peace) and says: I love So-and-so, therefore love him. He (the Prophet pbuh) said: So Gabriel loves him. Then he (Gabriel) calls out in heaven, saying: Allah loves So-and-so, therefore love him. And the inhabitants of heaven love him. He (the Prophet pbuh) said: Then acceptance is established for him on earth. And if Allah has abhorred a servant [of His], He calls Gabriel and says: I abhor So-and-so, therefore abhor him. So Gabriel abhors him. Then Gabriel calls out to the inhabitants of heaven: Allah abhors So-and-so, therefore abhor him. He (the Prophet pbuh) said: So they abhor him, and abhorrence is established for him on earth.

It was related by Muslim (also by al-Bukhari, Malik, and at-Tirmidhi).}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4681|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuUmamah: 
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If anyone loves for Allah's sake, hates for Allah's sake, gives for Allah's sake and withholds for Allah's sake, he will have perfect faith.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4599|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuDharr: 
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: The best of the actions is to love for the sake of Allah and to hate for the sake of Allah.}}

In the following hadith (classed by Al-Albani as "hassan", meaning "good") Ibn Abbas reports that [[Muhammad]] said:

{{Quote|1=[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:kr1Dz6F0i2UJ:www.kalamullah.com/Books/Al%2520Wala%2520wal%2520Bara%2520Part%25202.pdf+al+wala+wal+bara&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi13fzRcsT4DnI-E9jWw30aMdIwl7nXcAt43YkE6E4pP3DFXvbHhv3gT0JIhX_1II9SwKshIdgzl1oVEBHRMrlE2brJGS0_FhJMyxCxQwrZvgwLpEbyORLJ_ZIYbThNsVJQX-cX&sig=AHIEtbTCDWRH5lOwxN8kJrzbGYCqpFwTmw At-Tabarani, al-Kabir., as-Suyuti, al-Jami' as-Saghir, 1/69]|2="The strongest bond of faith is loyalty for the sake of Allah and opposition for His sake, love for the sake of Allah and enmity for His sake}}

Imam Ahmad reports from Jarir ibn Abdullah that Muhammad made him swear an oath to:

{{Quote|Imam Ahmad Hadith|'offer counsel to every Muslim and to steer clear of every disbeliever. '<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani">Dr. Muhammad Saeed Al-Qahtaani - [http://www.muslimtents.com/aminahsworld/Al_wala.html Al-Wala’ Wa’l-Bara’ in Islam] - Translated by: Omar Johnstone</ref>}}

Ibn Shayba reports that Muhammad said:

{{Quote|Ibn Shayba hadith|"The strongest bond of faith is love for the sake of Allah and enmity for His sake."<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani"></ref> }}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||5205|darussalam}}, See also: {{Muslim||2167a|reference}} and {{Muslim||2167b|reference}}|Narrated AbuHurayrah: 
Suhayl ibn AbuSalih said: I went out with my father to Syria. The people passed by the cloisters in which there were Christians and began to salute them. My father said: Do not give them salutation first, for AbuHurayrah reported the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) as saying: Do not salute them (Jews and Christians) first, and when you meet them on the road, force them to go to the narrowest part of it.}}

==Scholars==

===Ibn Taymiyya===

{{Quote|Ibn Taimiya, al-Ihtijaj bil-Qadar, p.62|"The declaration of faith, there is no god but Allah, requires you to love only for the sake of Allah, to hate only for the sake of Allah, to ally yourself only for the sake of Allah, to declare enmity only for the sake of Allah; '''it requires you to love what Allah loves and to hate what Allah hates'''<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani"></ref>}}

===Ibn Abbas===

{{Quote|Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, Jami' al-Ulum wal Hikam, p.30|"Whoever loves for the sake of Allah, and hates for the sake of Allah, and whoever seals a friendship for His sake, or declares an enmity for His sake, will receive, because of this, the protection of Allah. No one may taste true faith except by this, even if his prayers and fasts are many. People have come to build their relationships around the concerns of the world, but it will not benefit them in any way.<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani"></ref>}}

===Sheikh Hamad Ben Ateeq===

{{Quote|[http://www.slideshare.net/creatorsslave/alwala-walbara-part-1 An-Najaat wal-Fakak, p.14]
|In the Book of Allah (Qur'an) there is no ruling more apparent and significantthan the ruling of al- Wala' Wal Bara', after the requirement of Tawhid and the prohibition of its opposite}}

===Shaykh Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahab===

{{Quote|Majmuat at-Tawhid, p.19|Islam of a man can never be accepted, even if he abandons polytheism, unless he shows enmity towards the disbelievers and polytheists, as Allah says in Surat al-Muja'dilah, verse: 22,
You will not find any people who believe in Allah and the Last Day, making friendship with those who oppose Allah and His Messenger, even though they were their fathers, or their sons, or their brothers, or their kindred (people)}}

===Ahmad Sirhindi===

Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) was an Islamic scholar and a prominent Sufi. He is regarded as having rejuvenated Islam, earning him the moniker "Mujadid Alf Thani," or "reviver of the second millennium."

{{Quote||''Shariat can be fostered through the sword. 
''Kufr'' and Islam are opposed to each other. The progress of one is possible only at the expense of the other and co-existences between these two contradictory faiths in unthinkable. 
The honor of Islam lies in insulting ''kufr'' and ''kafirs''. One who respects ''kafirs'', dishonors the Muslims. To respect them does not merely mean honouring them and assigning them a seat of honor in any assembly, but it also implies keeping company with them or showing considerations to them. They should be kept at an arm's length like dogs. ... If some worldly business cannot be performed without them, in that case only a minimum of contact should be established with them but without taking them into confidence. The highest Islamic sentiment asserts that it is better to forego that worldly business and that no relationship should be established with the ''kafirs''. 
The real purpose in levying ''jizya'' on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that, on account of fear of ''jizya'', they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honor and might of Islam. 
. . . 
Whenever a Jew is killed, it is for the benefit of Islam.<ref>Excerpted from Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, ''Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries'' (Agra, Lucknow: Agra University, Balkrishna Book Co., 1965), pp.247-50; and Yohanan Friedmann, ''Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity'' (Montreal, Quebec: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies, 1971), pp. 73-74.</ref>}}

===Recent Fatwas===

{{Quote|[http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/11793/ Being friends with non-Muslims] Shaykh Saleh Munajid, Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 11793|With regard to non-Muslims, the Muslim should disavow himself of them, and he should not feel any love in his heart towards them. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):...''[quotes {{Quran|60|1}} below]''

Something else that will help you to stop mixing with non-Muslims is to remember that these kaafirs – even though they may have good manners and some good qualities – also do a number of seriously wrong things, any one of which is sufficient to nullify any good deeds that they may do. Among these evil things is the belief of the Christians – for example – that God is one of three (trinity), as Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):...''[quotes {{Quran|5|73}} below]''

Even if they give you some of your rights by treating you nicely, they do not give Allaah His rights and they do not give the Qur’aan its rights and they do not give our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) his rights. The rights of Allaah and His Book and His Prophet are more important than our personal rights. Remember this, for this is one of the things that will help you to hate them and regard them as enemies until they believe in Allaah alone, as mentioned in the aayah quoted above (interpretation of the meaning):...''[quotes {{Quran|60|4}} below]''}}

{{Quote|[http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/47322 Can he pray for his Christian friend to be healed?] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 47322|The belief in al-wala’ wa’l-bara’ (loyalty and friendship vs. disavowal and enmity) is one of the most important basic principles of Islam. Just as faith increases and decreases, so too people vary in the extent to which they adhere to this important principle, and their adherence to it increases and decreases. But if this principle is destroyed completely in a person’s heart and he does not do what it implies, this means that faith has been destroyed entirely as well, and faith is the basis on which he loves the close friends of Allaah and hates His enemies. This principle is indicated by a number of verses in the Book of Allaah and ahaadeeth from the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). These include the following:...''[quotes {{Quran|58|22}}, {{Quran|4|144}}, {{Quran|5|51}}, {{Quran|3|118}}, Muslim 1817, Bukhari 415, Muslim 33, below]''

There are many such reports, which indicates that it is haraam to take the kaafirs as close friends and to love them. This friendship may take many forms, such as approving of their kufr, mixing with them and being friendly towards them, living with them, taking them as close friends, loving them, preferring them to the believers, referring to their laws for judgement and so on. See question no. [http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/2179 2179].

From the above, you will see that loving a kaafir is a serious matter, because it goes against one of the most important principles of Tawheed, which is loving and being loyal towards the believers, and disavowing and rejecting the disbelievers.}}

==See Also==
{{Hub4|Non-Muslims|Non-Muslims}}

==External Links==

*[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:kr1Dz6F0i2UJ:www.kalamullah.com/Books/Al%2520Wala%2520wal%2520Bara%2520Part%25202.pdf+al+wala+wal+bara&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi13fzRcsT4DnI-E9jWw30aMdIwl7nXcAt43YkE6E4pP3DFXvbHhv3gT0JIhX_1II9SwKshIdgzl1oVEBHRMrlE2brJGS0_FhJMyxCxQwrZvgwLpEbyORLJ_ZIYbThNsVJQX-cX&sig=AHIEtbTCDWRH5lOwxN8kJrzbGYCqpFwTmw AL-WALA' WAL-BARA', by Shaykh Muhammad Saeed Al-Qahtaani]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Salafism]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]

Intoxicants and Recreation in Islamic Law

2025-12-11T18:38:38Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=3|References=3}}
'''Intoxicants''' (الخمر al‐khamr) such as [[alcohol]], marijuana, other drugs,<ref>"''....The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) replied: "Every intoxicant is khamr, and every khamr is haram."....“Khamr is what befogs the mind.” These are the words spoken by 'Umar ibn al-Khattab from the pulpit of the Prophet (PBUH),....Drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, opium, and the like are definitely included in the prohibited category of khamr. It is well known that the use of such drugs affects the sensory perceptions, making what is near seem distant and what is distant seem near; that their use produces illusions and hallucinations, so that the real seems to disappear and what is imaginary appears to be real; and that drug usage in general impairs the faculty of reasoning and decision-making....''" - [Alcohol and Intoxicants in Islam] - Muslim Bridges</ref> and recreational games of chance, such as board games<ref>"''....the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Whoever plays games of dice has disobeyed Allah and His Messenger."....''" - {{Muwatta|52|2|6|}}, See also {{Muwatta|52|2|7|}}</ref> (including chess),<ref name="chess">"''....Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: He who played chess is like one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine....''" - {{Muslim||2260|reference}}, See also {{Muwatta|52|2|7|}}</ref> card games, and other forms of gambling, are forbidden under [[Islamic law]]. However, this regulation in its current form was absent in early Islam.

==Initial rules surrounding intoxicants==

Intoxicants (namely, alcohol) were permitted during the early phase of [[Islam]]. Some websites claim that Muhammad drank intoxicating wine, though [https://archive.wikiislam.net/wiki/Muhammad_Drank_and_Performed_Ablution_with_Wine that claim is not directly supported] in the hadith literature.

In the [[Qur'an]], wine is elevated and characterized as a blessing of God upon earth.

{{quote|{{Quran|13|4}}| And in the earth are tracts (diverse though) neighbouring, and '''gardens of vines''' and fields sown with corn, and palm trees - growing out of single roots or otherwise: watered with the same water, yet some of them We make more excellent than others to eat. Behold, verily in these things there are signs for those who understand! }}

''Sakr سكر'' or intoxicating drink is said to be a sign (or a miracle) from God:

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|67}}|وَمِن ثَمَرَٰتِ ٱلنَّخِيلِ وَٱلْأَعْنَٰبِ تَتَّخِذُونَ مِنْهُ سَكَرًا وَرِزْقًا حَسَنًا ۗ إِنَّ فِى ذَٰلِكَ لَءَايَةً لِّقَوْمٍ يَعْقِلُونَ

And from the fruit of the date-palm and the vine, ye get out '''wholesome drink and food: behold, in this also is a sign for those who are wise.'''}}

It is also described as an aspect of [[heaven]]:

{{Quote|{{Quran|47|15}}|(Here is) a Parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised: in it are rivers of water incorruptible; rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine, a joy to those who drink; and rivers of honey pure and clear. In it there are for them all kinds of fruits; and Grace from their Lord. (Can those in such Bliss) be compared to such as shall dwell for ever in the Fire, and be given, to drink, boiling water, so that it cuts up their bowels (to pieces)? }}

The Qur'an was purportedly revealed to Muhammad over a period of 23 years<ref>Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers,</ref>, and it is not written in chronological order. A [[Chronological Order of the Qur'an|chronological]] reading would indicate a gradual shift in religious attitudes toward intoxicants.

Over the course of the Qur'an's composition, older [[Revelation|revelations]] were stricken and replaced by newer ones, a phenomenon known as Naskh ([[abrogation]]). When Muhammad's followers were attending prayer at the mosque while intoxicated, the following verse was revealed to warn against such behavior:

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|43}}|O ye who believe! Approach not prayers with a mind befogged, until ye can understand all that ye say,- nor in a state of ceremonial impurity (Except when travelling on the road), until after washing your whole body. If ye are ill, or on a journey, or one of you cometh from offices of nature, or ye have been in contact with women, and ye find no water, then take for yourselves clean sand or earth, and rub therewith your faces and hands. For Allah doth blot out sins and forgive again and again.}}

Later, a revelation suggests that some intoxicants and games of chance are good while others are bad:

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|219}}|They ask thee concerning wine and gambling. Say: "In them is great sin, and some profit, for men; but the sin is greater than the profit." They ask thee how much they are to spend; Say: "What is beyond your needs." Thus doth Allah Make clear to you His Signs: In order that ye may consider-}}

The [[hadith]] record that Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib, in a drunken state, mutilated two camels belonging to Ali, chopping of their humps and taking out their livers.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3091|darussalam}}, See also: {{Muslim||1979c|reference}} and {{Muslim||1979a|reference}}|Narrated Ali: I got a she-camel in my share of the war booty on the day (of the battle) of Badr, and the Prophet had given me a she-camel from the Khumus. When I intended to marry Fatima, the daughter of Allah's Apostle, I had an appointment with a goldsmith from the tribe of Bani Qainuqa' to go with me to bring Idhkhir (i.e. grass of pleasant smell) and sell it to the goldsmiths and spend its price on my wedding party. I was collecting for my she-camels equipment of saddles, sacks and ropes while my two she-camels were kneeling down beside the room of an Ansari man. I returned after collecting whatever I collected, to see the humps of my two she-camels cut off and their flanks cut open and some portion of their livers was taken out. When I saw that state of my two she-camels, I could not help weeping. I asked, "Who has done this?" The people replied, "Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib who is staying with some Ansari drunks in this house." I went away till I reached the Prophet and Zaid bin Haritha was with him. The Prophet noticed on my face the effect of what I had suffered, so the Prophet asked. "What is wrong with you." I replied, "O Allah's Apostle! I have never seen such a day as today. Hamza attacked my two she-camels, cut off their humps, and ripped open their flanks, and he is sitting there in a house in the company of some drunks."...}}

When rebuked by Muhammad, Hamza insulted him to his face, saying "Aren't you but the slaves of my father?"

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3091|darussalam}}, See also: {{Muslim||1979c|reference}} and {{Muslim||1979a|reference}}|....The Prophet then asked for his covering sheet, put it on, and set out walking followed by me and Zaid bin Haritha till he came to the house where Hamza was. He asked permission to enter, and they allowed him, and they were drunk. Allah's Apostle started rebuking Hamza for what he had done, but Hamza was drunk and his eyes were red. Hamza looked at Allah's Apostle and then he raised his eyes, looking at his knees, then he raised up his eyes looking at his umbilicus, and again he raised up his eyes look in at his face. Hamza then said, "Aren't you but the slaves of my father?" Allah's Apostle realized that he was drunk, so Allah's Apostle retreated, and we went out with him.}}

==Restriction of alcohol and games of chance==

Muhammad banned the consumption of all intoxicants in response to Hamza's actions:

{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islamhelpline.com/node/7288|2=2011-10-28}} Sahih Muslim Hadith 4962]|2= Narrated by Jabir ibn Abdullah
Allah`s Messenger (saws) said: “Every intoxicant is haraam! Verily Allah, the Exalted and Majestic, made a covenant to those who drank intoxicants to make them drink ‘Tinat al-Khabal’. The companions asked: “Allah`s Messenger, what is ‘Tinat al-Khabal?’” He (saws) said: “It is the sweat of the denizens of Hell, or the discharge of the denizens of Hell.”}}

Muhammad referred to alcohol (which is found in heaven) as an "abomination" and "Satan's handwork":

{{Quote|{{cite quran|5|90|end=91|style=ref}}| O ye who believe! Intoxicants and gambling, (dedication of) stones, and (divination by) arrows, are an abomination,- of Satan's handwork: eschew such (abomination), that ye may prosper.}}

Games of chance were also banned:

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|52|2|6}}, See also: {{Muwatta|52|2|7}}|Yahya related to me from Malik from Musa ibn Maysara from Said ibn Abi Hind from Abu Musa al-Ashari that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Whoever plays games of dice has disobeyed Allah and His Messenger.}}

Muhammad compared playing chess with dyeing one's hand in the flesh and blood of swine:

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2260|reference}}|Buraida reported on the authority of his father that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: He who played chess is like one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine.}}

After the revelation of verse 5:90, Muhammad ordered beatings for anyone who violated his rules regarding these substances:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6775|darussalam}}, See also: {{Bukhari|||6773|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||6774|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||6776|darussalam}}, and {{Bukhari|||6777|darussalam}}|Narrated' Uqba bin Al-Harith:

An-Nu'man or the son of An-Nu'man was brought to the Prophet in a state of intoxication. The Prophet felt it hard (was angry) and ordered all those who were present in the house, to beat him. And they beat him, using palm-leaf stalks and shoes, and I was among those who beat him.}}

Muhammad and his successors also ordered floggings:

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1706a|reference}}|Anas b. Malik reported that a person who had drink wine was brought to Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him). He gave him forty stripes with two lashes. Abu Bakr also did that,...}}

Muhammad ordered that repeat offenders be put to death:

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4484|darussalam}}, See also: {{Abu Dawud||4482|darussalam}} and {{Abu Dawud||4485|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuHurayrah: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If he is intoxicated, flog him; again if he is intoxicated, flog him; again if he is intoxicated, flog him if he does it again a fourth time, kill him.
 AbuDawud said: And there is a similar tradition of Umar ibn AbuSalamah, from his father, on the authority of AbuHurayrah, from the Prophet (peace be upon him): If he drinks wine, flog him if he does it so again, a fourth time, kill him.}}

Later, Umar (the second Rashidun [[Caliph]]) clarified that al-khamr refers to all intoxicants:

{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5762 The Gradual Prohibition of Khamr (Alchoholic Drink)] Tafsir ibn Kathir|2=As for Al-Khamr, `Umar bin Khattab, the Leader of the faithful, used to say, "It includes all what intoxicates the mind." }}

Umar ordered eighty stripes as the mildest form of punishment:

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1706c|reference}}|...When Umar (became the Commander of the Faithful) and the people went near to pastures and towns, he said (to the Companions of the Holy Prophet). What is your opinion about lashing for drinking? Thereupon Abd al-Rahman b. Auf said: My opinion is that you fix it as the mildest punishment. Then 'Umar inflicted eighty stripes.}}

==Modern usage==

Many Muslim-majority countries still restrict the sale, purchase, and drinking of alcohol by adults, including Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Malaysia,<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/20/malaysian-model-seeks-public-flogging-drinking.html Malaysian model seeks public flogging for drinking] - The Associated Press, August 20, 2009</ref> the Maldives, Morocco, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prohibition&oldid=332586583 Prohibition]</ref> Punishments vary by country, but many are consistent with the [[Sunnah]] of Muhammad. They range from weeks to months of imprisonment, public flogging, and (in the case of Iran) the death penalty.

This prohibition, in many cases, does not exclude the non-Muslim. For example, in June 2009, Catholic chef Sapon D Costa was jailed in Bangladesh for the possession of alcohol.<ref>[http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15493&size=A Catholic chef has a “really rough time in Dhaka’s central jail”] - Asia News, June 11, 2009</ref>

Despite these laws and widespread negative views of alcohol among Muslims, Euromonitor International reported in 2011 that alcohol use in predominantly Muslim regions of the world increased by 25 percent in 5 years.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ansamed.info/en/news/ME.XEF93985.html|2=2011-02-25}} Islam: Survey, Alcohol Use In Mideast-Africa +25% In 5 Years] - ANSAmed, February 23, 2011</ref> Additionally, the World Health Organisation (WHO) reported in the same year that Malaysia, a country with a Muslim majority, is the world's tenth largest consumer of alcohol.<ref>Tanya Thomas - [http://www.medindia.net/news/Despite-Its-Muslim-Majority-WHO-Names-Malaysia-as-Worlds-10th-Largest-Alcohol-Consumer-85415-1.htm Despite Its Muslim Majority, WHO Names Malaysia as World's 10th Largest Alcohol Consumer] - Medindia Health Network, May 24, 2011</ref>

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Alcohol|Alcohol}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Arlandson/drinking.htm Muhammad, the Quran, and Prohibition - Islam’s punishments for drinking and gambling] ''- Answering Islam''
*[http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e72.html On Khamr (And What Intoxicates)] ''- Islamic site''

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Alcohol]]
[[Category:Art and music]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]

Islam and Homosexuality

2025-12-11T18:37:46Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{#seo:
|title=Islam and Homosexuality
|title_mode={{{title_mode|}}}
|keywords={{{keywords|}}}
|description={{{description|}}}
|image=Homophobes.jpg
}}
[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Sex]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=3|References=3}}Homosexuality is considered a sin in Islam and punishable under [[Islamic Law|Islamic law]], which is derived from the [[Qur'an|Quran]] and [[Hadith]] (accounts of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] life). Homosexual acts and relationships are forbidden in many Islamic countries, though surveys show increasing acceptance among Muslim populations in Western countries.
==In Islamic law==
The four [[Sunni]] [[Madhab|schools of jurisprudence]] all agree that practicing homosexuality is an egregious crime that merits an especially harsh [[Punishments|punishment]], although the exact punishment varies. In the Hanafi school, homosexuals are first to be beaten harshly and then executed if they persist in their behavior. In the Shafi'i school, they are punished in the same manner as one who engages in [[Zina|illegal intercourse (''zina'')]], receiving 100 lashes if unmarried or being stoned to death if married. Some scholars, referencing the practices of the four [[Rashidun Caliphs|Rightly-Guided (''Rashidun'') Caliphs]], hold that homosexuals should be thrown from tall buildings,<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545556 Fatwa Bank: Death Fall as Punishment for Homosexuality] - Islam Online, July 22, 2002</ref> while others believe that the punishment for homosexual acts should be life imprisonment or stoning.<ref>"''So when Our punishment came upon the people of Lut, We turned the city upside down and showered them with stones of baked clay, one after another.''" - {{Quran|11|82}}</ref> One opinion holds that "passive" participants in homosexual acts should be executed in all circumstances, while the "active" participant may escape execution if unmarried and instead receive 100 lashes.<ref>See the chapter on "hudud" in Sharaya and Sharh Lum'a also al-Khu'i, Takmilah, p. 42-44.</ref> Opinions also vary on whether the means of execution should be stoning or beheading. The Quran itself narrates Allah's punishment upon the people of [[Lut|Lot]] and, according to some interpretations, {{Quran|4|16}} refers to punishment and forgiveness for lewdness between two men.
==In the Muslim world==
Some modern academics place the blame for Islamic hostility towards homosexuality on "the adoption of European Victorian attitudes by the new Westernized elite."<ref>El-Rouayheb, 2005, p. 156</ref> However, the Islamic tradition has long drawn its views on homosexuality from accounts of Muhammad's perspective, which are found in various hadith.

Sunan Abu Dawood indicates that Muhammad instructed: "''If you find anyone doing as Lot's people did, kill the one who does it, and the one to whom it is done.''”<ref>"''Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If you find anyone doing as Lot's people did, kill the one who does it, and the one to whom it is done.''" - {{Abu Dawud||4462|darussalam}}</ref> In Bukhari, he curses effeminate men and masculine women and orders his followers to ''"Turn them out of your houses."''<ref>"''Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: The Prophet cursed effeminate men (those men who are in the similitude (assume the manners of women) and those women who assume the manners of men, and he said, "Turn them out of your houses ." The Prophet turned out such-and-such man, and 'Umar turned out such-and-such woman.''" - {{Bukhari|||5886|darussalam}}</ref> This attitude on homosexuality was adopted by Muhammad's successors: [[Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Uthman|Abu Bakr]], the first Rashidun caliph, had a homosexual burned at the stake, and the fourth, Muhammad’s son-in-law [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]], ordered that homosexuals be stoned (he also had at least one thrown from the minaret of a mosque).<ref>Serge Trifkovic - [http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=20145 Islam's Love-Hate Relationship with Homosexuality] - FrontPageMag, January 24, 2003</ref> While individual and societal perspectives have varied through time, these foundational texts and events have exerted significant influence on Islamic thought regarding homosexuality.

Saudi scholar Shaykh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid blamed "the spread of homosexuality" on the rise of diseases such as AIDS.<ref>Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid - [http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/10050 Why does Islam forbid lesbianism and homosexuality?] - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 10050</ref> Among the 3% of the world's Muslims living in "more-developed regions",<ref>''"As of 2010, about three-quarters of the world’s Muslims (74.1%) live in the 49 countries in which Muslims make up a majority of the population. More than a fifth of all Muslims (23.3%) live in non-Muslim-majority countries in the developing world. About 3% of the world’s Muslims live in more-developed regions, such as Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan."'' - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx|2=2012-12-02}} The Future of the Global Muslim Population], The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, January 27, 2011</ref> homosexuality is generally considered unacceptable, although there have been some trends toward more socially liberal views. In a Gallup survey conducted in early 2009, no British Muslims expressed the view that homosexuality was morally acceptable.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/may/07/muslims-britain-france-germany-homosexuality|2=2011-11-30}} Muslims in Britain have zero tolerance of homosexuality, says poll] - The Guardian, May 7, 2009</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/gallup_coexist_2009_interfaith_relations_uk_france_germany.pdf|2=2011-11-30}} The Gallup Coexist Index 2009: A Global Study of Interfaith Relations] - Section 2: Public Perceptions Toward Integration, p. 31</ref> Later, in a 2016 Ipsos-MORI review of poll data, 52% of British Muslims thought homosexuality should be illegal in Britain, with 18% saying it should be legal. This number rose to 28% among respondents aged 18-24.<ref>[https://barrowcadbury.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/IPSOs-Mori-Muslim-report.pdf A review of survey results on Muslims in Britain] - Ipsos-MORI - February 2018</ref>

A Zogby International poll of American Muslims taken in 2001 found that 71% opposed "allowing gays and lesbians to marry legally."<ref>[http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/sexualminorities/Islamic%20World100202.pdf Islamohomophobia] - WorldNetDaily, October 2, 2002</ref> However, a 2017 Pew Research Center survey found that 52% of American Muslims believed society should be accepting of homosexuality, up from 39% in 2011 and 27% in 2007.<ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/07/26/political-and-social-views/pf_2017-06-26_muslimamericans-04new-06/ Like Americans overall, Muslims now more accepting of homosexuality] - Pew Research Centre, 25 July 2017</ref>

In Indonesia, owing to pressure from the conservative Islamic population, some local authorities have been given permission to draw on Islamic law in the treatment of homosexuality.<ref>[http://www.globalgayz.com/country/Indonesia/view/IDN/gay-indonesia-news-and-reports-2#article9 Muslim Communities Thwart Indonesian Protections For Gays] - 365Gay.com, October 4, 2006</ref> Attempts to legalize homosexuality in India have been opposed by Islamic clerics, who have cited its impermissibility in Islamic law and called it immoral.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Muslim-leaders-join-Deoband-slam-gay-sex/articleshow/4723843.cms After Deoband, other Muslim leaders condemn homosexuality] - Times of India, July 1, 2009</ref> In September 2018, the Indian Supreme Court legalised homosexual intercourse, overturning a 2013 judgement which had upheld a colonial-era law.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-45429664 India court legalises gay sex in landmark ruling] - BBC news, 6 September 2018</ref>

===Treatment of homosexuals===
Religious and governmental authorities in much of the Muslim world maintain that LGBT individuals should be either executed or subjected to harsh punishment. The following excerpt is taken from a 2007 Saudi Ministry of Education textbook:{{Quote|1=[http://www.hudson.org/files/pdf_upload/Excerpts_from_Saudi_Textbooks_715.pdf Saudi Ministry of Education Textbooks for Islamic Studies: 2007-2008 Academic Year] Center for Religious Freedom of Hudson Institute|2="Homosexuality is one of the most disgusting sins and greatest crimes.... It is a vile perversion that goes against sound nature, and is one of the most corrupting and hideous sins.... The punishment for homosexuality is death. Both the active and passive participants are to be killed whether or not they have previously had sexual intercourse in the context of a legal marriage.... Some of the companions of the Prophet stated that [the perpetrator] is to be burned with fire. It has also been said that he should be stoned, or thrown from a high place."}}As of 2009, homosexual relationships, acts, or behavior were forbidden in approximately 36 Muslim-majority countries, with punishments ranging from fines to life imprisonment.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_issues_and_Islam#Homosexuality_laws_in_Muslim_countries Homosexuality laws in Muslim countries] - Wikipedia, accessed July 29, 2009</ref><ref name="IL2">H. Tavakoli - [http://www.iranian.com/Letters/1999/September/gay.html The New Dark Ages] - The Iranian,September 20, 1999</ref> In ten of those countries -- Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi-Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and some states in Malaysia -- homosexuality is punishable by death.<ref>Sean Yoong - [http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/malaysia/mynews033.htm Malaysian State Legislature Passes Bill on Strict Islamic Criminal Code] - Associated Press, July 8, 2002</ref>

According to Iranian gay and lesbian rights group Homan, the Iranian government has executed an estimated 4,000 homosexuals since the Islamic revolution of 1979.<ref name="IL2" /> In Muslim-majority nations that have legalized homosexuality, members of the LGBT community often fall victim to vigilante violence. In Iraq, for instance, where no official laws criminalize homosexuality, vigilante squads throughout the country routinely target suspected homosexuals for murder, at one point reportedly killing 68 gay and transgender men in the space of four months. These vigilante executions have been carried out in torturous and humiliating ways, such as gluing victims' anuses shut and inducing fatal diarrhea.<ref>Ben Lando - [http://www.iraqoilreport.com/security-conflict/iraqi-gay-community-a-target-1950/ Iraqi gay community a target] - Iraq Oil Report, July 9, 2009</ref><ref>[http://iglhrc.wordpress.com/2009/04/20/iraq-torture-cruel-inhuman-and-degrading-treatment-of-lgbt-people/ Iraq: Torture, Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment of LGBT People] - International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission, April 20, 2009</ref>

Turkey is host to widespread vigilante violence against homosexuals, with 11 being killed in the first half of 2009.<ref>[http://www.ilmediterraneo.it/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1657&lang=en&Itemid=7 Homosexuals in Turkey: Istanbul week for gay rights] - ANSAmed, June 24, 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=8216religion-loves-tolerance-but-is-not-tolerant8217-2009-11-17 'Religion loves tolerance, but is not tolerant'] - Hürriyet Daily News, November 17, 2009</ref>

==Articles==
The following are summaries of other articles discussing Islam's relationship with homosexuality.
===Islamic Writing and Homosexuality===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Homosexuality}}The Qur'an, Hadith, and Islamic scholars scholars have all commented extensively on homosexuality.{{quote | 1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=4&tid=10619 The Adulteress is Confined in her House; A Command Later Abrogated] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=[وَاللَّذَانَ يَأْتِيَـنِهَا مِنكُمْ فَـَاذُوهُمَا]

(And the two persons among you who commit illegal sexual intercourse, punish them both.) Ibn `Abbas and Sa`id bin Jubayr said that this punishment includes cursing, shaming them and beating them with sandals. This was the ruling until '''Allah abrogated it with flogging or stoning,''' as we stated. Mujahid said, "It was revealed about the case of two men who do it.'' As if he was referring to the actions of the people of Lut, and Allah knows best. The collectors of Sunan recorded that Ibn `Abbas said that the Messenger of Allah said,

«مَنْ رَأَيْتُمُوهُ يَعْمَلُ عَمَلَ قَوْمِ لُوطٍ، فَاقْتُلُوا الْفَاعِلَ وَالْمَفْعُولَ بِه»

('''Whoever you catch committing the act of the people of Lut (homosexuality), then kill both parties to the act.''')}}
===The People of Lot===
{{Main|Lut}}The story of ''Lot'' (لوط, Lūṭ) from the Hebrew Bible is also found in the Qur'an, with some differences. The Qur'anic version links the destruction of Sodom specifically to the homosexual activities of its inhabitants. The Qur'an also states that the people of Lot were the first to experience homosexuality, whereas archeological research has revealed that homosexuality was practiced in ancient cultures as early as 7000 BC. The story of Seth and Horus is one of many examples of stories describing homosexual relationships which appear before the time of Lot and Abraham.
==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Arlandson/homosexual.htm Muhammad and the homosexual] ''- By James M. Arlandson''

*[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925221746&pagename=Zone-English-Living_Shariah/LSELayout How Islam Views Homosexuality] ''- 15 Fatwas from Islam-Online''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]

Allah, the Best Deceiver (Qur'an 3:54)

2025-12-11T18:37:23Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=3|References=4}}
[[File:Quran 3-54.png|290px|right|thumb]]
The [[Qur'an]] states in several places that [[Allah]] is the best of ''l-mākirīna'', a word sometimes mildly translated as ''planners'', though also as ''schemers'' or ''plotters''. The Arabic word used here is "ماكر" "maakir", coming from the root m-k-r م-ك-ر, with the word ''Makr'' "مكر" primarily meaning to practice deceit, guile, or circumvention.<ref>Makr - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2728]</ref> The Quran elsewhere tells believers to shun "lying speech" ({{Quran|22|30}}) and not to give false testimony ({{Quran|25|72}}), and further describes believers as "the truthful" ({{Quran|3|17}}). Similar exhortations to truthfulness are found in hadiths, with exceptions in the case of warfare or to bring reconciliation between parties. Much scholarly thought has been devoted to the resolution of this seeming discrepancy.

==Qur'an==

In the followingverses, Allah is described as the best of l-mākirīna or faster in makran, or that all l-makru is Allah's.

===Qur'an 3:54===

{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and God cheated/deceived, and God (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 7:99===

{{quote |{{Qtt|7|99}}|
'''Arabic:''' افامنوا مكر الله فلايامن مكر الله الا القوم الخاسرون

'''Transliteration:''' Afaaminoo makra Allahi fala ya/manu makra Allahi illa alqawmu alkhasiroona
'''Literal:''' Did they secure God's scheme/deceit ? So no(one) trusts God's scheme/deceit except the nation the losers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/7/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 7. Al-A'raf - The Heights (سورة الأعراف) - Revealed in Makkah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 8:30===

{{quote |{{Qtt|8|30}}|
'''Arabic:''' واذ يمكر بك الذين كفروا ليثبتوك او يقتلوك او يخرجوك ويمكرون ويمكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wa-ith yamkuru bika allatheena kafaroo liyuthbitooka aw yaqtulooka aw yukhrijooka wayamkuroona wayamkuru Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena
'''Literal:''' And when those who disbelieved deceive/scheme at you to affix/affirm you, or kill you, or bring you out, and they scheme/deceive , and God deceives/schemes and God (is) best (of) the deceivers/schemers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/8/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 8. Al-Anfal - Spoils Of War (سورة الأنفال) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 10:21===

{{quote |{{Qtt|10|21}}|
'''Arabic:''' واذا اذقنا الناس رحمة من بعد ضراء مستهم اذا لهم مكر في اياتنا قل الله اسرع مكرا ان رسلنا يكتبون ماتمكرون

'''Transliteration:''' Wa-itha athaqna alnnasa rahmatan min baAAdi darraa massat-hum itha lahum makrun fee ayatina quli Allahu asraAAu makran inna rusulana yaktuboona ma tamkuroona
'''Literal:''' And if We made the people taste/experience mercy from after calamity/disastrous distress touched them, then for them (is) cheatery/deceit/schemes in Our verses/evidences . Say: "God (is) quicker/faster (in) cunning/scheming , that Our messengers write what you cheat/ deceive/scheme."<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/10/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 10. Yunus - Jonah (سورة يونس) - Revealed in Makkah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 13:42===

{{quote |{{Qtt|13|42}}|
'''Arabic:''' وقد مكر الذين من قبلهم فلله المكر جميعا يعلم ماتكسب كل نفس وسيعلم الكفار لمن عقبى الدار

'''Transliteration:''' Waqad makara allatheena min qablihim falillahi almakru jameeAAan yaAAlamu ma taksibu kullu nafsin wasayaAAlamu alkuffaru liman AAuqba alddari
'''Literal:''' And those from before them had cheated/deceived/schemed, so to God (is) all the cheatery/deceit/scheme. He knows what every self gains/acquires , and the disbelievers will know to whom (is) the house's/home's end/turn (result).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/13/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 13. Ar-Ra'd - The Thunder (سورة الرعد) - Revealed in Makkah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

In Arabic, the word makir is typically used disparagingly and never in a positive context. It is often used to describe someone sly and dishonest who seeks to cheat others through deception. Allah attributing such a moniker to himself contrasts with other characterizations, particularly two of his other names, الحق (the truth) and الوكيل (the dependable).

==Literal Meaning of Makr==
This section cites numerous academic sources on the meaning of ''Makr''.

===Lane's Lexicon===

Edward William Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon is the most authoritative scholarly English dictionary of the Arabic language. From Lane's Lexicon, p. 2728 (the full entry can be viewed [[:File:Makr Lane-Lexicon-page Vol 7-pg. 256.jpg|here]] or [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf here]):

{{Quote|1=[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2728]|2=1. مَكَرَ, aor. مَكُرَ, (Msb, TA,) inf. n. مَكْرٌ; (S, A, Msb, K;) and ↓ امكر; (Msb;) He practised deceit, guile, or circumvention; or he practised deceit, guile, or circumvention, desiring to do to another a foul, an abominable, or an evil, action, clandestinely, or without his knowing whence it proceeded; syn. خَدَعَ; (Msb;) and of the inf. n. خَدِيعَةٌ: (S, A, K:) he practised an evasion or elusion, a shift, an artifice, or artful contrivance or device, a machination, a trick, a plot, a stratagem, or an expedient; he plotted; or he exercised art, craft, cunning, or skill, in the management or ordering of affairs, with excel-lent consideration or deliberation, and ability to manage according to his own free will; syn. of the inf. n. إِحْتِيَالٌ: (S, TA:) or to this explanation, conveyed by احتيال as the syn. of the inf. n., should be added secretly, or privately: (Lth, TA:) مَكْرٌ is praised or dispraised according to the nature of its object. (El-Basáir.) [For further explanation, see what follows.] It is trans. by means of بِ: and also, accord. to Z, by itself: (MF:) [but I know not any instance of its being trans. by itself: except as meaning he plotted a thing: see مَكْرَ السَّيِّئ in the Kur, xxxv. 41, cited voce سَيِّئٌ:] you say مَكَرَ بِهِ, (S, A, TA,) aor. and inf. n. as above, (S, TA,) meaning, He deceived, beguiled, or circumvented, him; or he deceived, beguiled, or circumvented, him, and desired to do him a foul, an abominable, or an evil, action, clandestinely, or without his knowing whence it proceeded: &c.: (S, A, TA:) syn. كَادَهُ: or it differs [somewhat] from كاده, accord. to Aboo-Hilál El-'Askeree: (TA:) some say, that مكر به signifies as above with the addition of feigning the contrary of his real intentions; which كاده does not imply: or this latter signifies “ he did him harm,” or “ mischief; ” and the former, he did him harm, or mischief, clandestinely. (MF, voce كاد.) See art. خدع. مَكَرَ also signifies He managed with thought, or consideration, or acted with policy, and practised stratagem, in war. (TA.) مَكَرَ اللّٰهُ and ↓ أَمْكَرَ are syn., (IKtt, Msb,) signifying, (tropical:) God recompensed, or requited, for مَكْر [or the practising deceit, &c.]: (Lth, * Msb, TA: *) or مَكْرُ اللّٰهِ signifies God's granting a man respite or delay, and enabling him to accomplish his worldly aims [so as to bring upon himself the punishment due to his evil actions]: (Er-Rághib, TA:) or, accord. to IAth, God's causing his trials to befall his enemies, exclusively of his friends: or his taking men by little and little, so that they do not reckon upon it, bestowing upon them renewed favours for acts of obedience which are imagined to be accepted whereas they are rejected. (TA.) 

3. ماكرهُ He practised with him mutual deceit, guile, or circumvention; &c.; (A, * TA;) syn. خَادَعَهُ. (TA.) 

4. see 1, in two places. 

6. تماكروا They practised mutual deceit, guile, or circumvention; &c. (A, * TA.) 

مَكُورٌ: see مَاكِرٌ. 
مَكَّارٌ: see مَاكِرٌ. 

مَاكِرٌ (S, A, Msb, K) and ↓ مَكَّارٌ (S, A, K) and ↓ مَكُورٌ (K) epithets from مَكَرَ: (S, A, Msb, K:) [the first signifying Practising deceit, guile, or circumvention; &c.: and the second and third, practising the same much, or frequently; deceitful, guileful, artful, crafty, or cunning; a trickster, or crafty knave.]

[[:File:Makr Lane-Lexicon-page Vol 7-pg. 256.jpg|Lane's Lexicon, p: 2728]]}}

===Hans Wehr===

The Hans Wehr dictionary is regarded as the standard scholarly dictionary of Arabic for English-speaking students and scholars of the language. It also confirms the meaning of the term:

{{Quote|[[:File:Hans Wehr dictionary - page 917.jpg|Hans Wehr dictionary, page 917]]|[[File:Hans Wehr dictionary - page 917.jpg|300px]]}}

===Arabic Lexicon===

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://lexicons.sakhr.com/openme.aspx?fileurl=/html/1088382.html|2=2013-07-21}} Arabic Lexicon on ''Al-Makr'']|2=[[File:Arabic-lexicon for Al-Makr.gif]]}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://lexicons.sakhr.com/openme.aspx?fileurl=/html/3076064.html|2=2013-07-21}} Arabic Lexicon on ''Makir'']|2=[[File:Arabic-lexicon for Makir.gif]]}}

===Miscellaneous Dictionaries===

Meanings from other dictionaries and sources are compiled below:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Dictionary
! width="100px" |Word
!Meaning
|-
|[http://translate.google.com/ Google Translate]
|ماكر (Makir)
|''sly, cunning, deceitful'' ([http://translate.google.com/ read more])
|-
|[http://translation.babylon.com/Arabic Babylon.com]
|مكر (Makr)
|''n. calculating, cunning, astuteness, craftiness, foxiness, craft, slyness, archness, deceit, double-dealing, artifice, deception, wiliness, artfulness, furtiveness, ploy, trick, guile, ruse, roguery''
|-
|[http://www.Stars21.com TranStar]
|مكر (Makr)
|''wiliness'' (means: "Full of wiles" [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wiliness Merriam-Webster])
|-
|[http://qamoose.arabeyes.org/dict_main.cgi ArabEyes.com]
|المكر (Al-Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://www.ebnmasr.net/wtranslate/ Ibn Masr]
|المكر (Al-Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://www.systranet.com/?text=%D9%85%D9%83%D8%B1&lp=ar_en SYSTRAnet.com]
|مكر (Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://free.translated.net/ Translated.net]
|مكر (Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://freetranslation.paralink.com/ ImTranslator.com]
|المكر (Al-Makr)
|''deviousness''
|-
|[http://freetranslation.paralink.com/ ImTranslator.com]
|مكر (Makr)
|''wiliness''
|-
|[http://online.ectaco.co.uk/main.jsp?do=e-services-dictionaries-word_translate1&direction=1&status=translate&lang1=23&lang2=ar&refid=-1&source=deception Ectaco]
|مكر (Makr)
|''deception''
|}

==Inaccurate translations==

English translations of relevant passages in the Qur'an are compiled here. Many translators opt to emphasize the connotation of "planning" or "devising" in ''makir'', even as a more accurate translation of the word's fuller meaning would emphasize deception.

===Qur'an 3:54===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' And (the unbelievers) plotted and planned, and Allah too planned, and the best of planners is Allah. <ref name="iw3-54">{{quran-ia|3|54}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' And they (the disbelievers) schemed, and Allah schemed (against them): and Allah is the best of schemers.<ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' And they devised, and God devised, and God is the best of devisers. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And they planned and Allah (also) planned, and Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' The unbelievers plotted and God planned, but God is a much better planner;<ref name="iw3-54"/> }}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' They plotted and schemed, but so did GOD, and GOD is the best schemer.<ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And they (disbelievers) plotted (to kill Iesa (Jesus) ), and Allah planned too. And Allah is the Best of the planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And the disbelievers planned, but Allah planned. And Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' The unbelievers among the children of Israel plotted against Jesus and Allah also devised a plan to raise him up, and Allah is the best in planning. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' The opponents made some plans, but so did Allah. And Allah is the Virtuous of planners. (They schemed to arrest and crucify Jesus but Allah assured him). <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And (the Jews) planned and Allah (also) planned. And Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And they schemed and God schemed, but God is the best schemer. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' They devised, and Allah devised. And Allah is the Best Devisor. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' And the Jews devised a stratagem against him; but God devised a stratagem against them; and God is the best deviser of stratagems. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' And the Jews plotted, and God plotted: But of those who plot is God the best. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' And the unbelievers schemed [against Jesus]; but God brought their scheming to nought: for God is above all schemers. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' But they (the Jews) were crafty, and God was crafty, for God is the best of crafty ones! <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=003:054 Quran Browser - Quran 3:54]</ref>}}

===Qur'an 7:99===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' Did they then feel secure against the plan of Allah?- but no one can feel secure from the Plan of Allah, except those (doomed) to ruin! <ref name="iw7-99"> {{quran-ia|7|99}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' Are they then secure from Allah's scheme? None deemeth himself secure from Allah's scheme save folk that perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' Do they feel secure against God's devising? None feels secure against God's devising but the people of the lost. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' What! do they then feel secure from Allah's plan? But none feels secure from Allah's plan except the people who shall perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' Did they consider themselves secure from the retribution of God? No one can have such attitude except those who are lost. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' Have they taken GOD's plans for granted? None takes GOD's plans for granted except the losers. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' Did they then feel secure against the Plan of Allah. None feels secure from the Plan of Allah except the people who are the losers. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' Then did they feel secure from the plan of Allah? But no one feels secure from the plan of Allah except the losing people. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' Do these people feel secure against the plan of Allah? In fact, only those people feel secure from the plan of Allah who are doomed to destruction. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' Do they feel secure from the subtle progression of the Divine Laws? Do they think that the Divine Law grants them unconditional security? Only the losers feel secure from the subtle progression of Allah's Law of Requital. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' Are they secure from Allah’s plan? But none feels secure from Allah’s plan except the people who perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' Have they become sure about God's scheming? None are sure about God's scheming except the people who are losers. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' (In reply to your devising) do they feel secure from the devising of Allah? None feels secure from the devising of Allah except the loosing nation. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' Were they therefore secure from the stratagem of God? But none will think himself secure from the stratagem of God, except the people who perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' Did they, therefore, deem themselves secure from the deep counsel of God? But none deem themselves secure from the deep counsel of God, save those who perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' Can they, then, ever feel secure from God's deep devising? But none feels secure from God's deep devising save people who are [already] lost.' <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' were they secure from the craft of God? none feel secure from the craft of God except a people that shall lose. <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=007:099 Quran Browser - Quran 7:99]</ref>}}

===Qur'an 8:30===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' Remember how the Unbelievers plotted against thee, to keep thee in bonds, or slay thee, or get thee out (of thy home). They plot and plan, and Allah too plans; but the best of planners is Allah. <ref name="iw8-30">{{quran-ia|8|33}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' And when those who disbelieve plot against thee (O Muhammad) to wound thee fatally, or to kill thee or to drive thee forth; they plot, but Allah (also) plotteth; and Allah is the best of plotters. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' And when the unbelievers were devising against thee, to confine thee, or slay thee, or to expel thee, and were devising, and God was devising; and God is the best of devisers. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And when those who disbelieved devised plans against you that they might confine you or slay you or drive you away; and they devised plans and Allah too had arranged a plan; and Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' The unbelievers planned to imprison, murder or expel you (Muhammad) from your city. They make evil plans but God too plans and God's plans are the best. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' The disbelievers plot and scheme to neutralize you, or kill you, or banish you. However, they plot and scheme, but so does GOD. GOD is the best schemer. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And (remember) when the disbelievers plotted against you (O Muhammad SAW) to imprison you, or to kill you, or to get you out (from your home, i.e. Makkah); they were plotting and Allah too was planning, and Allah is the Best of the planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And [remember, O Muúammad], when those who disbelieved plotted against you to restrain you or kill you or evict you [from Makkah]. But they plan, and Allah plans. And Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' Remember, how the unbelievers plotted against you. They sought to take you captive or kill you or exile you. They planned - and Allah also planned - Allah is the best planner of all. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' Remember (O Messenger), when the rejecters were making schemes to arrest you, slay you, or expel you. That was their plan, but Allah's Law of Requital is designed to work in a way unfailing. Allah is the Best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And when those who disbelieved devised plans against thee that they might confine thee or slay thee or drive thee away -- and they devised plans and Allah, too, had arranged a plan; and Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And the rejecters plot against you to arrest you, or to kill you, or to expel you. And they plot, and God plots, and God is the best of plotters. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' And when the unbelievers plotted against you (Prophet Muhammad). They sought to either take you captive or have you killed, or expelled. They plotted but Allah (in reply) also plotted. Allah is the Best in plotting. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' And call to mind when the unbelievers plotted against thee, that they might either detain thee in bonds, or put thee to death, or expel thee the city; and they plotted against thee: But God laid a plot against them; and God is the best layer of plots. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' And call to mind when the unbelievers plotted against thee, to detain thee prisoner, or to kill thee, or to banish thee: They plotted-but God plotted: and of plotters is God the best! <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' AND [remember, O Prophet,] how those who were bent on denying the truth were scheming against thee, in order to restrain thee [from preaching], or to slay thee, or to drive thee away: thus have they [always] schemed:'° but God brought their scheming to nought-for God is above all schemers. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' And when those who misbelieve were crafty with thee to detain thee a prisoner, or kill thee, or drive thee forth; they were crafty, but God was crafty too, for God is best of crafty ones! <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=008:030 Quran Browser - Quran 8:30]</ref> }}

===Qur'an 10:21===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' When We make mankind taste of some mercy after adversity hath touched them, behold! they take to plotting against Our Signs! Say: "Swifter to plan is Allah!" Verily, Our messengers record all the plots that ye make! <ref name="iw10-21">{{quran-ia|10|21}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' And when We cause mankind to taste of mercy after some adversity which had afflicted them, behold! they have some plot against Our revelations. Say: Allah is more swift in plotting. Lo! Our messengers write down that which ye plot. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' When We let the people taste mercy after hardship has visited them, lo, they have a device concerning Our signs. Say: 'God is swifter at devising; surely Our messengers are writing down what you are devising. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And when We make people taste of mercy after an affliction touches them, lo ! they devise plans against Our communication. Say: Allah is quicker to plan; surely Our messengers write down what you plan. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' When people are granted mercy after having suffered hardship, they begin to plot against Our revelations. Say, "God is the most swift in His plans." Our angelic messengers record all that you plot. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' When we bestow mercy upon the people, after adversity had afflicted them, they immediately scheme against our revelations! Say, "GOD's scheming is far more effective. For our messengers are recording everything you scheme." <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And when We let mankind taste of mercy after some adversity has afflicted them, behold! They take to plotting against Our Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.)! Say: "Allah is more Swift in planning!" Certainly, Our Messengers (angels) record all of that which you plot. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And when We give the people a taste of mercy after adversity has touched them, at once they conspire against Our verses. Say, "Allah is swifter in strategy." Indeed, Our messengers record that which you conspire. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' When We show mercy to mankind after some calamity had afflicted them, they begin to plot against Our revelations! Tell them: "Allah is more swift in plotting than you; indeed Our angels are recording all the plots you make." <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' When We cause people to taste of Mercy after they have suffered a hardship, they start scheming to defy Our Commands. Say, "Allah is more Swift in planning. Our couriers write down what you plot." <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And when We make people taste of mercy after an affliction touches, lo! they devise plans against Our messages. Say: Allah is quicker to plan. Surely Our messengers write down what you plan. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And if We let the people taste a mercy after some harm had afflicted them, they take to scheming against Our revelations! Say: "God is faster in scheming;" Our messengers record what you scheme. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' When We let people taste (Our) mercy after they had been afflicted by hardship, they devise against Our verses. Say: 'Allah is more swift in devising. ' Indeed, Our Messengers (the angels) are writing down whatever you devise. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' And when We caused the men of Mecca to taste mercy, after an affliction which had befallen them, behold, they devised a stratagem against our signs. Say unto them, God is more swift in executing a stratagem, than ye. Verily our messengers write down that which ye deceitfully devise. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' And when after a trouble which you befallen them, we caused this people to taste of mercy, lo! a plot on their part against our signs! SAY: Swifter to plot is God! Verily, our messengers note down your plottings. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' And [thus it is:] whenever We let [such] people taste [some of Our] grace after hardship has visited them-lo! they forthwith turn to devising false arguments against Our messages." Say: "God is swifter [than you] in His deep devising!" Behold, Our [heavenly] messengers are recording all that you may devise! <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' When we have let men taste of mercy after distress which has touched them, lo! they use a stratagem against our signs! Say, 'God is quicker at stratagem.' Verily, our messengers write down what stratagem ye use. <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=010:021 Quran Browser - Quran 10:21]</ref> }}

===Qur'an 13:42===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' Those before them did (also) devise plots; but in all things the master-planning is Allah's He knoweth the doings of every soul: and soon will the Unbelievers know who gets home in the end. <ref name="iw13-42">{{quran-ia|13|42}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' Those who were before them plotted; but all plotting is Allah's. He knoweth that which each soul earneth. The disbelievers will come to know for whom will be the sequel of the (heavenly) Home. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' Those that were before them devised; but God's is the devising altogether. He knows what every soul earns. The unbelievers shall assuredly know whose will be the Ultimate Abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And those before them did indeed make plans, but all planning is Allah's; He knows what every soul earns, and the unbelievers shall come to know for whom is the (better) issue of the abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' Certain people who lived before plotted evil plans but God is the Master of all plans. He knows what every soul does. The unbelievers will soon learn who will achieve the blissful end. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' Others before them have schemed, but to GOD belongs the ultimate scheming. He knows what everyone is doing. The disbelievers will find out who the ultimate winners are. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And verily, those before them did devise plots, but all planning is Allahs. He knows what every person earns, and the disbelievers will know who gets the good end (final destination). <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And those before them had plotted, but to Allah belongs the plan entirely. He knows what every soul earns, and the disbelievers will know for whom is the final home. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' Now those who lived before these people, also devised schemes, but the most Subtle devising is that of Allah. He knows what every "Self" earns. The rejecters will soon find out as to whom belongs the Future. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And those before them planned indeed, but all planning is Allah’s. He knows what every soul earns. And the disbelievers will come to know for whom is the (good) end of the Abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And those before them have schemed, but to God is all scheming. He knows what every soul earns and the rejecters will come to know to whom is the better abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' Those who have gone before them devised, but to Allah is the devising altogether. He knows what every soul earns. The unbelievers shall know without doubt for whom is the Ultimate Abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' Their predecessores formerly devised subtle plots against their prophets; but God is master of every subtle device. He knoweth that which every soul deserveth: And the infidels shall surely know, whose will be the reward of paradise. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' Those who lived before them made plots: but all plotting is controlled by God: He knoweth the works of every one, and the infidels shall know whose will be the recompense of the abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' Now those who lived before these [sinners] did, too, devise many a blasphemy"-but the most subtle devising is that of God, who knows what each human being deserves :12 and the deniers of the truth will [in time] come to know to whom the future belongs." <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' And those who were before them were crafty too; but God's is the craft altogether! He knows what every soul earns; and the misbelievers shall know whose is the recompense of the abode. <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=013:042 Quran Browser - Quran 13:42]</ref> }}

====Analysis====

The translations of Yusuf Ali, Sarwar Hilali/Khan and Malik translate the same word differently in two places (in the same verse). They state that unbelievers "plotted and planned" but that Allah only "planned," leaving Allah clear of the more nefarious connotations of plotting.

Arberry and Qaribullah use the word "devised," Rodwell uses the word "plotted," Sale uses "devised a strategem" and Shakir, HK/Saheeh, QXP and Maulana Ali all use the word "planned" in reference to both the unbelievers and Allah. These translations also fail to capture the full range of the term's meaning, leaving out the connotation of devious scheming and deception.

Pickthal, Khalifa, Free Minds and Shakir opt to translate the word as "scheme." While "scheme" usually holds a negative connotation, this is not always the case, whereas ''makir'' is always used negatively. There is a similar dynamic at play in Palmer's use of the word "crafty."

==Islamic Views on the Translation of Makir==

===Jamal Badawi===

Dr. Jamal Badawi argues that despite ''makir''<nowiki/>'s negative connotations, the word carries a different meaning when used to refer to Allah:

{{quote |1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20070624054812/http://www.readingislam.com/livedialogue/Browse.asp?hGuestID=8P66WT|2=2011-04-10}} Ask About Islam Q&A Session] Dr. Jamal Badawi, Reading Islam, April 16, 2007|2='''Question:''' The quran refers sometimes to the MAKR of Allah. Hos ''[sic]'' is possible to desscribe ''[sic]'' God as MAKIR? Wa yamkuruna wa yamkuru Allah

'''Answer:''' The terms that we use in our human language do not necessarily have the identical meaning when referring to Allah. For example, terms such as “hear” and “see” have totally different meaning when we speak about Allah, as He does not have eyes or ears like ours (Qur’an 42/11).

Likewise, the Arabic term “makr” for humans refers to conspiracy; for Allah, however, in reverence to Him, to ''[sic]'' means “plan”. Therefore, it means then that they conspire, but Allah has his own plans to thwart their evil schemes.}}
Dr. Badawi draws evidence for this claim from Quran 42:11:
{{Quote|{{Quran|42|11}}| The Originator of the heavens and the earth; He made mates for you from among yourselves, and mates of the cattle too, multiplying you thereby; nothing like a likeness of Him; and He is the Hearing, the Seeing. }}

This verse, however, refers only to physical characteristics: although we have been created in pairs (male and female), Allah has no partner, no need for mates, and no likeness on earth. Reviewing the relevant portion of Kathir's Tafsir confirms this:

{{quote |1=[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2109&Itemid=98 Allah is the Protector, Ruler and Creator (42:11)] Tafsir 'ibn Kathir|2= [فَاطِرَ السَّمَـوَتِ وَالاٌّرْضِ]

(The Creator of the heavens and the earth.) means, the Maker of them both and everything in between.

[جَعَلَ لَكُمْ مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَزْوَاجًا]

(He has made for you mates from yourselves,) means, of your own kind. As a blessing and a favor from Him, He has made your kind male and female.

[وَمِنَ الاٌّنْعَـمِ أَزْوجاً]

(and for the cattle (also) mates.) means, and He has created for you eight pairs of cattle.

[يَذْرَؤُكُمْ فِيهِ]

(By this means He creates you.) means, in this manner He creates you, male and female, generation after generation of men and cattle.

[لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِ شَىْءٌ]

(There is nothing like Him,) means, there is nothing like the Creator of these pairs, for He is the Unique, the Self-Sufficient Master, '''Who has no peer or equal.'''}}

The Qur'an also refers to its language as "clear":{{Quote|{{Quran|16|103}}| And certainly We know that they say: Only a mortal teaches him. The tongue of him whom they reproach is barbarous, '''and this is clear Arabic tongue.''' }}

===Islam Q&A===

Islam Q&A says that "plotting/deceiving" may be used to describe Allah, but only in a positive way:

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/39803/|2=2011-04-10}} Can Allaah be described as plotting etc?] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 39803|2='''Question:''' Can Allaah be described as plotting, deceiving and betraying as in the verses (interpretation of the meaning):
“they were plotting and Allaah too was plotting”
[al-Anfaal 8:30]
“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]?. 

'''Answer:''' Praise be to Allaah.

The attributes of Allaah are all attributes of perfection, pointing to the best and most perfect of meanings. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“and for Allaah is the highest description. And He is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise”

[al-Nahl 16:60]

“His is the highest description (i.e. none has the right to be worshipped but He, and there is nothing comparable unto Him) in the heavens and in the earth. And He is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise”

[al-Room 30:27]

Al-Sa’di said in his Tafseer (commentary) – p. 718, 1065:

The highest description means the most perfect attributes.

Attributes are of three types:

1 – '''Attributes of perfection – in which there is no shortcoming whatsoever. These attributes apply to Allaah in absolute terms and are not limited or restricted in any way.''' Examples of that include His knowledge, power, hearing, seeing, mercy, etc.

2 – '''Attributes which imply imperfection and shortcomings. These can never be ascribed to Allaah, such''' as sleeping, being unable, '''doing wrong or oppressing, betraying''', etc.

3 – Attributes which may be perfect or imperfect, depending on the context. These cannot be ascribed to Allaah in absolute terms, and they cannot be denied in the case of Allaah in absolute terms. '''If the context implies perfection then they can be ascribed to Allaah; if it implies imperfection then they cannot be ascribed to Allaah. Examples include: plotting, deceiving and mocking.'''

'''Plotting against, betraying and mocking the enemy are attributes of perfection, because that is indicative of complete knowledge, power and might, and so on.'''

'''But plotting against the sincere believers is an attribute of imperfection.'''

Hence these characteristics are not ascribed to Allaah in absolute terms, rather they are mentioned in such a context as to indicate that these are attributes of perfection.

Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

'''“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]'''

This is deceiving the hypocrites.

And He says (interpretation of the meaning):

“And (remember) when the disbelievers plotted against you (O Muhammad) to imprison you, or to kill you, or to get you out (from your home, i.e. Makkah); they were plotting and Allaah too was plotting; and Allaah is the Best of those who plot”

[al-Anfaal 8:30]

This is a plot against the enemies of Allaah who were plotting against the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him).

Allaah says of the hypocrites (interpretation of the meaning):

“And when they meet those who believe, they say: ‘We believe,’ but when they are alone with their Shayaateen (devils — polytheists, hypocrites), they say: ‘Truly, we are with you; verily, we were but mocking.’

Allaah mocks at them and gives them increase in their wrong-doing to wander blindly”

[al-Baqarah 2:14-15]

This is mocking the hypocrites.

'''These attributes are to be regarded as indicating perfection in this context. Hence we say that Allaah mocks the hypocrites and deceives them, and that He plots against His enemies, and so on. But it is not permissible to describe Allaah as mocking or deceiving in absolute terms, because that does not indicate perfection.'''

Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allaah have mercy on him) was asked: Can Allaah be described as plotting and named as such?

He replied:

Allaah cannot be described as plotting except in a limited sense; He cannot be described as such in absolute terms. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“Did they then feel secure against the Plan of Allaah? None feels secure from the Plan of Allaah except the people who are the losers”

[al-A’raaf 7:99]

This verse indicate that Allaah has a plan or plot, which was to confound them without them realizing it. This is akin to the hadeeth narrated by al-Bukhaari: “War is deceit.”

'''If it is asked: How can Allaah be described as plotting when this seems to be something blameworthy?'''

'''The answer is that plotting in the right circumstances may be something praiseworthy that points to the strength of the plotter, and that he is superior to his enemy. Hence Allaah cannot be described as plotting in absolute terms, and we cannot say “Allaah is a Plotter.” Rather this attribute is mentioned in a context where it is positive, such as the verses (interpretation of the meaning):'''

'''“they were plotting and Allaah too was plotting”'''

'''[al-Anfaal 8:30]'''

'''“So they plotted a plot, and We planned a plan, while they perceived not”'''

'''[al-Naml 27:50]'''

And we cannot say in absolute terms that this cannot be ascribed to Allaah, rather in contexts where it is something positive it may be ascribed to Him, and in contexts where it is not something positive, it should not be ascribed to Him. So Allaah should not be called by a name which refers to this, so we cannot say that one of the names of Allaah is “the Plotter”. Plotting is one of His actions, because it has to do with the Will of Allaah.

Fataawa al-Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, 1/170.

He was also asked: Can Allaah be described as betraying, or as deceiving, as in the verse (interpretation of the meaning):

“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]?

He replied:

'''With regard to betrayal, this is something that can never be ascribed to Allaah, because it is something shameful in all circumstances, and it is plotting at a time of trust, which is blameworthy.''' Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“But if they intend to betray you (O Muhammad), they indeed betrayed Allaah before. So He gave (you) power over them. And Allaah is All-Knower, All-Wise”

[al-Anfaal 8:71]

And He did not say: So He betrayed them.

With regard to deceiving, it is like plotting. It may be ascribed to Allaah when it is something positive, but it cannot be ascribed to Him in absolute terms. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]

Fataawa al-Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, 1/171

And Allaah knows best.}}

===Harun Yahya===

Harun Yahya includes ''Al-Makir'' in his listing of Allah's 99 names:

{{quote |[http://www.harunyahya.com/books/faith/names/names04.php#16 Names of Allah/ No. 16 (Al-Makir)] Harun Yayha| '''AL-MAKIR'''
'''The Planner'''

:'''When those unbelievers were plotting against you to imprison you or to kill or expel you: they were plotting and Allah was plotting, but Allah is the Best of Planners . (Surat al-Anfal, 8:30)'''

Those who plotted against the just religion throughout history strove to distance people from it for their own selfish desires (e.g., greed for power, personal interests, and so on). In the Hereafter, they will be told: “'''No, it was your scheming night and day when you commanded us to reject Allah and assign equals to Him'''.” (Surah Saba', 34:33) Yet there is a very important point that we need to remember here:

:'''Those before them plotted, but all planning belongs to Allah. He knows what each self earns, and the unbelievers soon will know who has the Ultimate Abode. (Surat ar-Ra‘d, 13:42)'''

As is related in the verse above, “all planning belongs to Allah.” Thus, against all of the unbelievers' plots, Allah devises the best plan. Allah calls attention to the deadlock facing unbelievers:

:'''They concocted their plots, but their plots were with Allah, even if they were such as to make the mountains vanish. (Surah Ibrahim, 14:46)'''

As this verse relates, Allah protects all believers from these plots. This is very easy for Allah, Who turns all plots against His Messengers and believers into failures and makes unbelievers suffer the ensuing dire consequences, for “… '''Allah is swifter at planning'''...” (Surah Yunus, 10:21)

No doubt, Allah creates every incident with a purpose and for the ultimate good. He uses the unbelievers' plots against believers to test them. He then extends His help to those servants who can discern the good and beauties in the events He creates, and turns all of these to their benefit.}}

Elsewhere on his website,<ref>[http://www.harunyahya.com/books/faith/school/school2.php The School of Yusuf - Harun Yahya]</ref><ref>[http://www.harunyahya.com/ysf03.php The Prophet Yusuf - Harun Yahya]</ref> the above verse refers to both Allah and unbelievers as "plotters," in contrast to the plotter/planner distinction here.

===Allah Only Deceives Enemies===

Some Quranic verses indicate that Allah did not confine his "deception" to his enemies:

====Allah Deceives Muslims====

{{quote | {{cite quran|8|43|end=44|style=ref}} | When Allah showed them to you in your dream as few; and if He had shown them to you as many you would certainly have become weak-hearted and you would have disputed about the matter, but Allah saved (you); surely He is the Knower of what is in the breasts.

And when He showed them to you, when you met, as few in your eyes and He made you to appear little in their eyes, in order that Allah might bring about a matter which was to be done, and to Allah are all affairs returned.}}
In the above verses, Allah deceived Muhammad himself in a dream by portraying the forces opposing Muhammad as less numerous than they actually were, such that Muhammad would remain confident and continue fighting. Kathir's tafsir explores this:

{{quote |1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=8&tid=20236 Some Details of the Battle of Badr (8:43)] Tafsir 'ibn Kathir|2= '''[إِذْ يُرِيكَهُمُ اللَّهُ فِى مَنَامِكَ قَلِيلاً وَلَوْ أَرَاكَهُمْ كَثِيراً لَّفَشِلْتُمْ وَلَتَنَـزَعْتُمْ فِى الاٌّمْرِ وَلَـكِنَّ اللَّهَ سَلَّمَ إِنَّهُ عَلِيمٌ بِذَاتِ الصُّدُورِ - وَإِذْ يُرِيكُمُوهُمْ إِذِ الْتَقَيْتُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِكُمْ قَلِيلاً وَيُقَلِّلُكُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِهِمْ لِيَقْضِىَ اللَّهُ أَمْراً كَانَ مَفْعُولاً وَإِلَى اللَّهِ تُرْجَعُ الأُمُورُ ]

(43. (And remember) when Allah showed them to you as few in your dream; if He had shown them to you as many, you would surely have been discouraged''', and you would surely have disputed in making a decision. But Allah saved (you). Certainly, He is the All-Knower of that is in the breasts.) (44. And (remember) when you met, '''He showed them to you as few in your eyes and He made you appear as few in their eyes, so that Allah might accomplish a matter already ordained''', and to Allah return all matters (for decision).)

Mujahid said, "In a dream, Allah showed the Prophet the enemy as few. The Prophet conveyed this news to his Companions and their resolve strengthened.'' Similar was said by Ibn Ishaq and several others. Allah said,

[وَلَوْ أَرَاكَهُمْ كَثِيراً لَّفَشِلْتُمْ]

(If He had shown them to you as many, you would surely, have been discouraged,) you would have cowardly abstained from meeting them and fell in dispute among yourselves,

[وَلَـكِنَّ اللَّهَ سَلَّمَ]

(But Allah saved), from all this, when He made you see them as few,

[إِنَّهُ عَلِيمٌ بِذَاتِ الصُّدُورِ]

(Certainly, He is the All-Knower of that is in the breasts.) [8:43].

Allah knows what the heart and the inner-self conceal,

[يَعْلَمُ خَآئِنَةَ الاٌّعْيُنِ وَمَا تُخْفِى الصُّدُورُ ]

(Allah knows the fraud of the eyes, and all that the breasts conceal) [40:19].

Allah's statement,

[وَإِذْ يُرِيكُمُوهُمْ إِذِ الْتَقَيْتُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِكُمْ قَلِيلاً]

(And (remember) when you met, '''He showed them to you as few in your eyes) demonstrates Allah's compassion towards the believers. Allah made them see few disbelievers in their eyes, so that they would be encouraged and feel eager to meet them'''. Abu Ishaq As-Subai`i said, that Abu `Ubaydah said that `Abdullah bin Mas`ud said, "They were made to seem few in our eyes during Badr, so that I said to a man who was next to me, `Do you think they are seventy' He said, `Rather, they are a hundred.' However, when we captured one of them, we asked him and he said, `We were a thousand.''' Ibn Abi Hatim and Ibn Jarir recorded it. Allah said next,

[وَيُقَلِّلُكُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِهِمْ]

(and He made you appear as few in their eyes,) Allah said,

[وَإِذْ يُرِيكُمُوهُمْ إِذِ الْتَقَيْتُمْ]

(And (remember) when you met. He showed them to you...), He encouraged each of the two groups against the other, according to `Ikrimah, as recorded by Ibn Abi Hatim. }}
====Allah Created Christianity Through Deception====

Allah however, makes it clear in the Qur'an that Jesus was not crucified, but that Allah also made it appear otherwis
{{quote | {{cite quran|4|157|end=158|style=ref}}| And their saying: Surely we have killed the Messiah, Isa son of Marium, the messenger of Allah; and they did not kill him nor did they crucify him, '''but it appeared to them so (like Isa)''' and most surely those who differ therein are only in a doubt about it; they have no knowledge respecting it, but only follow a conjecture, and they killed him not for sure.

Nay! Allah took him up to Himself; and Allah is Mighty, Wise. }}
==Other Qur'anic Divine Scheming verses==
Reynolds (2020) notes that despite the discomfort of later traditional Islamic commentators on the description of God as "deceiving" or "scheming," there are many terms and examples outside of the word ''makr'' and its variants of Allah deceiving/scheming in the Qur'an,<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (Chapter 8: The Avenger. Divine Scheming. pp. 184-191).''Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> adding weight to this straightforward interpretation.{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 189-190). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. |..Makr is not the only term used for divine trickery. Elsewhere in the Qur’an (7:182–83, 68:45, 86:15–16) Allah is associated with kayd, sometimes rendered as “devising.” In Q 7:183 God’s giving a respite to the unbelievers is described as a sort of kayd: “And I will grant them respite, for My devising (kaydi) is indeed sure.” This same term is associated also with the stratagems of unbelievers and opponents of the prophets: it is used for pagans (7:195), the brothers of Joseph (12:5), sneaky women in the Joseph story (12:28), and other unbelievers (20:64, 52:46, 77:39). Other terms used to describe Allah’s trickery include khida‘ (4:142; elsewhere attributed to the unbelievers: 2:9, 8:62) and the Arabic verb aghwa. In Q 11:34 Noah declares to his opponents that God could lead them astray (yughwiyakum). Tellingly, Satan accuses God (perhaps rightly) of leading him astray on two occasions. In Q 7:16 Satan declares to God, “You have led me astray! (aghwaytani).” In Q 15:39 Satan says that because God has led him astray, he will lead others astray: “He said ‘O Lord, because you have led me astray (aghwaytani), I will surely glamorize [evil] for them on the earth, and I will surely lead all of them astray (la-ughwiyannahum).’” Muhammad Asad—clearly uncomfortable with the idea of a God who deceives—translates these two occurrences identically as “thou hast thwarted me.”..}}
==See Also==

* [[Taqiyya]]
{{Translation-links-english|[[Allah le meilleur trompeur|French]]}}

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/Shamoun/allah_best_deceiver.htm|2=2011-11-24}} Allah the greatest deceiver of them all]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/authors/cornelius/makr.html|2=2011-11-24}} Allah: Truthful or Deceiver?]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Wood/deceptive_god.htm|2=2011-11-24}} Deceptive God, Incompetent Messiah]

'''Resources'''

*[http://www.ghazali.org/books/wehr-cowan-76.pdf Hans-Wehr Dictionary - mkr (page 917)] ''(40MB PDF file)''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf|2=2011-11-24}} Lane's Lexicon - mkr - Volume 7, Page 256]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.studyquran.co.uk/14_MIIM.htm|2=2011-11-24}} Lane's Lexicon online summary - Mim-Kaf-Ra]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Tafsir]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]

Arab Transmission of the Classics

2025-12-11T18:36:40Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=4|Language=3|References=3}}
This article explores claims that Muslims saved the works of Greek [[Philosophy|philosophers]] from destruction.

==Introduction==

The '''Arab transmission of the classics''' refers to the claim that [[Arabic]] commentators such as Ibn Sina and [[Ibn Rushd]] saved the work of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from destruction. According to the claim, these works would have perished in the European dark ages between fifth and the tenth centuries, had [[Islam|Islamic]] philosophers not preserved them by translating them into Arabic.<ref>The myth persists even on 'scholarly' websites. See e.g. [http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/islam.htm here]. "It was only through the transfer of Greek knowledge (including Aristotle's philosophy, Ptolemy's geography, Hippocrates' medicine) by Islam Spain that this information ''ever'' got to Western Europe." [Our emphasis]</ref> However, the first Latin texts to be used after the dark ages and the European reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula were translations from the Greek preserved by the Byzantines, while Arabic translation were largely used only where Latin texts were unavailable or unintelligible.

Arabic commentators, particularly Ibn Rushd, nevertheless had a profound influence on the scholastic philosophers of the Latin West in the thirteenth century. In particular, the work of Arabic commentators allowed dense and difficult texts, such as those of Aristotle, to be more easily understood.

==Background==

The Western intellectual tradition is generally considered to have begun in ancient Greece in the fifth century, with the work of mathematicians such as Euclid, philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato, and scientists such as Eratosthenes (who calculated the circumference of the Earth around 240 BC). The main principle underlying this tradition is naturalistic, humanistic and rational, emphasizing the role of human reason in discovering truth, as opposed to reliance on supernatural or "revealed" truth.

Greek science and philosophy was inherited by the ancient Romans, but their culture was lost after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West during the fifth and sixth centuries. Ancient learning was not "recovered" in the West until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a result of the transmission both of Greek ideas, which had been preserved and developed in the Byzantine and Arab world in the early middle ages, and also of the texts themselves, which had been almost completely lost in the West. These texts were translated into Latin, the language of educated intellectuals during that period.

==Syriac Translations==

Knowledge of Aristotle came by two routes to the West: Latin translations directly from the Greek made in the twelfth century (see below), and Latin translations from Arabic, which were themselves translations from Syriac of philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria, and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the 200 years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac from Greek and then into Arabic. Despite this lengthy chain of transmission, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>Hyman & Walsh p. 204</ref>
==James of Venice==

Translations to Latin directly from Greek began with the work of James of Venice. James was an Aristotelian scholar who flourished in the 12th century, and he is generally regarded as the most important of the 12th century translators of Greek texts into Latin. He is thought to have translated Aristotle's ''Posterior Analytics'', ''Sophistici elenchi'', ''Metaphysics'', and several important works of natural philosophy, as well as most of the ''Parva naturalia'', most of which were widely circulated. Little else is known about his life.

According to a passage from Robert of Torigny's chronicle: "James, a cleric from Venice, translated from the Greek into Latin several books of Aristotle and commented on them, viz. the Topics, Prior and Posterior Analytics, and Elenchi, although an earlier translation of these same books was already in existence" [MP 1952]. According to other documents, James was a Greek from Venice who called himself a philosopher. He appears to have been present at an 1136 theological debate in Constantinople between Anselm of Havelberg and the archbishop of Nicomedia. In 1148, he advised the archbishop of Ravenna on the precedence of Ravenna over other archbishoprics. In Bologna in the 1140s, he may have disputed with Magister Albericus over the interpretation of the Sophistici Elenchi. His commentary on the Elenchi is mentioned in a 12th century grammatical quaestio, and an early 13th century author mentions his commentary on the Posterior Analytics [Ebbesen 1977].

James translated the ''Metaphyisics'' directly from Greek, but this included only the first four books, requiring scholars in the early thirteenth century to rely on translations from Arabic for the complete work.

Scholars have debated whether the Latin versions of the so-called ''logica nova'' (the Prior Analytics, Topics, Sophistici elenchi, and the Posterior Analytics) should be ascribed to Boethius or James. Stylistic analysis by Minio-Paluello published in 1952 suggested that the common versions of the Prior Analytics, Topics, and Sophistici Elenchi are consistent in style with each other and with the known Boethian translations of the 'logica vetus.' By contrast, the Posterior Analytics has similar stylistic features to a passage translated from Greek in James' advice to the archbishop of Ravenna, as well as Latin translations of some of the other works of Aristotle that were not known to the early medieval philosophers, including (according to Minio-Paluello) the ''Metaphysics'' itself.<ref>LMP, cited in the Cambridge History of later Medieval Philosophy</ref>

==Michael Scot==

Michael Scot was a thirteenth century translator who translated two major works from Arabic to Latin in Toledo, Spain, then moved to Palermo, Sicily, where he was associated with the court of Frederick II Hohenstaufen. There, he dedicated the translation of Avicenna’s book on animals to Frederick, and mentions that two books of his own were commissioned by Frederick. Michael was apparently the first to make a complete Latin translation from Arabic, the ''Metaphysica Nova'', some time between 1220 and 1235, in addition to several other important works.

William of Luna, working in the area of Naples, was another translator who may have been associated with the Hohenstaufens, in particular Manfred Hohenstaufen.<ref>See Fulvio delle Donne in an article in the latest issue of the Recherches de Theologie et philosophie médiévales</ref> He translated important commentaries on Aristotle originally composed by Ibn Rushd.

Another anonymous translation of the ''Metaphysics'' from Greek (the media) was nearly complete except for book 11, forming the basis of William of Moerbeke's later complete translation. However, this seems to have remained unknown until the middle of the century, based on the numbers of surviving manuscripts.

In most cases, Latin scholars used translations from Greek, turning to Arabic translations only when the more intelligible and more accurate Greek ones were missing. The only Syriac-Arabic translations to achieve widespread circulation were the ''De caelo'', ''Metereologica'' I-III, ''De Animalibus,'' and ''Metaphysics''; each of these except ''De Animalibus'' were soon replaced by William of Moerbeke's translations from Greek.

==William of Moerbeke==

William of Moerbeke (c. 1215 – 1286) was one of the most prolific and influential translators of Greek philosophical texts in the Middle Ages. Very little is known of his life.<ref>See Grabmann 1946 and the short account by Minio-Paluello 1974</ref> He was born probably in 1215 in the village of Moerbeke, now in Belgium, and probably entered the Dominican convent at Louvain as a young man. Most of his surviving work was written between 1259 and 1272.

William is probably the most well-known of the translators from Greek. A common myth posits that he was the first to translate Aristotle directly from Greek, but it is largely untrue. For example, his translation of the the Posterior Analytics is also a revision of an earlier translation by James of Venice. However, he wrote important translations of the remaining works available only in Arabic, namely ''De Caelo'' (1260), ''Metereologica'' I-III (c. 1260), ''De Animalibus'' (1260) and parts of the ''Metaphysics'' (before 1272).

He was the first to translate lesser works such as ''De motu animalium'', ''De progressu animalium'' (1260), as well as the important Politics (1260, an important witness to the Greek text) and Poetics (1278). He wrote new translations of ''Categories'', ''De interpretatione'' (1268). He revised the ''Posterior Analytics'' (1269), ''Sophistici Elenchi'' (before 1270), ''Physics'' (c. 1260-70), De anima (before 1268), Parva naturalia, and Metaphysics.

William additionally translated the works of Greek commentators: Simplicius on the Categories and ''De caelo'', Ammonius on ''De Interpretatione'', Alexander on the ''Meteorologica'' and ''De sensu'', Philoponus on ''De anima'' (Book III), and Themistius on the ''De anima''. He also translated a non-Aristotelian work, the ''Elementatio theologica'' of Proclus.<ref>This section is indebted to the work of the late Edmund Fryde (1923-1999) - [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/1999/dec/02/guardianobituaries2 Obituary]</ref>
==See Also==

{{Hub4|Philosophy|Philosophy}}

{{Hub4|Golden Age|the "Golden Age"}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* E. B. Fryde (2000) ''The early Palaeologan renaissance'' (Brill)
* Hyman and Walsh (1973) ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', Indianapolis.
{{refend}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Islamic Golden Age]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Christians Jews and Muslims in Heaven

2025-12-11T18:36:12Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=3|Content=4|Language=3|References=3}}
[[File:Quran 2-62.png|290px|right|thumb]]
This article analyzes the claim, commonplace among [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadis]] in particular,<ref>For example, an article by an American Ahmadi named Dr. Faheem Younus, on his Huffington Post‎ blog, titled "[http://islamo-criticism.blogspot.com/2012/04/in-islam-heaven-is-not-exclusive-oh.html In Islam, Heaven Is Not Exclusive]".</ref> that [[People of the Book|Christians and Jews]] who adhere to their faiths will enter [[Heaven|Paradise]] alongside Muslims. The verse presented as evidence for the claim is considered alongside other verses discussing the fate of the [[People of the Book|people of the book]] in the Qur'an.
==Qur'an==

===Surah 2:62===

This verse is often cited as evidence that Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike will be accepted in Paradise.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|62}}|Surely those who believe, and those who are Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last day and does good, they shall have their reward from their Lord, and there is no fear for them, nor shall they grieve.}}

===Others===
====Surah 5:69====

This is another less cited but similar verse:

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|69}}|Surely those who believe and those who are Jews and the Sabians and the Christians whoever believes in Allah and the last day and does good-- they shall have no fear nor shall they grieve.}}

==Analysis==

===Qur'an===

====Muhammad====

The [[Qur'an]] makes it an article of faith to believe in [[Allah]] and ''all the messengers'', which includes the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. According to the Qur'an, when Moses came with the [[Taurat]], it was necessary to follow him; likewise, when [[Jesus]] came with the [[Injil]], it was necessary to leave the laws of Moses and follow him. Finally, when Muhammad came with the Qur'an, it became necessary to abandon the teachings of Jesus and follow Islam.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|4|5}}|And who believe in '''that which has been revealed to you and that which was revealed before you''' and they are sure of the hereafter. These are on a right course from their Lord and these it is that shall be successful.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|68}}|Say: O followers of the Book! you follow no good till you keep up the Taurat and the Injeel '''and that which is revealed to you from your Lord'''; and surely that which has been revealed to you from your Lord shall make many of them increase in inordinacy and unbelief; '''grieve not therefore for the unbelieving people'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|152}}|And those who believe in Allah '''and His messengers and do not make a distinction between any of them'''-- Allah will grant them their rewards; and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.}}

Several verses explicitly define "believers" as those who accept the prophethood of Muhammad. "Disbelievers" who do not are told they are in error and condemned to the "burning fire."

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|285}}|'''The messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord, and (so do) the believers'''; they all believe in Allah and His angels and His books '''and His messengers'''; We make no difference between any of His messengers; and they say: We hear and obey, our Lord! Thy forgiveness (do we crave), and to Thee is the eventual course.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|136}}|O you who believe! believe in Allah '''and His Messenger''' and the Book which He has revealed to His Messenger and the Book which He revealed before; and '''whoever disbelieves in Allah and His angels and His messengers''' and the last day, he indeed strays off into a remote error.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|48|13}}|And whoever does not believe in Allah '''and His Messenger''', then surely We have prepared '''burning fire for the unbelievers'''.}}

====Islam====

The Qur'an clearly states that any religion other than Islam will not be accepted by Allah in the Hereafter.

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|19}}|'''Surely the (true) religion with Allah is Islam''', and those to whom the Book had been given did not show opposition but after knowledge had come to them, out of envy among themselves; and whoever disbelieves in the communications of Allah then surely Allah is quick in reckoning.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|85}}|And whoever desires '''a religion other than Islam, it shall not be accepted from him''', and in the hereafter he shall be one of the losers.}}

The pluralistic interpretation of 2:62 would seem to contradict other verses in the Qur'an. Some have responded to this apparent contradiction by suggesting it is an instance of [[Abrogation]] (or Naskh).

===Commentaries===

The following analyses from Islamic scholars [[Tafsir]] and [[Fiqh]] explicate verse 2:62.

====Tafsir Ibn Abbas====

{{Quote|1=[http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=73&tSoraNo=2&tAyahNo=62&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Surah 2 Ayah 62] Tafsir Ibn 'Abbas, trans. Mokrane Guezzou, Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought|2=Then Allah went on to mention the believers among them, saying: (Lo! Those who believe) '''in Moses and all the other prophets''', these earn their reward from their Lord in Paradise; they shall have no fear perpetually and they shall perpetually not grieve. It is said that this means that no fear will come upon them concerning torment in the future life nor will they grieve about anything they have left behind. And it is also said that this means: they shall have no fear when death is slain and hell is closed. '''Then He mentioned those who did not believe in Moses or the other prophets, saying: (and those who are Jews) who deviated from the religion of Moses, (and Christians) those who became Christians''' (and Sabaeans) a Christian sect whose members shave the middle of their heads, read the Gospel, worship the angels and say: " our hearts have returned (saba'at) unto Allah " , (whoever believeth) from amongst them (in Allah and the Last Day and does right) in that which is between them and their Lord, (surely their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve).}}

====Tafsir Ibn Kathir====
{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qtafsir.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D372&date=2015-03-14 Faith and doing Righteous Deeds equals Salvation in all Times] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=After Allah described the condition - and punishment - of those who defy His commands, fall into His prohibitions and transgress set limits by committing prohibited acts, '''He stated that the earlier nations who were righteous and obedient received the rewards for their good deeds. This shall be the case, until the Day of Judgment. Therefore, whoever follows the unlettered Messenger and Prophet shall acquire eternal happiness''' and shall neither fear from what will happen in the future nor become sad for what has been lost in the past. Similarly, Allah said,

(No doubt! Verily, the Awliya' of Allah, no fear shall come upon them nor shall they grieve) (10:62).
The angels will proclaim to the dying believers, as mentioned,

(Verily, those who say: "Our Lord is Allah (alone)," and then they stand firm, on them the angels will descend (at the time of their death) (saying): "Fear not, nor grieve! But receive the glad tidings of Paradise which you have been promised!"). (41:30)}}

{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qtafsir.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D371&date=2015-03-14 The Meaning of Mu'min, or Believer] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=`Ali bin Abi Talhah narrated from Ibn `Abbas, about,
(Verily, those who believe and those who are Jews and Christians, and Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day) '''that Allah revealed the following Ayah afterwards,
(And whoever seeks religion other than Islam, it will never be accepted of him, and in the Hereafter he will be one of the losers) (3:85)'''.

'''This statement by Ibn `Abbas indicates that Allah does not accept any deed or work from anyone, unless it conforms to the Law of Muhammad that is, after Allah sent Muhammad . Before that, every person who followed the guidance of his own Prophet was on the correct path, following the correct guidance and was saved.'''

'''When Allah sent Muhammad as the Last and Final Prophet and Messenger to all of the Children of Adam, mankind was required to believe in him, obey him and refrain from what he prohibited them; those who do this are true believers'''. The Ummah of Muhammad was called `Mu'minin' (believers), because of the depth of their faith and certainty, and because they believe in all of the previous Prophets and matters of the Unseen.}}

====Tafsir Al-Jalalayn====
{{Quote|1=[http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=2&tAyahNo=62&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Surah 2 Ayah 62] Tafsir al-Jalalayn, trans. Feras Hamza, Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought|2='''Surely those who believe, [who believed] before, in the prophets''', and those of Jewry, the Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabaeans, a Christian or Jewish sect, whoever, '''from among them, believes in God and the Last Day, in the time of our Prophet, and performs righteous deeds, ''according to the Law given to him''''' — their wage, that is, the reward for their deeds, is with their Lord, and no fear shall befall them, neither shall they grieve (the [singular] person of the verbs āmana, ‘believes’, and ‘amila, ‘performs’, takes account of the [singular] form of man, ‘whoever’, but in what comes afterwards [of the plural pronouns] its [plural] meaning [is taken into account]).}}

====Maariful Quran====

{{Quote|1=[http://islamicstudies.info/maarif/surah2.htm Surah 2 Ayah 62] Maulana Mufti Mohammad Shafi, trans. Prof. Muhammad Hasan Askari & Prof. Muhammad Shamim|2=In order to dispel such a misgiving, the present verse lays down a general principle: no matter how a man has been behaving earlier, so long as he submits himself fully to the commandments of Allah in his beliefs and in his deeds both, he is acceptable to Allah, and will get his reward. '''It is obvious enough that after the revelation of the Holy Qur'an, which is the last message of Allah, perfect obedience to Allah can only mean accepting Islam and following the Last Prophet Muhammad'''.

One might also ask why the verse mentions the Muslims, for if it is an invitation to Islam, there is no need to extend the invitation to those who have already accepted Islam. But if we keep in mind the richly concentrated style of the Holy Qur'an,and try to look beyond the literal sense of the words into the implications and suggestions contained in the verse, we would find that the inclusion of the Muslim factor has added a new dimension to the meaning. It is es if a king should,in a similar situation,say that his laws are impartially applicable to all his subjects, and that whosoever obeys them shall receive his reward for obedience irrespective of whether he has earlier been a friend or a foe.

'''We had better dispel another misunderstanding which is likely to arise from the wordings of the present verse -- and, which is actually being promoted by certain 'modernizers'. The verse mentions only two articles of faith of the Islamic creed -- faith in Allah and faith in the Day of Judgment. This should not be taken to mean that in order to attain salvation it is enough to have faith only in Allah and in the Day of Judgment. Fcr, the Holy Qur'an repeatedly declares that he who does not believe in the prophets, in angels and in the Books of Allah is not a Muslim'''. Faith in Allah is the first article in the Islamic creed, while faith in the Day of Judgment is the last. By mentioning only these two, the verse intends to say in a succinct manner that it is necessary to have faith in all the articles of the creed, from the first to the last. Moreover, it is through the prophets and the Books of Allah alone that man can acquire any knowledge of the essence and the attributes of Allah and of what is to happen on the Day of Judgment, while the Books of Allah are revealed to the prophets through an angel. So, it is not possible to have faith in Allah and the Day of Judgment until and unless one has faith in the angels, in the Books of Allah and in the prophets.}}

{{Quote|1=[http://islamicstudies.info/maarif/surah2.htm Surah 2 Ayah 62] Maulana Mufti Mohammad Shafi, trans. Prof. Muhammad Hasan Askari & Prof. Muhammad Shamim|2=23.Contrary to the flaccid fancies of some "modernizers" who are very happy with themselves over their "liberalism" and "tolerance", the present verse does not open the way to salvation for each and every "man of good will" irrespective of the creed he follows. If one reads the verse in its proper context and along with other relevant verses of the Holy Qur'an, one will easily see that the verse, in fact, promises salvation in the other world only to those who accept Islam. It is a n invitation to Islam extended to the Jews, the Christians, the Sabeans and, as a matter of fact, to the followers of all possible religions, and even to non-believers -- specific names only serve as examples.}}

====Biyan-ul-Quran====

{{Quote|[http://tanzeem.org/online/dorah/005-Al%20Baqara%2047-82.pdf Surah 2 Ayah 62] Dr. Israr Ahmed, Biyan-ul-Quran|'''''Some wrong headed and evil mongers'' in our time have tried to deceive people arguing erroneously from this ayah. They say that to achieve salvation one does not need to believe in the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and the two articles of faith discussed here i.e. belief in Allah (SWT) and in the hereafter, are enough for ones salvation'''. On the other hand this ayah makes it clear that it is not giving the detail of all the articles of faith which one should believe in. Those are mentioned elsewhere at numerous places. In fact this ayah clarifies the misconception that the Jews had, that they are the chosen ones and only they would enter the Paradise. On the contrary Allah (SWT) says that your salvation does not depend upon your lineage or your race but on the basis whether you are righteous or not.

As far as the belief in Prophet Muhammad (SAW) is concerned, we would like to point out the fact that, in the sixth ruku of this surah, Allah (SWT) invites the Jews to accept Islam by believing in the Prophethood of Muhammad (SAW) in order to achieve salvation and eternal bliss. '''So how can it be that the belief of a person is complete without believing in Prophet Muhammad (SAW). The context of this ayah clarifies that those people who were Jews, Christians or Sabians, and followed their own Prophet before the advent of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and they believed in Allah (SWT) and the hereafter, did righteous deeds will have their rewards from Allah (SWT). But once Allah (SWT) revealed Qur’an to Prophet Muhammad (SAW), it has become incumbent on a person to believe in him and the last revealed Book, along with other articles of faith'''.}}

====Dawat ul Quran====

{{Quote|[http://islamicstudies.info/dawat/surah2.htm Surah 2 Ayah 62] Shams Pirzada, Dawat ul Quran, trans. Abdul Karim Shaikh|Another very important point must be made clear here. '''It would be wrong to interpret the verse as implying that salvation depends upon virtuous conduct alone'''.According to such a view , one who observed one’s own religion, believed in Allah and the Hereafter and was righteous in deeds deserved salvation. '''This interpretation, however is farthest from the teachings of Quran and amounts to introducing an unjustifiable change in it'''. In this verse, the details of true belief, faith and righteous conduct are not being explained at all; they are mentioned in other places in Quran. '''Allah recognizes no belief or faith which does not accept that Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) is the last prophet of Allah and Quran is his true (undistorted) book'''. Without this belief, righteous conduct is of no avail because righteousness itself is determined by the observance of Muhammad’s shariah (pbuh). Quran is replete with such teachings, for example Surah-al-Baqarah has this as the central theme: it invites people to believe in revelation of the Quran and the prophethood of Muhammad(pbuh). This point is repeatedly stressed in many places in Quran, Allah says

With Allah, the accepted religion is Islam (Al-e-Imran 19)
Any person who will seek any religion other than Islam, it will not be accepted and he will be among the losers in the Hereafter (Al-e-Imran 85)}}

====Reliance of the Traveller====

{{Quote|[https://archive.org/details/RelianceOfTheTraveller-TheClassicManualOfIslamicSacredLawumdat Reliance of the Traveller: A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law] Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Edited and Translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller (pp. 848-849)|Suddi states that (2:62) was revealed about the former companions of Salman the Persian when he mentioned them to the Prophet, relating how they had been, saying, "They used to pray, fast, and believe in you, and testify that you would be sent as a prophet." When he had finished praising them, '''the Prophet replied, "Salman, they are the denizens of hell," which came to discomfit Salman greatly, and so Allah revealed (2:62)'''.

The faith of the Jews was that of whoever adhered to the Torah and the sunna of Moses until the coming of Jesus. When Jesus came, whoever held fast to the Torah and the sunna of Moses without giving them up and following Jesus was lost.

The faith of the Christians was that whoever adhered to the Gospel and precepts of Jesus, their faith was valid and acceptable until the coming of Muhammad. Those of them who did not then follow Muhammad and give up the sunna of Jesus and the Gospel were lost.

'''The foregoing is not contradicted by the hadith relating that (2:62) was followed by Allah revealing (3:85), for the hadith merely confirms that no one's way or spiritual works are acceptable unless they conform to the Sacred Law of Muhammad, now that he has been sent with it'''. As for people prior to this, anyone who followed the messenger of his own time was guided, on the right path, and was saved.}}

===Hadiths===

====Belief in Allah alone====

Verse 2:62 and other Qur'anic verses stipulate that belief in Allah alone is a necessity.

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|48}}|Surely '''Allah does not forgive that anything should be associated with Him''', and forgives what is besides that to whomsoever He pleases; and whoever associates anything with Allah, he devises indeed a great sin.}}

The Qur'an specifically condemns "associat[ing" other entities with Allah (such as Jesus and the Holy Spirit in the Christian trinity) as blasphemy that will lead "disbelievers" to hell.

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|72}}|'''Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah, He is the Messiah, son of Marium'''; and the Messiah said: O Children of Israel! serve Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Surely '''whoever associates (others) with Allah, then Allah has forbidden to him the garden, and his abode is the fire'''; and there shall be no helpers for the unjust.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|73}}|'''Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah is the third (person) of the three'''; and there is no god but the one Allah, and if they desist not from what they say, '''a painful chastisement shall befall those among them who disbelieve'''.}}

Hadiths further clarify that believing in Allah alone is "to testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah" and that "Muhammad is His Apostle".

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||53|darussalam}}| "'''Do you know what is meant by believing in Allah Alone?'''" They replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." Thereupon the Prophet said, "'''It means: 1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah's Apostle'''. 2. To offer prayers perfectly 3. To pay the Zakat (obligatory charity) 4. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan. 5. And to pay Al-Khumus (one fifth of the booty to be given in Allah's Cause).}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||87|darussalam}}| "'''Do you know what is meant by believing in Allah Alone?'''" They replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." Thereupon the Prophet said, "('''That means to testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is His Apostle''', to offer prayers perfectly, to pay Zakat, to observe fasts during the month of Ramadan, (and) to pay Al-Khumus (one fifth of the booty to be given in Allah's cause)."}}

====Christians and Jews thrown into hell====

The following narrations from [[Sahih]] Muslim indicate that some Muslims will earn their place in Paradise and be spared [[Hell]]<nowiki/>fire by Allah on the Day of Resurrection as Christians and Jews take their place in hell.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767a|reference}}|Abu Musa' reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: When it will be the Day of Resurrection Allah would deliver to every Muslim a Jew or a Christian and say: That is your rescue from Hell-Fire.}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767b|reference}}|Abu Burda reported on the authority of his father that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: No Muslim would die but Allah would admit in his stead a Jew or a Christian in Hell-Fire. 'Umar b. Abd al-'Aziz took an oath: By One besides Whom there is no god but He, thrice that his father had narrated that to him from Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him).}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767d|reference}}|Abu Burda reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: There would come people amongst the Muslims on the Day of Resurrection with as heavy sins as a mountain, and Allah would forgive them and He would place in their stead the Jews and the Christians. (As far as I think), Abu Raub said: I do not know as to who is in doubt. Abu Burda said: I narrated it to 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz, whereupon he said: Was it your father who narrated it to you from Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him)? I said: Yes.}}

====Non-Muslim women used for sex====

The following is reported in Ibn Majah, Ibn `Adi in the Kamil, and al-Bayhaqi in al-Ba`th wal-Nushur. It explains that some Christian and Jewish women, among others, will make it into Paradise after all, but only as sex [[Slavery|slaves]] for Muslim men. Al-Suyuti marked its chain as “fair” (hasan) in al-Jami` al-Saghir (7989).<ref>Shaykh Gibril Haddad - [http://www.webcitation.org/64zXNO08I How Many Wives Will The Believers Have In Paradise?] - SunniPath.com, Question ID:4828</ref>

{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/64zXNO08I Ibn Majah, Ibn `Adi in the Kamil, and al-Bayhaqi in al-Ba`th wal-Nushur]|2= Abu Umama said, Allah be well-pleased with him: The Messenger of Allah said, upon him blessings and peace:

“None is made to enter Paradise by Allah Most High except Allah Most High shall marry him to seventy-two wives, two of them from the wide-eyed maidens of Paradise and '''seventy of them his inheritance from the People of Hellfire''', not one of them but her attraction never lags nor his arousal ever wanes.”}}

===Scholars===

====Jews and Christians that will enter paradise====
{{Quote|[http://islamqa.com/en/ref/2912 Who are the Jews and Christians who will enter Paradise?] Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid, Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 2912|As far as the Jews are concerning, their faith meant believing in the Tawraat (original Torah) and following the way of Moosa (peace be upon him) until ‘Eesa came, after which whoever continued to follow the Torah and the way of Moosa, and did not leave this and follow ‘Eesa, was doomed. As far as the Christians are concerned, their faith meant believing in the Injeel (original Gospel) and following the laws of ‘Eesa; whoever did this was a believer whose faith was acceptable to Allaah, until Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) came, after which whoever did not follow Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and leave the way of ‘Eesa and the Injeel that he had been following before, was doomed.}}

====Attitude of Islam towards other religions====
{{Quote|[http://islamqa.com/en/ref/21534 Attitude of Islam towards other religions] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 21534|The ruling of Islam concerning other religions is that they are all either fabricated and false, or abrogated.}}

====Are Christians disbelievers?====
{{Quote|1=[http://spa.qibla.com/issue_view.asp?HD=12&ID=592&CATE=10 Are Christians Kafirs? Mushriks? If not, can a Muslim woman marry a non-Muslim?] Shaykh Faraz Rabbani, Qibla, Question ID:592|2=The People of the Book are kafirs, and it is obligatory to believe that they are so, as Imam Nawawi explains. There is scholarly consensus on this, because of the clear nature of the texts about this.The Christians at the time of the Prophet (Allah bless him & give him peace) already believed in the Trinity, the divinity of Jesus (peace be upon him), and such things.}}

====Ruling regarding Jews and Christians====

{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamweb.net%2Femainpage%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3Dshowfatwa%26Option%3DFatwaId%26Id%3D2924&date=2015-03-14 What is the ruling regarding Jews and Christians nowadays? Are they considered believers or disbelievers?] Islamweb, Fatwa No. 2924, August 30, 2010|2=The Quran, Sunnah and the consensus of scholars indicate that a man who embraces any religion other than Islam, is a disbeliever. His faith will not be accepted and, in the next life, he will be among those at loss . . . 
There is an explicit text that states that the People of the Book who do not believe in Muhammad, , or deny the Prophethood of any other Prophet, or those who associate deities with Allaah The Almighty, are disbelievers. . . . 
Everything that we have mentioned above is indisputable in Islam; and, anyone who denies or doubts any of it is deemed a disbeliever. Al-Qaadhi ‘Iyaadh reported the consensus of scholars on this matter.
Some Hanbali scholars have added that the one who doubts the disbelief of the People of the Book becomes a disbeliever}}

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Heaven|Heaven}}
*[[Misrepresentations of Islamic Scripture]]

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answeringmuslims.com/2010/10/salvation-for-non-muslims-reconciling.html|2=2012-09-14}} Salvation for non-Muslims? Reconciling 2:62 and 3:85] ''- Answering Muslims''

 
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:People of the Book]]
{{page_title|Christians, Jews and Muslims in Heaven (Qur'an 2:62)}}
[[Category:Heaven]]
[[Category:Qadr (fate)]]
[[Category:Tafsir]]

Invitation to Islam Prior to Jihad

2025-12-11T18:35:32Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=3|References=4}}
The practice of inviting non-Muslim nations to join [[Islam]] or pay the [[Jizyah]] prior to engaging in offensive [[Jihad]] derives from {{Quran|9|29}}, and according to tradition, it was first initiated by the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. His [[Sunnah|example]] was then followed by the Rashidun [[Caliph]]s and leaders of Islamic empires and codified within the Islamic [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]]<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik (o9.0-8)] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>, which is today implemented by various Islamist leaders and militant terrorist organizations.

A number of letters inviting other nations into Islam were purportedly authored by Muhammad before these nations succumbed to Islamic conquest. They are recorded in various literary sources. Purported manuscripts of original letters sent by Muhammad are known to be forgeries.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 Twitter thread] by Dr Marijn van Putten. Twitter.com 8 April 2019 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20191108000922/https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 archive])</ref>

[[File:Muhammad-Letter-To-Heraclius.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Letter sent by Prophet [[Muhammad]] to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium.<ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India). ISBN 81-85738-25-4</ref>]]
==Historical==
===The Ishmaelites to Heraclius===
Drawing from what he claims is a Palestinian source, seventh-century Armenian historian Pseudo-Sebeos mentions a letter sent from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius. The text of the letter as he records it is given below.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>
{{Quote|Letter from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius - Pseudo-Sebeos, 660s CE<ref>Translation by R. W. Thomas cited in Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' p. 196</ref>|God gave that land to our father Abraham as a hereditary possession and to his seed after him. We are the sons of Abraham. You have occupied our lands long enough. Abandon it peacefully and we shall not come into your territory. Otherwise, we shall demand that possession from you with interest.}}
===Muhammad===
====Letter to Heraclius (هرقل), the Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople====

{{Quote||In the name of Allah, the most Beneficent, the most Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad, the slave of Allah, and His Apostle, to Heraculius, the Ruler of the Byzantine. Peace be upon the followers of guidance. Now then, I invite you to Islam (i.e. surrender to Allah), '''embrace Islam and you will be safe''' (أسلم تسلم, ''aslim taslam''); embrace Islam and Allah will bestow on you a double reward. But if you reject this invitation of Islam, you shall be responsible for misguiding the peasants (i.e. your nation). O people of the Scriptures! Come to a word common to you and us and you, that we worship. None but Allah, and that we associate nothing in worship with Him; and that none of us shall take others as Lords besides Allah. Then if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are (they who have surrendered (unto Him)..(3.64)<ref>M. Muhsin Khan (Translator) - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/052-sbt.php#004.052.191|2=2011-10-30}} Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Book 52, Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihaad), Number 191] - USC-MSA, [[Compendium of Muslim Texts]]</ref>}}

Sean Anthony suggests that the Heraclius letter served as a model that expanded the prophetic letter topos to include other rulers. The purported letter to Heraclius itself is narrated by al-Zuhri and includes a word distinctive to Christian Palestinian Aramaic. Anthony suggests that al-Zuhri's source text did not include the orginal letter, if it ever existed.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>

====Letter to the Christians of Aylah (أيلة)====

After hearing rumors that the Romans had gathered at the border of the Byzantine Empire and northern Arabia, Muhammad led his army to engage them in battle. However, upon reaching Tabuk, the rumors proved false. He then sent a detachment to the Christians and Jews east of Tabuk with a letter.

{{Quote||''To John ibn Rubah (يوحنا بن روبة) and the Chiefs of Aylah''. Peace be on you! I praise God for you, beside whom there is no Lord. I will not fight against you until I have written thus unto you. Believe, or else pay tribute. And be obedient unto the Lord and his Prophet, and unto the messengers of his Prophet. Honour them and clothe them with excellent vestments, not with inferior raiment. Specially clothe Zeid with excellent garments. As long as my messengers are pleased, so likewise am I. Ye know the tribute. If ye desire to have security by sea and by land, obey the Lord and his Apostle, and he will defend you from every demand, whether by Arab or foreigner, saving the demand of the Lord and his Apostle. But if ye oppose and displease them, I will not accept from you a single thing, until I have fought against you and taken captive your little ones and slain the elder; for I am the Apostle of the Lord in truth. Believe in the Lord and in his Prophets. And believe in the Messiah son of Mary; verily he is the Word of God: I believe in him that he was a messenger of God. Come then, before trouble reach you. I commend my messengers to you. Give to Harmala three measures of barley; and indeed Harmala hath interceded for you. As for me, if it were not for the Lord and for this (intercession of Harmala), I would not have sent any message at all unto you, until ye had seen the army. But now, if ye obey my messengers, God will be your protector, and Mahomet, and whosoever belongeth unto him. Now my messengers are Sharahbil, &c. Unto you is the guarantee of God and of Mahomet his Apostle, and peace be unto you if ye submit. And convey the people of Macna back to their land.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=-jxbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The life of Mahomet'']. (p. 456). London: Smith, Elder & Co</ref>}}

====Letter to Negus, King of Abyssinia====

{{Quote||This letter is sent from Muhammad, the Prophet to Negus Al-Ashama, the king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Peace be upon him who follows true guidance and believes in Allâh and His Messenger. I bear witness that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, He has taken neither a wife nor a son, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I call you unto the fold of Islam; if you embrace Islam, you will find safety,

"Say (O Muhammad ): ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [The Noble Qur'an 3:64]

Should you reject this invitation, then you will be held responsible for all the evils of the Christians of your people.<ref name="The sealed nectar">{{citation|title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA412&dq=The+letters+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad+to+the+kings+beyond+arabia&hl=en&ei=CsrTTuLOH9Co8AOOsoHiDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=The%20letters%20of%20the%20Prophet%20Muhammad%20to%20the%20kings%20beyond%20arabia&f=false | first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=9960899551}}, pp. 412-426</ref>}}

====Letter to Muqawqas (المقوقس), the Vicegerent of Egypt====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad slave of Allâh and His Messenger to Muqawqas, vicegerent of Egypt.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Thereafter, I invite you to accept Islam. Therefore, '''if you want security, accept Islam''' (أسلم تسلم,''aslim taslam''). If you accept Islam, Allâh, the Sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts.

"Say (O Muhammad : ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [Al-Qur'an 3:64]<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Chosroes (كسرى), Emperor of Persia====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allâh to Chosroes, king of Persia.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in Allâh and His Messenger and testifies that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I invite you to accept the religion of Allâh. I am the Messenger of Allâh sent to all people in order that I may infuse fear of Allâh in every living person, and that the charge may be proved against those who reject the Truth. '''Accept Islam as your religion so that you may live in security''' (فأسلم تسلم, ''fa aslim taslam''), otherwise, you will be responsible for all the sins of the Magians.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Haudha bin ‘Ali, Governor of Yamama====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Haudha bin ‘Ali.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere. You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to to Harith bin Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Al-Harith bin Abi Shamir.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in it and regards it as true. I invite you to believe in Allâh Alone with no associate, thenceafter your kingdom will remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to the King of ‘Oman, Jaifer, and his brother ‘Abd Al-Jalandi====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah to Jaifer and ‘Abd Al-Jalandi.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance; thereafter I invite both of you to the Call of Islam. Embrace Islam. Allâh has sent me as a Prophet to all His creatures in order that I may instil fear of Allâh in the hearts of His disobedient creatures so that there may be left no excuse for those who deny Allâh. If you two accept Islam, you will remain in command of your country; but if you refuse my Call, you’ve got to remember that all your possessions are perishable. My horsemen will appropriate your land, and my Prophethood will assume preponderance over your kingship.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

===Caliphs===

====Caliph Abu Bakr As-Siddiq to Khosru, the Persian Commander====

In 636 AD, at the Battle of Qadisiyya, Muslim commander Khalid ibn Al-Walid sent an emissary with a message from Caliph Abu Bakr to the Persian commander, Khosru.

{{Quote||Submit to Islam and be safe. Or agree to the payment of the Jizya, and you and your people will be under our protection, else you will have only yourself to blame for the consequences, for I bring the men who desire death as ardently as you desire life.<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid Tabari and History of the World], Volume IV Book XII. The Mohammedan Ascendency, page 463, by John Clark Ridpath, LL.D. 1910.</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab's letter to Yazdgird III, the King of Persia====

The following correspondence between Sassanian Yazdgird III (632 AD - 651 AD) and Umar Ibn Al-Khatab Khalifat Al-Muslemin took place after the battle of Ghadesiyeh. The original copy of this letter from Yazdgird III is housed in the British museum of London.

'''From: Umar Ibn Al Khatab Khalifat Al Muslemin''' '''To: Yazdgird III Shahanshah of Persian Empire'''

{{Quote||Yazdgird, I see not a fruitful future for you and your nation unless you accept my offer and commit Bei'at (Joining with Khalifat and bringing Islam). Once upon a time your land ruled half the known world but what has it come down to now? Your troops are defeated in all fronts and your nation is bound to collapse. I offer you a way to rescue yourself. Start praying to a mono God, a single union God, the only God who created everything in the universe.

We bring you and the world his message, he who is the true God. Stop your Fire Worship, command your nation to stop their Fire Worship which is false; join us by joining the truth. Worship Allah the only true God, The creator of universe. Worship to Allah and accept Islam as your salvation. End your Pagan ways and your false worships now and bring Islam so you can accept Allah as your savior. By doing so, you will find the only way to your survival and peace for Persians. If you know what is best for Ajam (Arabic term for Persians meaning Retarded & Weird), you will choose this path. Bei'at is the only way.

Allah O Akbar Sign, Khalifat Al Muslemin ''Omar Ibn Al Khatab''<ref name="Iran Heritage"></ref>}}

'''From: Shahanshah of Persian Empire, Yazdgird III Sassanid''' '''To: Umar Ibn Al Khatab, Khalifat of Tazi (Persian term for Arabs)'''

{{Quote||In the name of Ahura Mazda, creator of Life and Intelligence you in your letter wrote that you want to direct us towards your God, Allah, without having the true knowledge of who we are and what do we worship! It is amazing that you occupy the position of Khalifat (Ruler) of Arabs, yet your knowledge is the same as a lowly Arab rambler, roaming in deserts of Arabia and same as a desert tribal man (mardak) you offer me to worship a united and single God without knowing that it has been thousands of years that Persians worship the mono God and they pray to him Five Times a day! In this land of culture and art this has been the normal path of life for years. When we established the tradition of hospitality and good deeds in the world and we waved the flag of "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds" in our hands, you and your ancestors were roaming the deserts, eating Lizards for you had nothing else to feed yourselves and burying your innocent daughters alive (an old Arab tradition because they preferred male children to female). Tazi people have no value for God's creatures! You behead God's children, even the POWs (Prisoners of War), Rape Women, bury your daughters alive, attack the Caravans, mass murder, kidnap people's wives and steal their property! Your hearts are made of stone; we condemn all these Evil which you do. How can you teach us Godly Ways when you commit these actions? You tell me to stop my Fire Worship! Us, Persians see the Love of Creator and power of inventor in the light of Sun and warmth of Fire. Lights and Warmth of the Sun and Fire makes us see the light of truth and warms our hearts to the creator and to one another. It helps us to be kind to one another; it enlightens us and makes us to keep Mazda's Flame, alive in our hearts. Our lord is Ahura Mazda and it is strange that you people also, just discovered him and named him Allah.

But we are not the same as you; we are not in the same level as you. We help other human being, we spread love among humanity, we spread Good throughout the Earth, we have been spreading our culture but in respect for other cultures throughout the whole world for thousands of years, yet you in the name of Allah invade other men's land! You mass murder the people, create famine, fear and poverty for others, you create Evil in the name of Allah. Who is responsible for this entire catastrophe? Is it Allah who commands you to murder, pillage and to destroy? Is it you the followers of Allah who do this in his name? Or is it both? You have risen from heat of the deserts and burnt out infertile lands with no resources, you want to teach people the love of God by your military campaigns and the power of your Swords! You are Desert Savages, yet you want to teach Urban people like us who lived in the cities for thousands of years, the love of God! We have thousands of years of culture behind us, a powerful tool indeed!

Tell us? With all your military campaigns, barbarianism, murder and pillage in the name of Allah, what have you taught to this Muslim Army? What knowledge have you taught the Muslim that you also insist on teaching it to non Muslim? What culture have you learned from our Allah, now that you want to force-teach it to others? Alas, ...... that today our Persian Armies of Ahura have been defeated from your recently Allah Worshiping Armies; Now, our people have to worship the same God, the same Five times a day, but forced by the sword to call him Allah and pray to him in Arabic because your Allah only understands Arabic I suggest, you and your gang of bandits pack up and move back to your deserts where they are used to live. Take them back where they used to the burning heat of the sun, tribal life, eating Lizards and drinking Camel Milk. I forbid you to let your band of thieves loose in our fertile lands, civilized cities and our glorious nation. Don't turn these "beasts with hearts of stone" loose, to mass murder our people, kidnap our women and children, rape our wives and send our daughters to Mecca as slaves! Don't let them do these crimes in the name of Allah put a stop to your criminal behavior. Aryans are forgiving, warm, hospitable, and decent people and everywhere they went, they have spread seeds of friendship, love, knowledge and truth; therefore, they shall not punish you and your people for your pirate ways and criminal acts. I beg you to remain with your Allah in your deserts and do not move close to our civilized cities, for your believers are "Much Fearful" and your behavior is "Most Barbaric."

 Sign,
''Yazdgird III Sassanid''<ref name="Iran Heritage">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iran-heritage.org/interestgroups/islam-article4.htm|2=2011-10-29}} Yazgird III and Omar Al Muslemin letters] - Iran Heritage, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab during the conquest of Al-Basrah====

{{Quote||Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.<ref>Al-Tabari, ''The History of al-Tabari (Ta'rikh al rusul wa'l-muluk)'', vol. 12: ''The Battle of Qadissiyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine,'' trans. Yohanan Friedman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 167.</ref>}}

===Miscellaneous===
====Letter of the Zaporozhian Cossacks of Ukraine replying to the Sultan of Turkey====

This letter was written in the 1660s in response to a letter from Sultan Mohammed IV of the Turkish Empire, demanding the Cossacks of Ukraine voluntarily accept Turkish rule.

{{Quote||Thou Turkish Devil!

Brother and companion to the accursed Devil, and Secretary to Lucifer himself, Greetings!

What the hell kind of noble knight art thou? Satan voids and thy army devours. Never wilt thou be fit to have the sons of Christ under thee. Thy army we fear not, and by land and by sea in our chaikas we will do battle against thee.

Thou scullion of Babylon, thou beer-brewer of Jerusalem, thou goat-thief of Alexandria, thou swineherd of Egypt (both the Greater and the Lesser), thou Armenian pig and Tartar goat. Thou hangman of Kamyanets, thou evildoer of Podolia, thou great silly oaf of all the world and of the netherworld and, before our God, a blockhead, a swine's snout, a mare's ass, and clown of Hades. May the devil take thee!

That is what the Cossacks have to say to thee, thou basest born of runts! Unfit art thou to lord it over true Christians!

The date we know not, for no calender have we got. The moon (month) is in the sky, the year is in a book, and the day is the same with us here as with ye over there - and thou can kiss us thou knowest where!

''Koshoviy Otaman Ivan Sirko''
''and all the Zaparozhian Cossack Brotherhood''<ref>Andrew Gregorovich - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.infoukes.com/history/cossack_letter/|2=2011-10-29}} The Cossack Letter "The Most Defiant Letter!"] - InfoUkes Inc, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

==Modern==

===Muslim leaders===

====Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to the President of the United States====

On May 9, 2006, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sent an 18-page letter to U.S. President Bush via the Swiss embassy in Tehran.

{{Quote||All prophets, speak of peace and tranquility for man -- based on monotheism, justice and respect for human dignity.

Do you not think that if all of us come to believe in and abide by these principles, that is, monotheism, worship of God, justice, respect for the dignity of man, belief in the Last Day, we can overcome the present problems of the world -- that are the result of disobedience to the Almighty and the teachings of prophets – and improve our performance?
Do you not think that belief in these principles promotes and guarantees peace, friendship and justice?

Do you not think that the aforementioned written or unwritten principles are universally respected?

Will you not accept this invitation? That is, a genuine return to the teachings of prophets, to monotheism and justice, to preserve human dignity and obedience to the Almighty and His prophets?

Mr. President,
History tells us that repressive and cruel governments do not survive. God has entrusted the fate of men to them. The Almighty has not left the universe and humanity to their own devices. . . . 
The people of many countries are angry about the attacks on their cultural foundations and the disintegration of families. They are equally dismayed with the fading of care and compassion. The people of the world have no faith in international organizations, because their rights are not advocated by these organizations.

Liberalism and Western style democracy have not been able to help realize the ideals of humanity. Today these two concepts have failed. Those with insight can already hear the sounds of the shattering and fall of the ideology and thoughts of the Liberal democratic systems.

We increasingly see that people around the world are flocking towards a main focal point -- that is the Almighty God. Undoubtedly through faith in God and the teachings of the prophets, the people will conquer their problems. My question for you is: “Do you not want to join them?”

Mr. President,
Whether we like it or not, the world is gravitating towards faith in the
Almighty and justice and the will of God will prevail over all things.

'''Vasalam Ala Man Ataba’al hoda Mahmood Ahmadi-Nejad President of the Islamic Republic of Iran'''<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Perspectives_1/Text_of_Iranian_President_Ahmadinejad_s_letter_to__2607.shtml|2=2013-05-08}} Text of Iranian President Ahmadinejad's letter to President George W. Bush] - IRNA, May 9, 2006</ref>}}

===Al-Qaeda===

====Adam Yahiye Gadahn shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11====

Adam Yahiye Gadahn, a senior operative, cultural interpreter, spokesman, and media advisor for Al-Qaeda, published a video titled "Invitation to Islam" on September 2, 2006, shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11.

{{Quote||Islam is the only religion acceptable to God and came with the revealed book, the Koran, which abrogates all previous revelations, like the Torah and Evangel… God recognizes no separation between religion and state . . . 
To Americans and the rest of Christendom we say, either repent (your) misguided ways and enter into the light of truth or keep your poison to yourself and suffer the consequences in this world and the next . . . 
If the Zionist crusader missionaries of hate and counter-Islam consultants like Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, Michael Scheuer, Steven Emerson, and yes, even the crusader-in-chief George W. Bush were to abandon their unbelief and repent and enter into the light of Islam and turn their swords against the enemies of God, it would be accepted of them and they would be our brothers in Islam. And we send a special invitation to all of you fighting Bush’s crusader pipe dream in Afghanistan, Iraq, and wherever else W. has sent you to die.<ref>Links to the full video appear to be dead, however, a partial transcript has been recorded in a blog post made by Michelle Malkin, named "[{{Reference archive|1=http://michellemalkin.com/2006/09/02/convert-or-die/|2=2013-05-08}} Convert or die]" (dated September 2, 2006).</ref>}}

====Osama Bin Laden's "letter to America"====

Bin Laden's "letter to America" first appeared in Arabic on a Saudi Arabian website and has since been translated and posted on Islamic websites registered to UK domains.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/alqaida.terrorism| title = Osama issues new call to arms| publisher = The Observer| author = Jason Burke| date = November 24, 2002| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Falqaida.terrorism&date=2013-08-08| deadurl = no}}</ref>

{{Quote||What are we calling you to, and what do we want from you?

1) The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam.

a) The religion of the Unification of God; of freedom from associating partners with Him, and rejection of this; of complete love of Him, the Exalted; of complete submission to His Laws; and of the discarding of all the opinions, orders, theories and religions which contradict with the religion He sent down to His Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Islam is the religion of all the prophets, and makes no distinction between them - peace be upon them all.
It is to this religion that we call you; the seal of all the previous religions. It is the religion of Unification of God, sincerity, the best of manners, righteousness, mercy, honour, purity, and piety. It is the religion of showing kindness to others, establishing justice between them, granting them their rights, and defending the oppressed and the persecuted. It is the religion of enjoining the good and forbidding the evil with the hand, tongue and heart. It is the religion of Jihad in the way of Allah so that Allah's Word and religion reign Supreme. And it is the religion of unity and agreement on the obedience to Allah, and total equality between all people, without regarding their colour, sex, or language.

b) It is the religion whose book - the Quran - will remained preserved and unchanged, after the other Divine books and messages have been changed. The Quran is the miracle until the Day of Judgement. Allah has challenged anyone to bring a book like the Quran or even ten verses like it.

2) The second thing we call you to, is to stop your oppression, lies, immorality and debauchery that has spread among you.

a) We call you to be a people of manners, principles, honour, and purity; to reject the immoral acts of fornication, homosexuality, intoxicants, gamblings, and trading with interest.
We call you to all of this that you may be freed from that which you have become caught up in; that you may be freed from the deceptive lies that you are a great nation, that your leaders spread amongst you to conceal from you the despicable state to which you have reached.

b) It is saddening to tell you that you are the worst civilization witnessed by the history of mankind:

i) You are the nation who, rather than ruling by the Shariah of Allah in its Constitution and Laws, choose to invent your own laws as you will and desire. You separate religion from your policies, contradicting the pure nature which affirms Absolute Authority to the Lord and your Creator. You flee from the embarrassing question posed to you: How is it possible for Allah the Almighty to create His creation, grant them power over all the creatures and land, grant them all the amenities of life, and then deny them that which they are most in need of: knowledge of the laws which govern their lives? . . . 
If you fail to respond to all these conditions, then prepare for fight with the Islamic Nation. The Nation of Monotheism, that puts complete trust on Allah and fears none other than Him. The Nation which is addressed by its Quran with the words: Do you fear them? Allah has more right that you should fear Him if you are believers. Fight against them so that Allah will punish them by your hands and disgrace them and give you victory over them and heal the breasts of believing people. And remove the anger of their hearts. Allah accepts the repentance of whom He wills. Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. Quran 9:13-1 . . . 
If the Americans refuse to listen to our advice and the goodness, guidance and righteousness that we call them to, then be aware that you will lose this Crusade Bush began, just like the other previous Crusades in which you were humiliated by the hands of the Mujahideen, fleeing to your home in great silence and disgrace. If the Americans do not respond, then their fate will be that of the Soviets who fled from Afghanistan to deal with their military defeat, political breakup, ideological downfall, and economic bankruptcy.
This is our message to the Americans, as an answer to theirs. Do they now know why we fight them and over which form of ignorance, by the permission of Allah, we shall be victorious?<ref name="letter to America">{{cite web|url= http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver?li=1|title= Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'|publisher= Observer Worldview Extra|author= |date= November 24, 2002|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Ftheobserver%3Fli%3D1&date=2013-08-08|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

===Boko Haram===

====Abubakar Shekau's address to the President of Nigeria====

Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the terrorist organization Boko Haram, published a video in August 2012 urging Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria’s Christian president, to convert to Islam.

{{Quote||You [Goodluck Jonathan] should abandon this ungodly power, you should repent and forsake Christianity... You [Barack Obama] said I'm a global terrorist, then you are a terrorist in the next world.<ref>Aminu Abubakar - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5huLV0A2MdfKlbsb8aGgxmOv-eOiQ?docId=CNG.d3ffcd8da382f4117ce248b079227866.51|2=2013-05-09}} Nigerian leader slams sect leader's call on him to resign] - AFP, August 6, 2012</ref>}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pureislam.co.za%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D17&date=2011-04-24 The letters of the Prophet Muhammad (PDF)]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[bg:Покани за приемане на исляма, които предхождат насилието]]
[[ru:Переписка_с_предводителями_исламского_джихада]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]

Allah, the Best Deceiver (Qur'an 3:54)

2025-12-08T03:11:52Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language and removed argumentative material

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=2|References=4}}
[[File:Quran 3-54.png|290px|right|thumb]]
The [[Qur'an]] states in several places that [[Allah]] is the best of ''l-mākirīna'', a word sometimes mildly translated as ''planners'', though also as ''schemers'' or ''plotters''. The Arabic word used here is "ماكر" "maakir", coming from the root m-k-r م-ك-ر, with the word ''Makr'' "مكر" primarily meaning to practice deceit, guile, or circumvention.<ref>Makr - [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2728]</ref> The Quran elsewhere tells believers to shun "lying speech" ({{Quran|22|30}}) and not to give false testimony ({{Quran|25|72}}), and further describes believers as "the truthful" ({{Quran|3|17}}). Similar exhortations to truthfulness are found in hadiths, with exceptions in the case of warfare or to bring reconciliation between parties. Much scholarly thought has been devoted to the resolution of this seeming discrepancy.

==Qur'an==

In the followingverses, Allah is described as the best of l-mākirīna or faster in makran, or that all l-makru is Allah's.

===Qur'an 3:54===

{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and God cheated/deceived, and God (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 7:99===

{{quote |{{Qtt|7|99}}|
'''Arabic:''' افامنوا مكر الله فلايامن مكر الله الا القوم الخاسرون

'''Transliteration:''' Afaaminoo makra Allahi fala ya/manu makra Allahi illa alqawmu alkhasiroona
'''Literal:''' Did they secure God's scheme/deceit ? So no(one) trusts God's scheme/deceit except the nation the losers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/7/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 7. Al-A'raf - The Heights (سورة الأعراف) - Revealed in Makkah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 8:30===

{{quote |{{Qtt|8|30}}|
'''Arabic:''' واذ يمكر بك الذين كفروا ليثبتوك او يقتلوك او يخرجوك ويمكرون ويمكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wa-ith yamkuru bika allatheena kafaroo liyuthbitooka aw yaqtulooka aw yukhrijooka wayamkuroona wayamkuru Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena
'''Literal:''' And when those who disbelieved deceive/scheme at you to affix/affirm you, or kill you, or bring you out, and they scheme/deceive , and God deceives/schemes and God (is) best (of) the deceivers/schemers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/8/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 8. Al-Anfal - Spoils Of War (سورة الأنفال) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 10:21===

{{quote |{{Qtt|10|21}}|
'''Arabic:''' واذا اذقنا الناس رحمة من بعد ضراء مستهم اذا لهم مكر في اياتنا قل الله اسرع مكرا ان رسلنا يكتبون ماتمكرون

'''Transliteration:''' Wa-itha athaqna alnnasa rahmatan min baAAdi darraa massat-hum itha lahum makrun fee ayatina quli Allahu asraAAu makran inna rusulana yaktuboona ma tamkuroona
'''Literal:''' And if We made the people taste/experience mercy from after calamity/disastrous distress touched them, then for them (is) cheatery/deceit/schemes in Our verses/evidences . Say: "God (is) quicker/faster (in) cunning/scheming , that Our messengers write what you cheat/ deceive/scheme."<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/10/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 10. Yunus - Jonah (سورة يونس) - Revealed in Makkah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

===Qur'an 13:42===

{{quote |{{Qtt|13|42}}|
'''Arabic:''' وقد مكر الذين من قبلهم فلله المكر جميعا يعلم ماتكسب كل نفس وسيعلم الكفار لمن عقبى الدار

'''Transliteration:''' Waqad makara allatheena min qablihim falillahi almakru jameeAAan yaAAlamu ma taksibu kullu nafsin wasayaAAlamu alkuffaru liman AAuqba alddari
'''Literal:''' And those from before them had cheated/deceived/schemed, so to God (is) all the cheatery/deceit/scheme. He knows what every self gains/acquires , and the disbelievers will know to whom (is) the house's/home's end/turn (result).<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/13/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 13. Ar-Ra'd - The Thunder (سورة الرعد) - Revealed in Makkah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

In Arabic, the word makir is typically used disparagingly and never in a positive context. It is often used to describe someone sly and dishonest who seeks to cheat others through deception. Allah attributing such a moniker to himself contrasts with other characterizations, particularly two of his other names, الحق (the truth) and الوكيل (the dependable).

==Literal Meaning of Makr==
This section cites numerous academic sources on the meaning of ''Makr''.

===Lane's Lexicon===

Edward William Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon is the most authoritative scholarly English dictionary of the Arabic language. From Lane's Lexicon, p. 2728 (the full entry can be viewed [[:File:Makr Lane-Lexicon-page Vol 7-pg. 256.jpg|here]] or [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf here]):

{{Quote|1=[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2728]|2=1. مَكَرَ, aor. مَكُرَ, (Msb, TA,) inf. n. مَكْرٌ; (S, A, Msb, K;) and ↓ امكر; (Msb;) He practised deceit, guile, or circumvention; or he practised deceit, guile, or circumvention, desiring to do to another a foul, an abominable, or an evil, action, clandestinely, or without his knowing whence it proceeded; syn. خَدَعَ; (Msb;) and of the inf. n. خَدِيعَةٌ: (S, A, K:) he practised an evasion or elusion, a shift, an artifice, or artful contrivance or device, a machination, a trick, a plot, a stratagem, or an expedient; he plotted; or he exercised art, craft, cunning, or skill, in the management or ordering of affairs, with excel-lent consideration or deliberation, and ability to manage according to his own free will; syn. of the inf. n. إِحْتِيَالٌ: (S, TA:) or to this explanation, conveyed by احتيال as the syn. of the inf. n., should be added secretly, or privately: (Lth, TA:) مَكْرٌ is praised or dispraised according to the nature of its object. (El-Basáir.) [For further explanation, see what follows.] It is trans. by means of بِ: and also, accord. to Z, by itself: (MF:) [but I know not any instance of its being trans. by itself: except as meaning he plotted a thing: see مَكْرَ السَّيِّئ in the Kur, xxxv. 41, cited voce سَيِّئٌ:] you say مَكَرَ بِهِ, (S, A, TA,) aor. and inf. n. as above, (S, TA,) meaning, He deceived, beguiled, or circumvented, him; or he deceived, beguiled, or circumvented, him, and desired to do him a foul, an abominable, or an evil, action, clandestinely, or without his knowing whence it proceeded: &c.: (S, A, TA:) syn. كَادَهُ: or it differs [somewhat] from كاده, accord. to Aboo-Hilál El-'Askeree: (TA:) some say, that مكر به signifies as above with the addition of feigning the contrary of his real intentions; which كاده does not imply: or this latter signifies “ he did him harm,” or “ mischief; ” and the former, he did him harm, or mischief, clandestinely. (MF, voce كاد.) See art. خدع. مَكَرَ also signifies He managed with thought, or consideration, or acted with policy, and practised stratagem, in war. (TA.) مَكَرَ اللّٰهُ and ↓ أَمْكَرَ are syn., (IKtt, Msb,) signifying, (tropical:) God recompensed, or requited, for مَكْر [or the practising deceit, &c.]: (Lth, * Msb, TA: *) or مَكْرُ اللّٰهِ signifies God's granting a man respite or delay, and enabling him to accomplish his worldly aims [so as to bring upon himself the punishment due to his evil actions]: (Er-Rághib, TA:) or, accord. to IAth, God's causing his trials to befall his enemies, exclusively of his friends: or his taking men by little and little, so that they do not reckon upon it, bestowing upon them renewed favours for acts of obedience which are imagined to be accepted whereas they are rejected. (TA.) 

3. ماكرهُ He practised with him mutual deceit, guile, or circumvention; &c.; (A, * TA;) syn. خَادَعَهُ. (TA.) 

4. see 1, in two places. 

6. تماكروا They practised mutual deceit, guile, or circumvention; &c. (A, * TA.) 

مَكُورٌ: see مَاكِرٌ. 
مَكَّارٌ: see مَاكِرٌ. 

مَاكِرٌ (S, A, Msb, K) and ↓ مَكَّارٌ (S, A, K) and ↓ مَكُورٌ (K) epithets from مَكَرَ: (S, A, Msb, K:) [the first signifying Practising deceit, guile, or circumvention; &c.: and the second and third, practising the same much, or frequently; deceitful, guileful, artful, crafty, or cunning; a trickster, or crafty knave.]

[[:File:Makr Lane-Lexicon-page Vol 7-pg. 256.jpg|Lane's Lexicon, p: 2728]]}}

===Hans Wehr===

The Hans Wehr dictionary is regarded as the standard scholarly dictionary of Arabic for English-speaking students and scholars of the language. It also confirms the meaning of the term:

{{Quote|[[:File:Hans Wehr dictionary - page 917.jpg|Hans Wehr dictionary, page 917]]|[[File:Hans Wehr dictionary - page 917.jpg|300px]]}}

===Arabic Lexicon===

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://lexicons.sakhr.com/openme.aspx?fileurl=/html/1088382.html|2=2013-07-21}} Arabic Lexicon on ''Al-Makr'']|2=[[File:Arabic-lexicon for Al-Makr.gif]]}}

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://lexicons.sakhr.com/openme.aspx?fileurl=/html/3076064.html|2=2013-07-21}} Arabic Lexicon on ''Makir'']|2=[[File:Arabic-lexicon for Makir.gif]]}}

===Miscellaneous Dictionaries===

Meanings from other dictionaries and sources are compiled below:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Dictionary
! width="100px" |Word
!Meaning
|-
|[http://translate.google.com/ Google Translate]
|ماكر (Makir)
|''sly, cunning, deceitful'' ([http://translate.google.com/ read more])
|-
|[http://translation.babylon.com/Arabic Babylon.com]
|مكر (Makr)
|''n. calculating, cunning, astuteness, craftiness, foxiness, craft, slyness, archness, deceit, double-dealing, artifice, deception, wiliness, artfulness, furtiveness, ploy, trick, guile, ruse, roguery''
|-
|[http://www.Stars21.com TranStar]
|مكر (Makr)
|''wiliness'' (means: "Full of wiles" [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wiliness Merriam-Webster])
|-
|[http://qamoose.arabeyes.org/dict_main.cgi ArabEyes.com]
|المكر (Al-Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://www.ebnmasr.net/wtranslate/ Ibn Masr]
|المكر (Al-Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://www.systranet.com/?text=%D9%85%D9%83%D8%B1&lp=ar_en SYSTRAnet.com]
|مكر (Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://free.translated.net/ Translated.net]
|مكر (Makr)
|''deception''
|-
|[http://freetranslation.paralink.com/ ImTranslator.com]
|المكر (Al-Makr)
|''deviousness''
|-
|[http://freetranslation.paralink.com/ ImTranslator.com]
|مكر (Makr)
|''wiliness''
|-
|[http://online.ectaco.co.uk/main.jsp?do=e-services-dictionaries-word_translate1&direction=1&status=translate&lang1=23&lang2=ar&refid=-1&source=deception Ectaco]
|مكر (Makr)
|''deception''
|}

==Inaccurate translations==

English translations of relevant passages in the Qur'an are compiled here. Many translators opt to emphasize the connotation of "planning" or "devising" in ''makir'', even as a more accurate translation of the word's fuller meaning would emphasize deception.

===Qur'an 3:54===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' And (the unbelievers) plotted and planned, and Allah too planned, and the best of planners is Allah. <ref name="iw3-54">{{quran-ia|3|54}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' And they (the disbelievers) schemed, and Allah schemed (against them): and Allah is the best of schemers.<ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' And they devised, and God devised, and God is the best of devisers. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And they planned and Allah (also) planned, and Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' The unbelievers plotted and God planned, but God is a much better planner;<ref name="iw3-54"/> }}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' They plotted and schemed, but so did GOD, and GOD is the best schemer.<ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And they (disbelievers) plotted (to kill Iesa (Jesus) ), and Allah planned too. And Allah is the Best of the planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And the disbelievers planned, but Allah planned. And Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' The unbelievers among the children of Israel plotted against Jesus and Allah also devised a plan to raise him up, and Allah is the best in planning. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' The opponents made some plans, but so did Allah. And Allah is the Virtuous of planners. (They schemed to arrest and crucify Jesus but Allah assured him). <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And (the Jews) planned and Allah (also) planned. And Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And they schemed and God schemed, but God is the best schemer. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' They devised, and Allah devised. And Allah is the Best Devisor. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' And the Jews devised a stratagem against him; but God devised a stratagem against them; and God is the best deviser of stratagems. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' And the Jews plotted, and God plotted: But of those who plot is God the best. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' And the unbelievers schemed [against Jesus]; but God brought their scheming to nought: for God is above all schemers. <ref name="iw3-54"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' But they (the Jews) were crafty, and God was crafty, for God is the best of crafty ones! <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=003:054 Quran Browser - Quran 3:54]</ref>}}

===Qur'an 7:99===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' Did they then feel secure against the plan of Allah?- but no one can feel secure from the Plan of Allah, except those (doomed) to ruin! <ref name="iw7-99"> {{quran-ia|7|99}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' Are they then secure from Allah's scheme? None deemeth himself secure from Allah's scheme save folk that perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' Do they feel secure against God's devising? None feels secure against God's devising but the people of the lost. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' What! do they then feel secure from Allah's plan? But none feels secure from Allah's plan except the people who shall perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' Did they consider themselves secure from the retribution of God? No one can have such attitude except those who are lost. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' Have they taken GOD's plans for granted? None takes GOD's plans for granted except the losers. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' Did they then feel secure against the Plan of Allah. None feels secure from the Plan of Allah except the people who are the losers. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' Then did they feel secure from the plan of Allah? But no one feels secure from the plan of Allah except the losing people. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' Do these people feel secure against the plan of Allah? In fact, only those people feel secure from the plan of Allah who are doomed to destruction. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' Do they feel secure from the subtle progression of the Divine Laws? Do they think that the Divine Law grants them unconditional security? Only the losers feel secure from the subtle progression of Allah's Law of Requital. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' Are they secure from Allah’s plan? But none feels secure from Allah’s plan except the people who perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' Have they become sure about God's scheming? None are sure about God's scheming except the people who are losers. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' (In reply to your devising) do they feel secure from the devising of Allah? None feels secure from the devising of Allah except the loosing nation. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' Were they therefore secure from the stratagem of God? But none will think himself secure from the stratagem of God, except the people who perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' Did they, therefore, deem themselves secure from the deep counsel of God? But none deem themselves secure from the deep counsel of God, save those who perish. <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' Can they, then, ever feel secure from God's deep devising? But none feels secure from God's deep devising save people who are [already] lost.' <ref name="iw7-99"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' were they secure from the craft of God? none feel secure from the craft of God except a people that shall lose. <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=007:099 Quran Browser - Quran 7:99]</ref>}}

===Qur'an 8:30===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' Remember how the Unbelievers plotted against thee, to keep thee in bonds, or slay thee, or get thee out (of thy home). They plot and plan, and Allah too plans; but the best of planners is Allah. <ref name="iw8-30">{{quran-ia|8|33}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' And when those who disbelieve plot against thee (O Muhammad) to wound thee fatally, or to kill thee or to drive thee forth; they plot, but Allah (also) plotteth; and Allah is the best of plotters. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' And when the unbelievers were devising against thee, to confine thee, or slay thee, or to expel thee, and were devising, and God was devising; and God is the best of devisers. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And when those who disbelieved devised plans against you that they might confine you or slay you or drive you away; and they devised plans and Allah too had arranged a plan; and Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' The unbelievers planned to imprison, murder or expel you (Muhammad) from your city. They make evil plans but God too plans and God's plans are the best. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' The disbelievers plot and scheme to neutralize you, or kill you, or banish you. However, they plot and scheme, but so does GOD. GOD is the best schemer. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And (remember) when the disbelievers plotted against you (O Muhammad SAW) to imprison you, or to kill you, or to get you out (from your home, i.e. Makkah); they were plotting and Allah too was planning, and Allah is the Best of the planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And [remember, O Muúammad], when those who disbelieved plotted against you to restrain you or kill you or evict you [from Makkah]. But they plan, and Allah plans. And Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' Remember, how the unbelievers plotted against you. They sought to take you captive or kill you or exile you. They planned - and Allah also planned - Allah is the best planner of all. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' Remember (O Messenger), when the rejecters were making schemes to arrest you, slay you, or expel you. That was their plan, but Allah's Law of Requital is designed to work in a way unfailing. Allah is the Best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And when those who disbelieved devised plans against thee that they might confine thee or slay thee or drive thee away -- and they devised plans and Allah, too, had arranged a plan; and Allah is the best of planners. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And the rejecters plot against you to arrest you, or to kill you, or to expel you. And they plot, and God plots, and God is the best of plotters. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' And when the unbelievers plotted against you (Prophet Muhammad). They sought to either take you captive or have you killed, or expelled. They plotted but Allah (in reply) also plotted. Allah is the Best in plotting. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' And call to mind when the unbelievers plotted against thee, that they might either detain thee in bonds, or put thee to death, or expel thee the city; and they plotted against thee: But God laid a plot against them; and God is the best layer of plots. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' And call to mind when the unbelievers plotted against thee, to detain thee prisoner, or to kill thee, or to banish thee: They plotted-but God plotted: and of plotters is God the best! <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' AND [remember, O Prophet,] how those who were bent on denying the truth were scheming against thee, in order to restrain thee [from preaching], or to slay thee, or to drive thee away: thus have they [always] schemed:'° but God brought their scheming to nought-for God is above all schemers. <ref name="iw8-30"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' And when those who misbelieve were crafty with thee to detain thee a prisoner, or kill thee, or drive thee forth; they were crafty, but God was crafty too, for God is best of crafty ones! <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=008:030 Quran Browser - Quran 8:30]</ref> }}

===Qur'an 10:21===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' When We make mankind taste of some mercy after adversity hath touched them, behold! they take to plotting against Our Signs! Say: "Swifter to plan is Allah!" Verily, Our messengers record all the plots that ye make! <ref name="iw10-21">{{quran-ia|10|21}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' And when We cause mankind to taste of mercy after some adversity which had afflicted them, behold! they have some plot against Our revelations. Say: Allah is more swift in plotting. Lo! Our messengers write down that which ye plot. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' When We let the people taste mercy after hardship has visited them, lo, they have a device concerning Our signs. Say: 'God is swifter at devising; surely Our messengers are writing down what you are devising. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And when We make people taste of mercy after an affliction touches them, lo ! they devise plans against Our communication. Say: Allah is quicker to plan; surely Our messengers write down what you plan. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' When people are granted mercy after having suffered hardship, they begin to plot against Our revelations. Say, "God is the most swift in His plans." Our angelic messengers record all that you plot. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' When we bestow mercy upon the people, after adversity had afflicted them, they immediately scheme against our revelations! Say, "GOD's scheming is far more effective. For our messengers are recording everything you scheme." <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And when We let mankind taste of mercy after some adversity has afflicted them, behold! They take to plotting against Our Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.)! Say: "Allah is more Swift in planning!" Certainly, Our Messengers (angels) record all of that which you plot. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And when We give the people a taste of mercy after adversity has touched them, at once they conspire against Our verses. Say, "Allah is swifter in strategy." Indeed, Our messengers record that which you conspire. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Malik:''' When We show mercy to mankind after some calamity had afflicted them, they begin to plot against Our revelations! Tell them: "Allah is more swift in plotting than you; indeed Our angels are recording all the plots you make." <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' When We cause people to taste of Mercy after they have suffered a hardship, they start scheming to defy Our Commands. Say, "Allah is more Swift in planning. Our couriers write down what you plot." <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And when We make people taste of mercy after an affliction touches, lo! they devise plans against Our messages. Say: Allah is quicker to plan. Surely Our messengers write down what you plan. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And if We let the people taste a mercy after some harm had afflicted them, they take to scheming against Our revelations! Say: "God is faster in scheming;" Our messengers record what you scheme. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' When We let people taste (Our) mercy after they had been afflicted by hardship, they devise against Our verses. Say: 'Allah is more swift in devising. ' Indeed, Our Messengers (the angels) are writing down whatever you devise. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' And when We caused the men of Mecca to taste mercy, after an affliction which had befallen them, behold, they devised a stratagem against our signs. Say unto them, God is more swift in executing a stratagem, than ye. Verily our messengers write down that which ye deceitfully devise. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' And when after a trouble which you befallen them, we caused this people to taste of mercy, lo! a plot on their part against our signs! SAY: Swifter to plot is God! Verily, our messengers note down your plottings. <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' And [thus it is:] whenever We let [such] people taste [some of Our] grace after hardship has visited them-lo! they forthwith turn to devising false arguments against Our messages." Say: "God is swifter [than you] in His deep devising!" Behold, Our [heavenly] messengers are recording all that you may devise! <ref name="iw10-21"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' When we have let men taste of mercy after distress which has touched them, lo! they use a stratagem against our signs! Say, 'God is quicker at stratagem.' Verily, our messengers write down what stratagem ye use. <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=010:021 Quran Browser - Quran 10:21]</ref> }}

===Qur'an 13:42===

{{quote ||
'''Yusuf Ali:''' Those before them did (also) devise plots; but in all things the master-planning is Allah's He knoweth the doings of every soul: and soon will the Unbelievers know who gets home in the end. <ref name="iw13-42">{{quran-ia|13|42}}</ref>}}

{{quote ||
'''Pickthal:''' Those who were before them plotted; but all plotting is Allah's. He knoweth that which each soul earneth. The disbelievers will come to know for whom will be the sequel of the (heavenly) Home. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Arberry:''' Those that were before them devised; but God's is the devising altogether. He knows what every soul earns. The unbelievers shall assuredly know whose will be the Ultimate Abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Shakir:''' And those before them did indeed make plans, but all planning is Allah's; He knows what every soul earns, and the unbelievers shall come to know for whom is the (better) issue of the abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Sarwar:''' Certain people who lived before plotted evil plans but God is the Master of all plans. He knows what every soul does. The unbelievers will soon learn who will achieve the blissful end. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Khalifa:''' Others before them have schemed, but to GOD belongs the ultimate scheming. He knows what everyone is doing. The disbelievers will find out who the ultimate winners are. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Hilali/Khan:''' And verily, those before them did devise plots, but all planning is Allahs. He knows what every person earns, and the disbelievers will know who gets the good end (final destination). <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''H/K/Saheeh:''' And those before them had plotted, but to Allah belongs the plan entirely. He knows what every soul earns, and the disbelievers will know for whom is the final home. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''QXP:''' Now those who lived before these people, also devised schemes, but the most Subtle devising is that of Allah. He knows what every "Self" earns. The rejecters will soon find out as to whom belongs the Future. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Maulana Ali:''' And those before them planned indeed, but all planning is Allah’s. He knows what every soul earns. And the disbelievers will come to know for whom is the (good) end of the Abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Free Minds:''' And those before them have schemed, but to God is all scheming. He knows what every soul earns and the rejecters will come to know to whom is the better abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Qaribullah:''' Those who have gone before them devised, but to Allah is the devising altogether. He knows what every soul earns. The unbelievers shall know without doubt for whom is the Ultimate Abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''George Sale:''' Their predecessores formerly devised subtle plots against their prophets; but God is master of every subtle device. He knoweth that which every soul deserveth: And the infidels shall surely know, whose will be the reward of paradise. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''JM Rodwell:''' Those who lived before them made plots: but all plotting is controlled by God: He knoweth the works of every one, and the infidels shall know whose will be the recompense of the abode. <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Asad:''' Now those who lived before these [sinners] did, too, devise many a blasphemy"-but the most subtle devising is that of God, who knows what each human being deserves :12 and the deniers of the truth will [in time] come to know to whom the future belongs." <ref name="iw13-42"/>}}

{{quote ||
'''Palmer:''' And those who were before them were crafty too; but God's is the craft altogether! He knows what every soul earns; and the misbelievers shall know whose is the recompense of the abode. <ref>[http://www.quranbrowser.com/cgi/bin/get.cgi?version=pickthall+yusufali+khan+shakir+sherali+khalifa+arberry+palmer+rodwell+sale+transliterated&layout=auto&searchstring=013:042 Quran Browser - Quran 13:42]</ref> }}

====Analysis====

The translations of Yusuf Ali, Sarwar Hilali/Khan and Malik translate the same word differently in two places (in the same verse). They state that unbelievers "plotted and planned" but that Allah only "planned," leaving Allah clear of the more nefarious connotations of plotting.

Arberry and Qaribullah use the word "devised," Rodwell uses the word "plotted," Sale uses "devised a strategem" and Shakir, HK/Saheeh, QXP and Maulana Ali all use the word "planned" in reference to both the unbelievers and Allah. These translations also fail to capture the full range of the term's meaning, leaving out the connotation of devious scheming and deception.

Pickthal, Khalifa, Free Minds and Shakir opt to translate the word as "scheme." While "scheme" usually holds a negative connotation, this is not always the case, whereas ''makir'' is always used negatively. There is a similar dynamic at play in Palmer's use of the word "crafty."

==Islamic Views on the Translation of Makir==

===Jamal Badawi===

Dr. Jamal Badawi argues that despite ''makir''<nowiki/>'s negative connotations, the word carries a different meaning when used to refer to Allah:

{{quote |1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20070624054812/http://www.readingislam.com/livedialogue/Browse.asp?hGuestID=8P66WT|2=2011-04-10}} Ask About Islam Q&A Session] Dr. Jamal Badawi, Reading Islam, April 16, 2007|2='''Question:''' The quran refers sometimes to the MAKR of Allah. Hos ''[sic]'' is possible to desscribe ''[sic]'' God as MAKIR? Wa yamkuruna wa yamkuru Allah

'''Answer:''' The terms that we use in our human language do not necessarily have the identical meaning when referring to Allah. For example, terms such as “hear” and “see” have totally different meaning when we speak about Allah, as He does not have eyes or ears like ours (Qur’an 42/11).

Likewise, the Arabic term “makr” for humans refers to conspiracy; for Allah, however, in reverence to Him, to ''[sic]'' means “plan”. Therefore, it means then that they conspire, but Allah has his own plans to thwart their evil schemes.}}
Dr. Badawi draws evidence for this claim from Quran 42:11:
{{Quote|{{Quran|42|11}}| The Originator of the heavens and the earth; He made mates for you from among yourselves, and mates of the cattle too, multiplying you thereby; nothing like a likeness of Him; and He is the Hearing, the Seeing. }}

This verse, however, refers only to physical characteristics: although we have been created in pairs (male and female), Allah has no partner, no need for mates, and no likeness on earth. Reviewing the relevant portion of Kathir's Tafsir confirms this:

{{quote |1=[http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2109&Itemid=98 Allah is the Protector, Ruler and Creator (42:11)] Tafsir 'ibn Kathir|2= [فَاطِرَ السَّمَـوَتِ وَالاٌّرْضِ]

(The Creator of the heavens and the earth.) means, the Maker of them both and everything in between.

[جَعَلَ لَكُمْ مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَزْوَاجًا]

(He has made for you mates from yourselves,) means, of your own kind. As a blessing and a favor from Him, He has made your kind male and female.

[وَمِنَ الاٌّنْعَـمِ أَزْوجاً]

(and for the cattle (also) mates.) means, and He has created for you eight pairs of cattle.

[يَذْرَؤُكُمْ فِيهِ]

(By this means He creates you.) means, in this manner He creates you, male and female, generation after generation of men and cattle.

[لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِ شَىْءٌ]

(There is nothing like Him,) means, there is nothing like the Creator of these pairs, for He is the Unique, the Self-Sufficient Master, '''Who has no peer or equal.'''}}

The Qur'an also refers to its language as "clear":{{Quote|{{Quran|16|103}}| And certainly We know that they say: Only a mortal teaches him. The tongue of him whom they reproach is barbarous, '''and this is clear Arabic tongue.''' }}

===Islam Q&A===

Islam Q&A says that "plotting/deceiving" may be used to describe Allah, but only in a positive way:

{{Quote|1=[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/39803/|2=2011-04-10}} Can Allaah be described as plotting etc?] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 39803|2='''Question:''' Can Allaah be described as plotting, deceiving and betraying as in the verses (interpretation of the meaning):
“they were plotting and Allaah too was plotting”
[al-Anfaal 8:30]
“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]?. 

'''Answer:''' Praise be to Allaah.

The attributes of Allaah are all attributes of perfection, pointing to the best and most perfect of meanings. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“and for Allaah is the highest description. And He is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise”

[al-Nahl 16:60]

“His is the highest description (i.e. none has the right to be worshipped but He, and there is nothing comparable unto Him) in the heavens and in the earth. And He is the All-Mighty, the All-Wise”

[al-Room 30:27]

Al-Sa’di said in his Tafseer (commentary) – p. 718, 1065:

The highest description means the most perfect attributes.

Attributes are of three types:

1 – '''Attributes of perfection – in which there is no shortcoming whatsoever. These attributes apply to Allaah in absolute terms and are not limited or restricted in any way.''' Examples of that include His knowledge, power, hearing, seeing, mercy, etc.

2 – '''Attributes which imply imperfection and shortcomings. These can never be ascribed to Allaah, such''' as sleeping, being unable, '''doing wrong or oppressing, betraying''', etc.

3 – Attributes which may be perfect or imperfect, depending on the context. These cannot be ascribed to Allaah in absolute terms, and they cannot be denied in the case of Allaah in absolute terms. '''If the context implies perfection then they can be ascribed to Allaah; if it implies imperfection then they cannot be ascribed to Allaah. Examples include: plotting, deceiving and mocking.'''

'''Plotting against, betraying and mocking the enemy are attributes of perfection, because that is indicative of complete knowledge, power and might, and so on.'''

'''But plotting against the sincere believers is an attribute of imperfection.'''

Hence these characteristics are not ascribed to Allaah in absolute terms, rather they are mentioned in such a context as to indicate that these are attributes of perfection.

Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

'''“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]'''

This is deceiving the hypocrites.

And He says (interpretation of the meaning):

“And (remember) when the disbelievers plotted against you (O Muhammad) to imprison you, or to kill you, or to get you out (from your home, i.e. Makkah); they were plotting and Allaah too was plotting; and Allaah is the Best of those who plot”

[al-Anfaal 8:30]

This is a plot against the enemies of Allaah who were plotting against the Messenger of Allaah (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him).

Allaah says of the hypocrites (interpretation of the meaning):

“And when they meet those who believe, they say: ‘We believe,’ but when they are alone with their Shayaateen (devils — polytheists, hypocrites), they say: ‘Truly, we are with you; verily, we were but mocking.’

Allaah mocks at them and gives them increase in their wrong-doing to wander blindly”

[al-Baqarah 2:14-15]

This is mocking the hypocrites.

'''These attributes are to be regarded as indicating perfection in this context. Hence we say that Allaah mocks the hypocrites and deceives them, and that He plots against His enemies, and so on. But it is not permissible to describe Allaah as mocking or deceiving in absolute terms, because that does not indicate perfection.'''

Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen (may Allaah have mercy on him) was asked: Can Allaah be described as plotting and named as such?

He replied:

Allaah cannot be described as plotting except in a limited sense; He cannot be described as such in absolute terms. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“Did they then feel secure against the Plan of Allaah? None feels secure from the Plan of Allaah except the people who are the losers”

[al-A’raaf 7:99]

This verse indicate that Allaah has a plan or plot, which was to confound them without them realizing it. This is akin to the hadeeth narrated by al-Bukhaari: “War is deceit.”

'''If it is asked: How can Allaah be described as plotting when this seems to be something blameworthy?'''

'''The answer is that plotting in the right circumstances may be something praiseworthy that points to the strength of the plotter, and that he is superior to his enemy. Hence Allaah cannot be described as plotting in absolute terms, and we cannot say “Allaah is a Plotter.” Rather this attribute is mentioned in a context where it is positive, such as the verses (interpretation of the meaning):'''

'''“they were plotting and Allaah too was plotting”'''

'''[al-Anfaal 8:30]'''

'''“So they plotted a plot, and We planned a plan, while they perceived not”'''

'''[al-Naml 27:50]'''

And we cannot say in absolute terms that this cannot be ascribed to Allaah, rather in contexts where it is something positive it may be ascribed to Him, and in contexts where it is not something positive, it should not be ascribed to Him. So Allaah should not be called by a name which refers to this, so we cannot say that one of the names of Allaah is “the Plotter”. Plotting is one of His actions, because it has to do with the Will of Allaah.

Fataawa al-Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, 1/170.

He was also asked: Can Allaah be described as betraying, or as deceiving, as in the verse (interpretation of the meaning):

“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]?

He replied:

'''With regard to betrayal, this is something that can never be ascribed to Allaah, because it is something shameful in all circumstances, and it is plotting at a time of trust, which is blameworthy.''' Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“But if they intend to betray you (O Muhammad), they indeed betrayed Allaah before. So He gave (you) power over them. And Allaah is All-Knower, All-Wise”

[al-Anfaal 8:71]

And He did not say: So He betrayed them.

With regard to deceiving, it is like plotting. It may be ascribed to Allaah when it is something positive, but it cannot be ascribed to Him in absolute terms. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):

“Verily, the hypocrites seek to deceive Allaah, but it is He Who deceives them”
[al-Nisa’ 4:142]

Fataawa al-Shaykh Ibn ‘Uthaymeen, 1/171

And Allaah knows best.}}

===Harun Yahya===

Harun Yahya includes ''Al-Makir'' in his listing of Allah's 99 names:

{{quote |[http://www.harunyahya.com/books/faith/names/names04.php#16 Names of Allah/ No. 16 (Al-Makir)] Harun Yayha| '''AL-MAKIR'''
'''The Planner'''

:'''When those unbelievers were plotting against you to imprison you or to kill or expel you: they were plotting and Allah was plotting, but Allah is the Best of Planners . (Surat al-Anfal, 8:30)'''

Those who plotted against the just religion throughout history strove to distance people from it for their own selfish desires (e.g., greed for power, personal interests, and so on). In the Hereafter, they will be told: “'''No, it was your scheming night and day when you commanded us to reject Allah and assign equals to Him'''.” (Surah Saba', 34:33) Yet there is a very important point that we need to remember here:

:'''Those before them plotted, but all planning belongs to Allah. He knows what each self earns, and the unbelievers soon will know who has the Ultimate Abode. (Surat ar-Ra‘d, 13:42)'''

As is related in the verse above, “all planning belongs to Allah.” Thus, against all of the unbelievers' plots, Allah devises the best plan. Allah calls attention to the deadlock facing unbelievers:

:'''They concocted their plots, but their plots were with Allah, even if they were such as to make the mountains vanish. (Surah Ibrahim, 14:46)'''

As this verse relates, Allah protects all believers from these plots. This is very easy for Allah, Who turns all plots against His Messengers and believers into failures and makes unbelievers suffer the ensuing dire consequences, for “… '''Allah is swifter at planning'''...” (Surah Yunus, 10:21)

No doubt, Allah creates every incident with a purpose and for the ultimate good. He uses the unbelievers' plots against believers to test them. He then extends His help to those servants who can discern the good and beauties in the events He creates, and turns all of these to their benefit.}}

Elsewhere on his website,<ref>[http://www.harunyahya.com/books/faith/school/school2.php The School of Yusuf - Harun Yahya]</ref><ref>[http://www.harunyahya.com/ysf03.php The Prophet Yusuf - Harun Yahya]</ref> the above verse refers to both Allah and unbelievers as "plotters," in contrast to the plotter/planner distinction here.

===Allah Only Deceives Enemies===

Some Quranic verses indicate that Allah did not confine his "deception" to his enemies:

====Allah Deceives Muslims====

{{quote | {{cite quran|8|43|end=44|style=ref}} | When Allah showed them to you in your dream as few; and if He had shown them to you as many you would certainly have become weak-hearted and you would have disputed about the matter, but Allah saved (you); surely He is the Knower of what is in the breasts.

And when He showed them to you, when you met, as few in your eyes and He made you to appear little in their eyes, in order that Allah might bring about a matter which was to be done, and to Allah are all affairs returned.}}
In the above verses, Allah deceived Muhammad himself in a dream by portraying the forces opposing Muhammad as less numerous than they actually were, such that Muhammad would remain confident and continue fighting. Kathir's tafsir explores this:

{{quote |1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=8&tid=20236 Some Details of the Battle of Badr (8:43)] Tafsir 'ibn Kathir|2= '''[إِذْ يُرِيكَهُمُ اللَّهُ فِى مَنَامِكَ قَلِيلاً وَلَوْ أَرَاكَهُمْ كَثِيراً لَّفَشِلْتُمْ وَلَتَنَـزَعْتُمْ فِى الاٌّمْرِ وَلَـكِنَّ اللَّهَ سَلَّمَ إِنَّهُ عَلِيمٌ بِذَاتِ الصُّدُورِ - وَإِذْ يُرِيكُمُوهُمْ إِذِ الْتَقَيْتُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِكُمْ قَلِيلاً وَيُقَلِّلُكُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِهِمْ لِيَقْضِىَ اللَّهُ أَمْراً كَانَ مَفْعُولاً وَإِلَى اللَّهِ تُرْجَعُ الأُمُورُ ]

(43. (And remember) when Allah showed them to you as few in your dream; if He had shown them to you as many, you would surely have been discouraged''', and you would surely have disputed in making a decision. But Allah saved (you). Certainly, He is the All-Knower of that is in the breasts.) (44. And (remember) when you met, '''He showed them to you as few in your eyes and He made you appear as few in their eyes, so that Allah might accomplish a matter already ordained''', and to Allah return all matters (for decision).)

Mujahid said, "In a dream, Allah showed the Prophet the enemy as few. The Prophet conveyed this news to his Companions and their resolve strengthened.'' Similar was said by Ibn Ishaq and several others. Allah said,

[وَلَوْ أَرَاكَهُمْ كَثِيراً لَّفَشِلْتُمْ]

(If He had shown them to you as many, you would surely, have been discouraged,) you would have cowardly abstained from meeting them and fell in dispute among yourselves,

[وَلَـكِنَّ اللَّهَ سَلَّمَ]

(But Allah saved), from all this, when He made you see them as few,

[إِنَّهُ عَلِيمٌ بِذَاتِ الصُّدُورِ]

(Certainly, He is the All-Knower of that is in the breasts.) [8:43].

Allah knows what the heart and the inner-self conceal,

[يَعْلَمُ خَآئِنَةَ الاٌّعْيُنِ وَمَا تُخْفِى الصُّدُورُ ]

(Allah knows the fraud of the eyes, and all that the breasts conceal) [40:19].

Allah's statement,

[وَإِذْ يُرِيكُمُوهُمْ إِذِ الْتَقَيْتُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِكُمْ قَلِيلاً]

(And (remember) when you met, '''He showed them to you as few in your eyes) demonstrates Allah's compassion towards the believers. Allah made them see few disbelievers in their eyes, so that they would be encouraged and feel eager to meet them'''. Abu Ishaq As-Subai`i said, that Abu `Ubaydah said that `Abdullah bin Mas`ud said, "They were made to seem few in our eyes during Badr, so that I said to a man who was next to me, `Do you think they are seventy' He said, `Rather, they are a hundred.' However, when we captured one of them, we asked him and he said, `We were a thousand.''' Ibn Abi Hatim and Ibn Jarir recorded it. Allah said next,

[وَيُقَلِّلُكُمْ فِى أَعْيُنِهِمْ]

(and He made you appear as few in their eyes,) Allah said,

[وَإِذْ يُرِيكُمُوهُمْ إِذِ الْتَقَيْتُمْ]

(And (remember) when you met. He showed them to you...), He encouraged each of the two groups against the other, according to `Ikrimah, as recorded by Ibn Abi Hatim. }}
====Allah Created Christianity Through Deception====

Allah however, makes it clear in the Qur'an that Jesus was not crucified, but that Allah also made it appear otherwis
{{quote | {{cite quran|4|157|end=158|style=ref}}| And their saying: Surely we have killed the Messiah, Isa son of Marium, the messenger of Allah; and they did not kill him nor did they crucify him, '''but it appeared to them so (like Isa)''' and most surely those who differ therein are only in a doubt about it; they have no knowledge respecting it, but only follow a conjecture, and they killed him not for sure.

Nay! Allah took him up to Himself; and Allah is Mighty, Wise. }}
==Other Qur'anic Divine Scheming verses==
Reynolds (2020) notes that despite the discomfort of later traditional Islamic commentators on the description of God as "deceiving" or "scheming," there are many terms and examples outside of the word ''makr'' and its variants of Allah deceiving/scheming in the Qur'an,<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (Chapter 8: The Avenger. Divine Scheming. pp. 184-191).''Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> adding weight to this straightforward interpretation.{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 189-190). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition. |..Makr is not the only term used for divine trickery. Elsewhere in the Qur’an (7:182–83, 68:45, 86:15–16) Allah is associated with kayd, sometimes rendered as “devising.” In Q 7:183 God’s giving a respite to the unbelievers is described as a sort of kayd: “And I will grant them respite, for My devising (kaydi) is indeed sure.” This same term is associated also with the stratagems of unbelievers and opponents of the prophets: it is used for pagans (7:195), the brothers of Joseph (12:5), sneaky women in the Joseph story (12:28), and other unbelievers (20:64, 52:46, 77:39). Other terms used to describe Allah’s trickery include khida‘ (4:142; elsewhere attributed to the unbelievers: 2:9, 8:62) and the Arabic verb aghwa. In Q 11:34 Noah declares to his opponents that God could lead them astray (yughwiyakum). Tellingly, Satan accuses God (perhaps rightly) of leading him astray on two occasions. In Q 7:16 Satan declares to God, “You have led me astray! (aghwaytani).” In Q 15:39 Satan says that because God has led him astray, he will lead others astray: “He said ‘O Lord, because you have led me astray (aghwaytani), I will surely glamorize [evil] for them on the earth, and I will surely lead all of them astray (la-ughwiyannahum).’” Muhammad Asad—clearly uncomfortable with the idea of a God who deceives—translates these two occurrences identically as “thou hast thwarted me.”..}}
==See Also==

* [[Taqiyya]]
{{Translation-links-english|[[Allah le meilleur trompeur|French]]}}

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/Shamoun/allah_best_deceiver.htm|2=2011-11-24}} Allah the greatest deceiver of them all]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/authors/cornelius/makr.html|2=2011-11-24}} Allah: Truthful or Deceiver?]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Wood/deceptive_god.htm|2=2011-11-24}} Deceptive God, Incompetent Messiah]

'''Resources'''

*[http://www.ghazali.org/books/wehr-cowan-76.pdf Hans-Wehr Dictionary - mkr (page 917)] ''(40MB PDF file)''
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume7/00000256.pdf|2=2011-11-24}} Lane's Lexicon - mkr - Volume 7, Page 256]
*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.studyquran.co.uk/14_MIIM.htm|2=2011-11-24}} Lane's Lexicon online summary - Mim-Kaf-Ra]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Tafsir]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Apologetics]]

Arab Transmission of the Classics

2025-12-08T02:25:03Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=4|Language=2|References=3}}
This article explores claims that Muslims saved the works of Greek [[Philosophy|philosophers]] from destruction.

==Introduction==

The '''Arab transmission of the classics''' refers to the claim that [[Arabic]] commentators such as Ibn Sina and [[Ibn Rushd]] saved the work of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers from destruction. According to the claim, these works would have perished in the European dark ages between fifth and the tenth centuries, had [[Islam|Islamic]] philosophers not preserved them by translating them into Arabic.<ref>The myth persists even on 'scholarly' websites. See e.g. [http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/islam.htm here]. "It was only through the transfer of Greek knowledge (including Aristotle's philosophy, Ptolemy's geography, Hippocrates' medicine) by Islam Spain that this information ''ever'' got to Western Europe." [Our emphasis]</ref> However, the first Latin texts to be used after the dark ages and the European reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula were translations from the Greek preserved by the Byzantines, while Arabic translation were largely used only where Latin texts were unavailable or unintelligible.

Arabic commentators, particularly Ibn Rushd, nevertheless had a profound influence on the scholastic philosophers of the Latin West in the thirteenth century. In particular, the work of Arabic commentators allowed dense and difficult texts, such as those of Aristotle, to be more easily understood.

==Background==

The Western intellectual tradition is generally considered to have begun in ancient Greece in the fifth century, with the work of mathematicians such as Euclid, philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato, and scientists such as Eratosthenes (who calculated the circumference of the Earth around 240 BC). The main principle underlying this tradition is naturalistic, humanistic and rational, emphasizing the role of human reason in discovering truth, as opposed to reliance on supernatural or "revealed" truth.

Greek science and philosophy was inherited by the ancient Romans, but their culture was lost after the collapse of the Roman empire in the West during the fifth and sixth centuries. Ancient learning was not "recovered" in the West until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a result of the transmission both of Greek ideas, which had been preserved and developed in the Byzantine and Arab world in the early middle ages, and also of the texts themselves, which had been almost completely lost in the West. These texts were translated into Latin, the language of educated intellectuals during that period.

==Syriac Translations==

Knowledge of Aristotle came by two routes to the West: Latin translations directly from the Greek made in the twelfth century (see below), and Latin translations from Arabic, which were themselves translations from Syriac of philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria, and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the 200 years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac from Greek and then into Arabic. Despite this lengthy chain of transmission, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>Hyman & Walsh p. 204</ref>
==James of Venice==

Translations to Latin directly from Greek began with the work of James of Venice. James was an Aristotelian scholar who flourished in the 12th century, and he is generally regarded as the most important of the 12th century translators of Greek texts into Latin. He is thought to have translated Aristotle's ''Posterior Analytics'', ''Sophistici elenchi'', ''Metaphysics'', and several important works of natural philosophy, as well as most of the ''Parva naturalia'', most of which were widely circulated. Little else is known about his life.

According to a passage from Robert of Torigny's chronicle: "James, a cleric from Venice, translated from the Greek into Latin several books of Aristotle and commented on them, viz. the Topics, Prior and Posterior Analytics, and Elenchi, although an earlier translation of these same books was already in existence" [MP 1952]. According to other documents, James was a Greek from Venice who called himself a philosopher. He appears to have been present at an 1136 theological debate in Constantinople between Anselm of Havelberg and the archbishop of Nicomedia. In 1148, he advised the archbishop of Ravenna on the precedence of Ravenna over other archbishoprics. In Bologna in the 1140s, he may have disputed with Magister Albericus over the interpretation of the Sophistici Elenchi. His commentary on the Elenchi is mentioned in a 12th century grammatical quaestio, and an early 13th century author mentions his commentary on the Posterior Analytics [Ebbesen 1977].

James translated the ''Metaphyisics'' directly from Greek, but this included only the first four books, requiring scholars in the early thirteenth century to rely on translations from Arabic for the complete work.

Scholars have debated whether the Latin versions of the so-called ''logica nova'' (the Prior Analytics, Topics, Sophistici elenchi, and the Posterior Analytics) should be ascribed to Boethius or James. Stylistic analysis by Minio-Paluello published in 1952 suggested that the common versions of the Prior Analytics, Topics, and Sophistici Elenchi are consistent in style with each other and with the known Boethian translations of the 'logica vetus.' By contrast, the Posterior Analytics has similar stylistic features to a passage translated from Greek in James' advice to the archbishop of Ravenna, as well as Latin translations of some of the other works of Aristotle that were not known to the early medieval philosophers, including (according to Minio-Paluello) the ''Metaphysics'' itself.<ref>LMP, cited in the Cambridge History of later Medieval Philosophy</ref>

==Michael Scot==

Michael Scot was a thirteenth century translator who translated two major works from Arabic to Latin in Toledo, Spain, then moved to Palermo, Sicily, where he was associated with the court of Frederick II Hohenstaufen. There, he dedicated the translation of Avicenna’s book on animals to Frederick, and mentions that two books of his own were commissioned by Frederick. Michael was apparently the first to make a complete Latin translation from Arabic, the ''Metaphysica Nova'', some time between 1220 and 1235, in addition to several other important works.

William of Luna, working in the area of Naples, was another translator who may have been associated with the Hohenstaufens, in particular Manfred Hohenstaufen.<ref>See Fulvio delle Donne in an article in the latest issue of the Recherches de Theologie et philosophie médiévales</ref> He translated important commentaries on Aristotle originally composed by Ibn Rushd.

Another anonymous translation of the ''Metaphysics'' from Greek (the media) was nearly complete except for book 11, forming the basis of William of Moerbeke's later complete translation. However, this seems to have remained unknown until the middle of the century, based on the numbers of surviving manuscripts.

In most cases, Latin scholars used translations from Greek, turning to Arabic translations only when the more intelligible and more accurate Greek ones were missing. The only Syriac-Arabic translations to achieve widespread circulation were the ''De caelo'', ''Metereologica'' I-III, ''De Animalibus,'' and ''Metaphysics''; each of these except ''De Animalibus'' were soon replaced by William of Moerbeke's translations from Greek.

==William of Moerbeke==

William of Moerbeke (c. 1215 – 1286) was one of the most prolific and influential translators of Greek philosophical texts in the Middle Ages. Very little is known of his life.<ref>See Grabmann 1946 and the short account by Minio-Paluello 1974</ref> He was born probably in 1215 in the village of Moerbeke, now in Belgium, and probably entered the Dominican convent at Louvain as a young man. Most of his surviving work was written between 1259 and 1272.

William is probably the most well-known of the translators from Greek. A common myth posits that he was the first to translate Aristotle directly from Greek, but it is largely untrue. For example, his translation of the the Posterior Analytics is also a revision of an earlier translation by James of Venice. However, he wrote important translations of the remaining works available only in Arabic, namely ''De Caelo'' (1260), ''Metereologica'' I-III (c. 1260), ''De Animalibus'' (1260) and parts of the ''Metaphysics'' (before 1272).

He was the first to translate lesser works such as ''De motu animalium'', ''De progressu animalium'' (1260), as well as the important Politics (1260, an important witness to the Greek text) and Poetics (1278). He wrote new translations of ''Categories'', ''De interpretatione'' (1268). He revised the ''Posterior Analytics'' (1269), ''Sophistici Elenchi'' (before 1270), ''Physics'' (c. 1260-70), De anima (before 1268), Parva naturalia, and Metaphysics.

William additionally translated the works of Greek commentators: Simplicius on the Categories and ''De caelo'', Ammonius on ''De Interpretatione'', Alexander on the ''Meteorologica'' and ''De sensu'', Philoponus on ''De anima'' (Book III), and Themistius on the ''De anima''. He also translated a non-Aristotelian work, the ''Elementatio theologica'' of Proclus.<ref>This section is indebted to the work of the late Edmund Fryde (1923-1999) - [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/1999/dec/02/guardianobituaries2 Obituary]</ref>
==See Also==

{{Hub4|Philosophy|Philosophy}}

{{Hub4|Golden Age|the "Golden Age"}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* E. B. Fryde (2000) ''The early Palaeologan renaissance'' (Brill)
* Hyman and Walsh (1973) ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', Indianapolis.
{{refend}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Islam and Science]]
[[Category:Islamic Golden Age]]
[[Category:Philosophy]]

Intoxicants and Recreation in Islamic Law

2025-12-08T01:31:42Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=2|References=3}}
'''Intoxicants''' (الخمر al‐khamr) such as [[alcohol]], marijuana, other drugs,<ref>"''....The Messenger of Allah (PBUH) replied: "Every intoxicant is khamr, and every khamr is haram."....“Khamr is what befogs the mind.” These are the words spoken by 'Umar ibn al-Khattab from the pulpit of the Prophet (PBUH),....Drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, opium, and the like are definitely included in the prohibited category of khamr. It is well known that the use of such drugs affects the sensory perceptions, making what is near seem distant and what is distant seem near; that their use produces illusions and hallucinations, so that the real seems to disappear and what is imaginary appears to be real; and that drug usage in general impairs the faculty of reasoning and decision-making....''" - [Alcohol and Intoxicants in Islam] - Muslim Bridges</ref> and recreational games of chance, such as board games<ref>"''....the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Whoever plays games of dice has disobeyed Allah and His Messenger."....''" - {{Muwatta|52|2|6|}}, See also {{Muwatta|52|2|7|}}</ref> (including chess),<ref name="chess">"''....Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: He who played chess is like one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine....''" - {{Muslim||2260|reference}}, See also {{Muwatta|52|2|7|}}</ref> card games, and other forms of gambling, are forbidden under [[Islamic law]]. However, this regulation in its current form was absent in early Islam.

==Initial rules surrounding intoxicants==

Intoxicants (namely, alcohol) were permitted during the early phase of [[Islam]]. Some websites claim that Muhammad drank intoxicating wine, though [https://archive.wikiislam.net/wiki/Muhammad_Drank_and_Performed_Ablution_with_Wine that claim is not directly supported] in the hadith literature.

In the [[Qur'an]], wine is elevated and characterized as a blessing of God upon earth.

{{quote|{{Quran|13|4}}| And in the earth are tracts (diverse though) neighbouring, and '''gardens of vines''' and fields sown with corn, and palm trees - growing out of single roots or otherwise: watered with the same water, yet some of them We make more excellent than others to eat. Behold, verily in these things there are signs for those who understand! }}

''Sakr سكر'' or intoxicating drink is said to be a sign (or a miracle) from God:

{{Quote|{{Quran|16|67}}|وَمِن ثَمَرَٰتِ ٱلنَّخِيلِ وَٱلْأَعْنَٰبِ تَتَّخِذُونَ مِنْهُ سَكَرًا وَرِزْقًا حَسَنًا ۗ إِنَّ فِى ذَٰلِكَ لَءَايَةً لِّقَوْمٍ يَعْقِلُونَ

And from the fruit of the date-palm and the vine, ye get out '''wholesome drink and food: behold, in this also is a sign for those who are wise.'''}}

It is also described as an aspect of [[heaven]]:

{{Quote|{{Quran|47|15}}|(Here is) a Parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised: in it are rivers of water incorruptible; rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine, a joy to those who drink; and rivers of honey pure and clear. In it there are for them all kinds of fruits; and Grace from their Lord. (Can those in such Bliss) be compared to such as shall dwell for ever in the Fire, and be given, to drink, boiling water, so that it cuts up their bowels (to pieces)? }}

The Qur'an was purportedly revealed to Muhammad over a period of 23 years<ref>Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers,</ref>, and it is not written in chronological order. A [[Chronological Order of the Qur'an|chronological]] reading would indicate a gradual shift in religious attitudes toward intoxicants.

Over the course of the Qur'an's composition, older [[Revelation|revelations]] were stricken and replaced by newer ones, a phenomenon known as Naskh ([[abrogation]]). When Muhammad's followers were attending prayer at the mosque while intoxicated, the following verse was revealed to warn against such behavior:

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|43}}|O ye who believe! Approach not prayers with a mind befogged, until ye can understand all that ye say,- nor in a state of ceremonial impurity (Except when travelling on the road), until after washing your whole body. If ye are ill, or on a journey, or one of you cometh from offices of nature, or ye have been in contact with women, and ye find no water, then take for yourselves clean sand or earth, and rub therewith your faces and hands. For Allah doth blot out sins and forgive again and again.}}

Later, a revelation suggests that some intoxicants and games of chance are good while others are bad:

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|219}}|They ask thee concerning wine and gambling. Say: "In them is great sin, and some profit, for men; but the sin is greater than the profit." They ask thee how much they are to spend; Say: "What is beyond your needs." Thus doth Allah Make clear to you His Signs: In order that ye may consider-}}

The [[hadith]] record that Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib, in a drunken state, mutilated two camels belonging to Ali, chopping of their humps and taking out their livers.

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3091|darussalam}}, See also: {{Muslim||1979c|reference}} and {{Muslim||1979a|reference}}|Narrated Ali: I got a she-camel in my share of the war booty on the day (of the battle) of Badr, and the Prophet had given me a she-camel from the Khumus. When I intended to marry Fatima, the daughter of Allah's Apostle, I had an appointment with a goldsmith from the tribe of Bani Qainuqa' to go with me to bring Idhkhir (i.e. grass of pleasant smell) and sell it to the goldsmiths and spend its price on my wedding party. I was collecting for my she-camels equipment of saddles, sacks and ropes while my two she-camels were kneeling down beside the room of an Ansari man. I returned after collecting whatever I collected, to see the humps of my two she-camels cut off and their flanks cut open and some portion of their livers was taken out. When I saw that state of my two she-camels, I could not help weeping. I asked, "Who has done this?" The people replied, "Hamza bin Abdul Muttalib who is staying with some Ansari drunks in this house." I went away till I reached the Prophet and Zaid bin Haritha was with him. The Prophet noticed on my face the effect of what I had suffered, so the Prophet asked. "What is wrong with you." I replied, "O Allah's Apostle! I have never seen such a day as today. Hamza attacked my two she-camels, cut off their humps, and ripped open their flanks, and he is sitting there in a house in the company of some drunks."...}}

When rebuked by Muhammad, Hamza insulted him to his face, saying "Aren't you but the slaves of my father?"

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||3091|darussalam}}, See also: {{Muslim||1979c|reference}} and {{Muslim||1979a|reference}}|....The Prophet then asked for his covering sheet, put it on, and set out walking followed by me and Zaid bin Haritha till he came to the house where Hamza was. He asked permission to enter, and they allowed him, and they were drunk. Allah's Apostle started rebuking Hamza for what he had done, but Hamza was drunk and his eyes were red. Hamza looked at Allah's Apostle and then he raised his eyes, looking at his knees, then he raised up his eyes looking at his umbilicus, and again he raised up his eyes look in at his face. Hamza then said, "Aren't you but the slaves of my father?" Allah's Apostle realized that he was drunk, so Allah's Apostle retreated, and we went out with him.}}

==Restriction of alcohol and games of chance==

Muhammad banned the consumption of all intoxicants in response to Hamza's actions:

{{Quote|[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.islamhelpline.com/node/7288|2=2011-10-28}} Sahih Muslim Hadith 4962]|2= Narrated by Jabir ibn Abdullah
Allah`s Messenger (saws) said: “Every intoxicant is haraam! Verily Allah, the Exalted and Majestic, made a covenant to those who drank intoxicants to make them drink ‘Tinat al-Khabal’. The companions asked: “Allah`s Messenger, what is ‘Tinat al-Khabal?’” He (saws) said: “It is the sweat of the denizens of Hell, or the discharge of the denizens of Hell.”}}

Muhammad referred to alcohol (which is found in heaven) as an "abomination" and "Satan's handwork":

{{Quote|{{cite quran|5|90|end=91|style=ref}}| O ye who believe! Intoxicants and gambling, (dedication of) stones, and (divination by) arrows, are an abomination,- of Satan's handwork: eschew such (abomination), that ye may prosper.}}

Games of chance were also banned:

{{Quote|{{Muwatta|52|2|6}}, See also: {{Muwatta|52|2|7}}|Yahya related to me from Malik from Musa ibn Maysara from Said ibn Abi Hind from Abu Musa al-Ashari that the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said, "Whoever plays games of dice has disobeyed Allah and His Messenger.}}

Muhammad compared playing chess with dyeing one's hand in the flesh and blood of swine:

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2260|reference}}|Buraida reported on the authority of his father that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: He who played chess is like one who dyed his hand with the flesh and blood of swine.}}

After the revelation of verse 5:90, Muhammad ordered beatings for anyone who violated his rules regarding these substances:

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||6775|darussalam}}, See also: {{Bukhari|||6773|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||6774|darussalam}}, {{Bukhari|||6776|darussalam}}, and {{Bukhari|||6777|darussalam}}|Narrated' Uqba bin Al-Harith:

An-Nu'man or the son of An-Nu'man was brought to the Prophet in a state of intoxication. The Prophet felt it hard (was angry) and ordered all those who were present in the house, to beat him. And they beat him, using palm-leaf stalks and shoes, and I was among those who beat him.}}

Muhammad and his successors also ordered floggings:

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1706a|reference}}|Anas b. Malik reported that a person who had drink wine was brought to Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him). He gave him forty stripes with two lashes. Abu Bakr also did that,...}}

Muhammad ordered that repeat offenders be put to death:

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4484|darussalam}}, See also: {{Abu Dawud||4482|darussalam}} and {{Abu Dawud||4485|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuHurayrah: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If he is intoxicated, flog him; again if he is intoxicated, flog him; again if he is intoxicated, flog him if he does it again a fourth time, kill him.
 AbuDawud said: And there is a similar tradition of Umar ibn AbuSalamah, from his father, on the authority of AbuHurayrah, from the Prophet (peace be upon him): If he drinks wine, flog him if he does it so again, a fourth time, kill him.}}

Later, Umar (the second Rashidun [[Caliph]]) clarified that al-khamr refers to all intoxicants:

{{Quote|1=[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5762 The Gradual Prohibition of Khamr (Alchoholic Drink)] Tafsir ibn Kathir|2=As for Al-Khamr, `Umar bin Khattab, the Leader of the faithful, used to say, "It includes all what intoxicates the mind." }}

Umar ordered eighty stripes as the mildest form of punishment:

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1706c|reference}}|...When Umar (became the Commander of the Faithful) and the people went near to pastures and towns, he said (to the Companions of the Holy Prophet). What is your opinion about lashing for drinking? Thereupon Abd al-Rahman b. Auf said: My opinion is that you fix it as the mildest punishment. Then 'Umar inflicted eighty stripes.}}

==Modern usage==

Many Muslim-majority countries still restrict the sale, purchase, and drinking of alcohol by adults, including Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Malaysia,<ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/08/20/malaysian-model-seeks-public-flogging-drinking.html Malaysian model seeks public flogging for drinking] - The Associated Press, August 20, 2009</ref> the Maldives, Morocco, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia, and the United Arab Emirates.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prohibition&oldid=332586583 Prohibition]</ref> Punishments vary by country, but many are consistent with the [[Sunnah]] of Muhammad. They range from weeks to months of imprisonment, public flogging, and (in the case of Iran) the death penalty.

This prohibition, in many cases, does not exclude the non-Muslim. For example, in June 2009, Catholic chef Sapon D Costa was jailed in Bangladesh for the possession of alcohol.<ref>[http://www.asianews.it/index.php?l=en&art=15493&size=A Catholic chef has a “really rough time in Dhaka’s central jail”] - Asia News, June 11, 2009</ref>

Despite these laws and widespread negative views of alcohol among Muslims, Euromonitor International reported in 2011 that alcohol use in predominantly Muslim regions of the world increased by 25 percent in 5 years.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.ansamed.info/en/news/ME.XEF93985.html|2=2011-02-25}} Islam: Survey, Alcohol Use In Mideast-Africa +25% In 5 Years] - ANSAmed, February 23, 2011</ref> Additionally, the World Health Organisation (WHO) reported in the same year that Malaysia, a country with a Muslim majority, is the world's tenth largest consumer of alcohol.<ref>Tanya Thomas - [http://www.medindia.net/news/Despite-Its-Muslim-Majority-WHO-Names-Malaysia-as-Worlds-10th-Largest-Alcohol-Consumer-85415-1.htm Despite Its Muslim Majority, WHO Names Malaysia as World's 10th Largest Alcohol Consumer] - Medindia Health Network, May 24, 2011</ref>

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Alcohol|Alcohol}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Arlandson/drinking.htm Muhammad, the Quran, and Prohibition - Islam’s punishments for drinking and gambling] ''- Answering Islam''
*[http://www.livingislam.org/fiqhi/fiqha_e72.html On Khamr (And What Intoxicates)] ''- Islamic site''

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:Alcohol]]
[[Category:Art and music]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]

Muhammads Marriages of Political Necessity

2025-12-08T01:17:46Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=3|Language=4|References=2}}
Some Islamic scholars and religious leaders suggest that the Prophet Muhammad engaged in [[Polygamy in Islamic Law|polygamy]] only for reasons of political necessity.

Others point out that polygamy was common in seventh-century Arabia, meaning Muhammad's conduct in marrying multiple women was morally acceptable by the standards of his time (although the Prophet is notably considered an [[Uswa Hasana|objectively perfect role model]], independent of cultural and historical contingencies).

Muhammad was given special status in the number of wives he was permitted to have. While he limited other Muslims to four wives, he at one point had eleven wives with the intention of marrying more. Upon Ghaylan ibn Salama's conversion to Islam in 630 CE, he was required to divorce six of his ten wives, even as Muhammad at that point also had ten wives.

Writings that address the question of what political circumstances necessitated Muhammad's multiple marriages, going beyond even the allowance of the four wives granted to other Muslim men, most often address the political advantages each marriage purportedly conferred, rather than on possible reasons each marriage was necessary for the survival of Islam.

The following is a list of major political crises Muhammad faced with brief notes on how each was handled.

#616-619. The Quraysh enforced a trade blockade against the Hashim clan in Mecca. The Muslims survived by living on the wealth of Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife. Although Muslim historians do not state this directly, the blockade was probably lifted because Muhammad agreed to the [[Satanic Verses]] compromise.
#622. The Quraysh pronounced a death sentence for Muhammad. He survived by escaping to Medina and moving his community there.
#624-627. The Jews in Medina announced that they did not believe Muhammad was the Messiah, which seriously damaged his credibility with the local pagans. He ejected two of the tribes and killed the third, becoming the "Duke" of Medina. The [[angel Jibreel]] purportedly delivered urgent messages regarding the Jews' treachery to Muhammad's wife Hind.
#627. The Meccans, together with a few Bedouin chiefs and exiled Jews, besieged Medina, hoping to kill Muhammad. Muhammad dug a trench around Medina and the siege failed. Muhammad then conquered a Kilab tribe and secured a trade blockade against Mecca. By the time Muhammad agreed to end the blockade, the Meccans had learned not to attack Muhammad directly.
#628. Muhammad took a pre-emptive strike against the surviving Jews. After a war of conquest against Khaybar, every Jew in Arabia was reduced to vassalage. There was a danger that their Ghatafan allies would retaliate, leading Muhammad to stockpile weapons in anticipation. Muhammad's wife Hind reportedly carried the first aid box to Khaybar.
#630. After Mecca was starved out, Muhammad mustered an army of 10,000 and marched in to conquer the city. The “Duke” of Mecca was converted by force and the city surrendered. This served as a warning to the Ghatafans, and the Yemenites negotiated an “alliance” rather than face the Muslim armies.
#630–632. Muhammad conquered what was left of Arabia.

Pro-Islamic writers argue that Muhammad's marriages to Aisha, Sawdah, and Hafsah were politically expedient, helping Muhammad to raise money, although he was able to acquire financial resources through plundering and taxation as well.

Muhammad's marriage to his cousin, Zaynab bint Jahsh, was the first to break his "four wives" rule and caused him substantial social embarrassment.

Muhammad's marriage to Asma, who possessed some political importance, later ended in divorce.

Four of Muhammad's wives were slave-concubines.

Three of Muhammad's marriages, all of them occurring in 628, were political to varying degrees.

#Juwayriyah, the daughter of a petty chief, married Muhammad only after her tribe was flattened and subjugated.
#Ramlah, the daughter of Abu Sufyan, the “Duke” of Mecca, had defected to Islam several years prior and cut contact with her father almost completely. During this time, Muhammad continued to engage in open hostilities with her family, killing her brother and sending assassins after her father. When Abu Sufyan tried to negotiate through his daughter for peace with Muhammad, she refused to cooperate.
#[[Safiyah]], the First Lady of Khaybar, was related to important figures in the Jewish community. Muhammad married her after he had humiliated Khaybar. On [[Muhammad's Death|his deathbed]], Muhammad nevertheless stated in her presence that he wanted all remaining Jews ejected from Arabia.

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Muhammad's wives and concubines|Muhammad's wives and concubines}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Muhammad's wives and concubines]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sahabah (companions)]]
[[Category:Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House)]]

{{page_title|Muhammad's Marriages of Political Necessity}}

Muhammads Marriages of Political Necessity

2025-12-08T01:17:26Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language and removed argumentative material

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=1|Content=3|Language=1|References=2}}
Some Islamic scholars and religious leaders suggest that the Prophet Muhammad engaged in [[Polygamy in Islamic Law|polygamy]] only for reasons of political necessity.

Others point out that polygamy was common in seventh-century Arabia, meaning Muhammad's conduct in marrying multiple women was morally acceptable by the standards of his time (although the Prophet is notably considered an [[Uswa Hasana|objectively perfect role model]], independent of cultural and historical contingencies).

Muhammad was given special status in the number of wives he was permitted to have. While he limited other Muslims to four wives, he at one point had eleven wives with the intention of marrying more. Upon Ghaylan ibn Salama's conversion to Islam in 630 CE, he was required to divorce six of his ten wives, even as Muhammad at that point also had ten wives.

Writings that address the question of what political circumstances necessitated Muhammad's multiple marriages, going beyond even the allowance of the four wives granted to other Muslim men, most often address the political advantages each marriage purportedly conferred, rather than on possible reasons each marriage was necessary for the survival of Islam.

The following is a list of major political crises Muhammad faced with brief notes on how each was handled.

#616-619. The Quraysh enforced a trade blockade against the Hashim clan in Mecca. The Muslims survived by living on the wealth of Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife. Although Muslim historians do not state this directly, the blockade was probably lifted because Muhammad agreed to the [[Satanic Verses]] compromise.
#622. The Quraysh pronounced a death sentence for Muhammad. He survived by escaping to Medina and moving his community there.
#624-627. The Jews in Medina announced that they did not believe Muhammad was the Messiah, which seriously damaged his credibility with the local pagans. He ejected two of the tribes and killed the third, becoming the "Duke" of Medina. The [[angel Jibreel]] purportedly delivered urgent messages regarding the Jews' treachery to Muhammad's wife Hind.
#627. The Meccans, together with a few Bedouin chiefs and exiled Jews, besieged Medina, hoping to kill Muhammad. Muhammad dug a trench around Medina and the siege failed. Muhammad then conquered a Kilab tribe and secured a trade blockade against Mecca. By the time Muhammad agreed to end the blockade, the Meccans had learned not to attack Muhammad directly.
#628. Muhammad took a pre-emptive strike against the surviving Jews. After a war of conquest against Khaybar, every Jew in Arabia was reduced to vassalage. There was a danger that their Ghatafan allies would retaliate, leading Muhammad to stockpile weapons in anticipation. Muhammad's wife Hind reportedly carried the first aid box to Khaybar.
#630. After Mecca was starved out, Muhammad mustered an army of 10,000 and marched in to conquer the city. The “Duke” of Mecca was converted by force and the city surrendered. This served as a warning to the Ghatafans, and the Yemenites negotiated an “alliance” rather than face the Muslim armies.
#630–632. Muhammad conquered what was left of Arabia.

Pro-Islamic writers argue that Muhammad's marriages to Aisha, Sawdah, and Hafsah were politically expedient, helping Muhammad to raise money, although he was able to acquire financial resources through plundering and taxation as well.

Muhammad's marriage to his cousin, Zaynab bint Jahsh, was the first to break his "four wives" rule and caused him substantial social embarrassment.

Muhammad's marriage to Asma, who possessed some political importance, later ended in divorce.

Four of Muhammad's wives were slave-concubines.

Three of Muhammad's marriages, all of them occurring in 628, were political to varying degrees.

#Juwayriyah, the daughter of a petty chief, married Muhammad only after her tribe was flattened and subjugated.
#Ramlah, the daughter of Abu Sufyan, the “Duke” of Mecca, had defected to Islam several years prior and cut contact with her father almost completely. During this time, Muhammad continued to engage in open hostilities with her family, killing her brother and sending assassins after her father. When Abu Sufyan tried to negotiate through his daughter for peace with Muhammad, she refused to cooperate.
#[[Safiyah]], the First Lady of Khaybar, was related to important figures in the Jewish community. Muhammad married her after he had humiliated Khaybar. On [[Muhammad's Death|his deathbed]], Muhammad nevertheless stated in her presence that he wanted all remaining Jews ejected from Arabia.

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Muhammad's wives and concubines|Muhammad's wives and concubines}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Muhammad's wives and concubines]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sahabah (companions)]]
[[Category:Ahl al-Bayt (People of the House)]]

{{page_title|Muhammad's Marriages of Political Necessity}}

Invitation to Islam Prior to Jihad

2025-12-07T23:22:17Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=2|References=4}}
The practice of inviting non-Muslim nations to join [[Islam]] or pay the [[Jizyah]] prior to engaging in offensive [[Jihad]] derives from {{Quran|9|29}}, and according to tradition, it was first initiated by the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. His [[Sunnah|example]] was then followed by the Rashidun [[Caliph]]s and leaders of Islamic empires and codified within the Islamic [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]]<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik (o9.0-8)] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>, which is today implemented by various Islamist leaders and militant terrorist organizations.

A number of letters inviting other nations into Islam were purportedly authored by Muhammad before these nations succumbed to Islamic conquest. They are recorded in various literary sources. Purported manuscripts of original letters sent by Muhammad are known to be forgeries.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 Twitter thread] by Dr Marijn van Putten. Twitter.com 8 April 2019 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20191108000922/https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 archive])</ref>

[[File:Muhammad-Letter-To-Heraclius.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Letter sent by Prophet [[Muhammad]] to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium.<ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India). ISBN 81-85738-25-4</ref>]]
==Historical==
===The Ishmaelites to Heraclius===
Drawing from what he claims is a Palestinian source, seventh-century Armenian historian Pseudo-Sebeos mentions a letter sent from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius. The text of the letter as he records it is given below.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>
{{Quote|Letter from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius - Pseudo-Sebeos, 660s CE<ref>Translation by R. W. Thomas cited in Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' p. 196</ref>|God gave that land to our father Abraham as a hereditary possession and to his seed after him. We are the sons of Abraham. You have occupied our lands long enough. Abandon it peacefully and we shall not come into your territory. Otherwise, we shall demand that possession from you with interest.}}
===Muhammad===
====Letter to Heraclius (هرقل), the Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople====

{{Quote||In the name of Allah, the most Beneficent, the most Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad, the slave of Allah, and His Apostle, to Heraculius, the Ruler of the Byzantine. Peace be upon the followers of guidance. Now then, I invite you to Islam (i.e. surrender to Allah), '''embrace Islam and you will be safe''' (أسلم تسلم, ''aslim taslam''); embrace Islam and Allah will bestow on you a double reward. But if you reject this invitation of Islam, you shall be responsible for misguiding the peasants (i.e. your nation). O people of the Scriptures! Come to a word common to you and us and you, that we worship. None but Allah, and that we associate nothing in worship with Him; and that none of us shall take others as Lords besides Allah. Then if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are (they who have surrendered (unto Him)..(3.64)<ref>M. Muhsin Khan (Translator) - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/052-sbt.php#004.052.191|2=2011-10-30}} Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Book 52, Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihaad), Number 191] - USC-MSA, [[Compendium of Muslim Texts]]</ref>}}

Sean Anthony suggests that the Heraclius letter served as a model that expanded the prophetic letter topos to include other rulers. The purported letter to Heraclius itself is narrated by al-Zuhri and includes a word distinctive to Christian Palestinian Aramaic. Anthony suggests that al-Zuhri's source text did not include the orginal letter, if it ever existed.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>

====Letter to the Christians of Aylah (أيلة)====

After hearing rumors that the Romans had gathered at the border of the Byzantine Empire and northern Arabia, Muhammad led his army to engage them in battle. However, upon reaching Tabuk, the rumors proved false. He then sent a detachment to the Christians and Jews east of Tabuk with a letter.

{{Quote||''To John ibn Rubah (يوحنا بن روبة) and the Chiefs of Aylah''. Peace be on you! I praise God for you, beside whom there is no Lord. I will not fight against you until I have written thus unto you. Believe, or else pay tribute. And be obedient unto the Lord and his Prophet, and unto the messengers of his Prophet. Honour them and clothe them with excellent vestments, not with inferior raiment. Specially clothe Zeid with excellent garments. As long as my messengers are pleased, so likewise am I. Ye know the tribute. If ye desire to have security by sea and by land, obey the Lord and his Apostle, and he will defend you from every demand, whether by Arab or foreigner, saving the demand of the Lord and his Apostle. But if ye oppose and displease them, I will not accept from you a single thing, until I have fought against you and taken captive your little ones and slain the elder; for I am the Apostle of the Lord in truth. Believe in the Lord and in his Prophets. And believe in the Messiah son of Mary; verily he is the Word of God: I believe in him that he was a messenger of God. Come then, before trouble reach you. I commend my messengers to you. Give to Harmala three measures of barley; and indeed Harmala hath interceded for you. As for me, if it were not for the Lord and for this (intercession of Harmala), I would not have sent any message at all unto you, until ye had seen the army. But now, if ye obey my messengers, God will be your protector, and Mahomet, and whosoever belongeth unto him. Now my messengers are Sharahbil, &c. Unto you is the guarantee of God and of Mahomet his Apostle, and peace be unto you if ye submit. And convey the people of Macna back to their land.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=-jxbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The life of Mahomet'']. (p. 456). London: Smith, Elder & Co</ref>}}

====Letter to Negus, King of Abyssinia====

{{Quote||This letter is sent from Muhammad, the Prophet to Negus Al-Ashama, the king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Peace be upon him who follows true guidance and believes in Allâh and His Messenger. I bear witness that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, He has taken neither a wife nor a son, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I call you unto the fold of Islam; if you embrace Islam, you will find safety,

"Say (O Muhammad ): ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [The Noble Qur'an 3:64]

Should you reject this invitation, then you will be held responsible for all the evils of the Christians of your people.<ref name="The sealed nectar">{{citation|title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA412&dq=The+letters+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad+to+the+kings+beyond+arabia&hl=en&ei=CsrTTuLOH9Co8AOOsoHiDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=The%20letters%20of%20the%20Prophet%20Muhammad%20to%20the%20kings%20beyond%20arabia&f=false | first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=9960899551}}, pp. 412-426</ref>}}

====Letter to Muqawqas (المقوقس), the Vicegerent of Egypt====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad slave of Allâh and His Messenger to Muqawqas, vicegerent of Egypt.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Thereafter, I invite you to accept Islam. Therefore, '''if you want security, accept Islam''' (أسلم تسلم,''aslim taslam''). If you accept Islam, Allâh, the Sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts.

"Say (O Muhammad : ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [Al-Qur'an 3:64]<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Chosroes (كسرى), Emperor of Persia====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allâh to Chosroes, king of Persia.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in Allâh and His Messenger and testifies that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I invite you to accept the religion of Allâh. I am the Messenger of Allâh sent to all people in order that I may infuse fear of Allâh in every living person, and that the charge may be proved against those who reject the Truth. '''Accept Islam as your religion so that you may live in security''' (فأسلم تسلم, ''fa aslim taslam''), otherwise, you will be responsible for all the sins of the Magians.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Haudha bin ‘Ali, Governor of Yamama====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Haudha bin ‘Ali.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere. You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to to Harith bin Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Al-Harith bin Abi Shamir.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in it and regards it as true. I invite you to believe in Allâh Alone with no associate, thenceafter your kingdom will remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to the King of ‘Oman, Jaifer, and his brother ‘Abd Al-Jalandi====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah to Jaifer and ‘Abd Al-Jalandi.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance; thereafter I invite both of you to the Call of Islam. Embrace Islam. Allâh has sent me as a Prophet to all His creatures in order that I may instil fear of Allâh in the hearts of His disobedient creatures so that there may be left no excuse for those who deny Allâh. If you two accept Islam, you will remain in command of your country; but if you refuse my Call, you’ve got to remember that all your possessions are perishable. My horsemen will appropriate your land, and my Prophethood will assume preponderance over your kingship.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

===Caliphs===

====Caliph Abu Bakr As-Siddiq to Khosru, the Persian Commander====

In 636 AD, at the Battle of Qadisiyya, Muslim commander Khalid ibn Al-Walid sent an emissary with a message from Caliph Abu Bakr to the Persian commander, Khosru.

{{Quote||Submit to Islam and be safe. Or agree to the payment of the Jizya, and you and your people will be under our protection, else you will have only yourself to blame for the consequences, for I bring the men who desire death as ardently as you desire life.<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid Tabari and History of the World], Volume IV Book XII. The Mohammedan Ascendency, page 463, by John Clark Ridpath, LL.D. 1910.</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab's letter to Yazdgird III, the King of Persia====

The following correspondence between Sassanian Yazdgird III (632 AD - 651 AD) and Umar Ibn Al-Khatab Khalifat Al-Muslemin took place after the battle of Ghadesiyeh. The original copy of this letter from Yazdgird III is housed in the British museum of London.

'''From: Umar Ibn Al Khatab Khalifat Al Muslemin''' '''To: Yazdgird III Shahanshah of Persian Empire'''

{{Quote||Yazdgird, I see not a fruitful future for you and your nation unless you accept my offer and commit Bei'at (Joining with Khalifat and bringing Islam). Once upon a time your land ruled half the known world but what has it come down to now? Your troops are defeated in all fronts and your nation is bound to collapse. I offer you a way to rescue yourself. Start praying to a mono God, a single union God, the only God who created everything in the universe.

We bring you and the world his message, he who is the true God. Stop your Fire Worship, command your nation to stop their Fire Worship which is false; join us by joining the truth. Worship Allah the only true God, The creator of universe. Worship to Allah and accept Islam as your salvation. End your Pagan ways and your false worships now and bring Islam so you can accept Allah as your savior. By doing so, you will find the only way to your survival and peace for Persians. If you know what is best for Ajam (Arabic term for Persians meaning Retarded & Weird), you will choose this path. Bei'at is the only way.

Allah O Akbar Sign, Khalifat Al Muslemin ''Omar Ibn Al Khatab''<ref name="Iran Heritage"></ref>}}

'''From: Shahanshah of Persian Empire, Yazdgird III Sassanid''' '''To: Umar Ibn Al Khatab, Khalifat of Tazi (Persian term for Arabs)'''

{{Quote||In the name of Ahura Mazda, creator of Life and Intelligence you in your letter wrote that you want to direct us towards your God, Allah, without having the true knowledge of who we are and what do we worship! It is amazing that you occupy the position of Khalifat (Ruler) of Arabs, yet your knowledge is the same as a lowly Arab rambler, roaming in deserts of Arabia and same as a desert tribal man (mardak) you offer me to worship a united and single God without knowing that it has been thousands of years that Persians worship the mono God and they pray to him Five Times a day! In this land of culture and art this has been the normal path of life for years. When we established the tradition of hospitality and good deeds in the world and we waved the flag of "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds" in our hands, you and your ancestors were roaming the deserts, eating Lizards for you had nothing else to feed yourselves and burying your innocent daughters alive (an old Arab tradition because they preferred male children to female). Tazi people have no value for God's creatures! You behead God's children, even the POWs (Prisoners of War), Rape Women, bury your daughters alive, attack the Caravans, mass murder, kidnap people's wives and steal their property! Your hearts are made of stone; we condemn all these Evil which you do. How can you teach us Godly Ways when you commit these actions? You tell me to stop my Fire Worship! Us, Persians see the Love of Creator and power of inventor in the light of Sun and warmth of Fire. Lights and Warmth of the Sun and Fire makes us see the light of truth and warms our hearts to the creator and to one another. It helps us to be kind to one another; it enlightens us and makes us to keep Mazda's Flame, alive in our hearts. Our lord is Ahura Mazda and it is strange that you people also, just discovered him and named him Allah.

But we are not the same as you; we are not in the same level as you. We help other human being, we spread love among humanity, we spread Good throughout the Earth, we have been spreading our culture but in respect for other cultures throughout the whole world for thousands of years, yet you in the name of Allah invade other men's land! You mass murder the people, create famine, fear and poverty for others, you create Evil in the name of Allah. Who is responsible for this entire catastrophe? Is it Allah who commands you to murder, pillage and to destroy? Is it you the followers of Allah who do this in his name? Or is it both? You have risen from heat of the deserts and burnt out infertile lands with no resources, you want to teach people the love of God by your military campaigns and the power of your Swords! You are Desert Savages, yet you want to teach Urban people like us who lived in the cities for thousands of years, the love of God! We have thousands of years of culture behind us, a powerful tool indeed!

Tell us? With all your military campaigns, barbarianism, murder and pillage in the name of Allah, what have you taught to this Muslim Army? What knowledge have you taught the Muslim that you also insist on teaching it to non Muslim? What culture have you learned from our Allah, now that you want to force-teach it to others? Alas, ...... that today our Persian Armies of Ahura have been defeated from your recently Allah Worshiping Armies; Now, our people have to worship the same God, the same Five times a day, but forced by the sword to call him Allah and pray to him in Arabic because your Allah only understands Arabic I suggest, you and your gang of bandits pack up and move back to your deserts where they are used to live. Take them back where they used to the burning heat of the sun, tribal life, eating Lizards and drinking Camel Milk. I forbid you to let your band of thieves loose in our fertile lands, civilized cities and our glorious nation. Don't turn these "beasts with hearts of stone" loose, to mass murder our people, kidnap our women and children, rape our wives and send our daughters to Mecca as slaves! Don't let them do these crimes in the name of Allah put a stop to your criminal behavior. Aryans are forgiving, warm, hospitable, and decent people and everywhere they went, they have spread seeds of friendship, love, knowledge and truth; therefore, they shall not punish you and your people for your pirate ways and criminal acts. I beg you to remain with your Allah in your deserts and do not move close to our civilized cities, for your believers are "Much Fearful" and your behavior is "Most Barbaric."

 Sign,
''Yazdgird III Sassanid''<ref name="Iran Heritage">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iran-heritage.org/interestgroups/islam-article4.htm|2=2011-10-29}} Yazgird III and Omar Al Muslemin letters] - Iran Heritage, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab during the conquest of Al-Basrah====

{{Quote||Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.<ref>Al-Tabari, ''The History of al-Tabari (Ta'rikh al rusul wa'l-muluk)'', vol. 12: ''The Battle of Qadissiyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine,'' trans. Yohanan Friedman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 167.</ref>}}

===Miscellaneous===
====Letter of the Zaporozhian Cossacks of Ukraine replying to the Sultan of Turkey====

This letter was written in the 1660s in response to a letter from Sultan Mohammed IV of the Turkish Empire, demanding the Cossacks of Ukraine voluntarily accept Turkish rule.

{{Quote||Thou Turkish Devil!

Brother and companion to the accursed Devil, and Secretary to Lucifer himself, Greetings!

What the hell kind of noble knight art thou? Satan voids and thy army devours. Never wilt thou be fit to have the sons of Christ under thee. Thy army we fear not, and by land and by sea in our chaikas we will do battle against thee.

Thou scullion of Babylon, thou beer-brewer of Jerusalem, thou goat-thief of Alexandria, thou swineherd of Egypt (both the Greater and the Lesser), thou Armenian pig and Tartar goat. Thou hangman of Kamyanets, thou evildoer of Podolia, thou great silly oaf of all the world and of the netherworld and, before our God, a blockhead, a swine's snout, a mare's ass, and clown of Hades. May the devil take thee!

That is what the Cossacks have to say to thee, thou basest born of runts! Unfit art thou to lord it over true Christians!

The date we know not, for no calender have we got. The moon (month) is in the sky, the year is in a book, and the day is the same with us here as with ye over there - and thou can kiss us thou knowest where!

''Koshoviy Otaman Ivan Sirko''
''and all the Zaparozhian Cossack Brotherhood''<ref>Andrew Gregorovich - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.infoukes.com/history/cossack_letter/|2=2011-10-29}} The Cossack Letter "The Most Defiant Letter!"] - InfoUkes Inc, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

==Modern==

===Muslim leaders===

====Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to the President of the United States====

On May 9, 2006, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sent an 18-page letter to U.S. President Bush via the Swiss embassy in Tehran.

{{Quote||All prophets, speak of peace and tranquility for man -- based on monotheism, justice and respect for human dignity.

Do you not think that if all of us come to believe in and abide by these principles, that is, monotheism, worship of God, justice, respect for the dignity of man, belief in the Last Day, we can overcome the present problems of the world -- that are the result of disobedience to the Almighty and the teachings of prophets – and improve our performance?
Do you not think that belief in these principles promotes and guarantees peace, friendship and justice?

Do you not think that the aforementioned written or unwritten principles are universally respected?

Will you not accept this invitation? That is, a genuine return to the teachings of prophets, to monotheism and justice, to preserve human dignity and obedience to the Almighty and His prophets?

Mr. President,
History tells us that repressive and cruel governments do not survive. God has entrusted the fate of men to them. The Almighty has not left the universe and humanity to their own devices. . . . 
The people of many countries are angry about the attacks on their cultural foundations and the disintegration of families. They are equally dismayed with the fading of care and compassion. The people of the world have no faith in international organizations, because their rights are not advocated by these organizations.

Liberalism and Western style democracy have not been able to help realize the ideals of humanity. Today these two concepts have failed. Those with insight can already hear the sounds of the shattering and fall of the ideology and thoughts of the Liberal democratic systems.

We increasingly see that people around the world are flocking towards a main focal point -- that is the Almighty God. Undoubtedly through faith in God and the teachings of the prophets, the people will conquer their problems. My question for you is: “Do you not want to join them?”

Mr. President,
Whether we like it or not, the world is gravitating towards faith in the
Almighty and justice and the will of God will prevail over all things.

'''Vasalam Ala Man Ataba’al hoda Mahmood Ahmadi-Nejad President of the Islamic Republic of Iran'''<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Perspectives_1/Text_of_Iranian_President_Ahmadinejad_s_letter_to__2607.shtml|2=2013-05-08}} Text of Iranian President Ahmadinejad's letter to President George W. Bush] - IRNA, May 9, 2006</ref>}}

===Al-Qaeda===

====Adam Yahiye Gadahn shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11====

Adam Yahiye Gadahn, a senior operative, cultural interpreter, spokesman, and media advisor for Al-Qaeda, published a video titled "Invitation to Islam" on September 2, 2006, shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11.

{{Quote||Islam is the only religion acceptable to God and came with the revealed book, the Koran, which abrogates all previous revelations, like the Torah and Evangel… God recognizes no separation between religion and state . . . 
To Americans and the rest of Christendom we say, either repent (your) misguided ways and enter into the light of truth or keep your poison to yourself and suffer the consequences in this world and the next . . . 
If the Zionist crusader missionaries of hate and counter-Islam consultants like Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, Michael Scheuer, Steven Emerson, and yes, even the crusader-in-chief George W. Bush were to abandon their unbelief and repent and enter into the light of Islam and turn their swords against the enemies of God, it would be accepted of them and they would be our brothers in Islam. And we send a special invitation to all of you fighting Bush’s crusader pipe dream in Afghanistan, Iraq, and wherever else W. has sent you to die.<ref>Links to the full video appear to be dead, however, a partial transcript has been recorded in a blog post made by Michelle Malkin, named "[{{Reference archive|1=http://michellemalkin.com/2006/09/02/convert-or-die/|2=2013-05-08}} Convert or die]" (dated September 2, 2006).</ref>}}

====Osama Bin Laden's "letter to America"====

Bin Laden's "letter to America" first appeared in Arabic on a Saudi Arabian website and has since been translated and posted on Islamic websites registered to UK domains.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/alqaida.terrorism| title = Osama issues new call to arms| publisher = The Observer| author = Jason Burke| date = November 24, 2002| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Falqaida.terrorism&date=2013-08-08| deadurl = no}}</ref>

{{Quote||What are we calling you to, and what do we want from you?

1) The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam.

a) The religion of the Unification of God; of freedom from associating partners with Him, and rejection of this; of complete love of Him, the Exalted; of complete submission to His Laws; and of the discarding of all the opinions, orders, theories and religions which contradict with the religion He sent down to His Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Islam is the religion of all the prophets, and makes no distinction between them - peace be upon them all.
It is to this religion that we call you; the seal of all the previous religions. It is the religion of Unification of God, sincerity, the best of manners, righteousness, mercy, honour, purity, and piety. It is the religion of showing kindness to others, establishing justice between them, granting them their rights, and defending the oppressed and the persecuted. It is the religion of enjoining the good and forbidding the evil with the hand, tongue and heart. It is the religion of Jihad in the way of Allah so that Allah's Word and religion reign Supreme. And it is the religion of unity and agreement on the obedience to Allah, and total equality between all people, without regarding their colour, sex, or language.

b) It is the religion whose book - the Quran - will remained preserved and unchanged, after the other Divine books and messages have been changed. The Quran is the miracle until the Day of Judgement. Allah has challenged anyone to bring a book like the Quran or even ten verses like it.

2) The second thing we call you to, is to stop your oppression, lies, immorality and debauchery that has spread among you.

a) We call you to be a people of manners, principles, honour, and purity; to reject the immoral acts of fornication, homosexuality, intoxicants, gamblings, and trading with interest.
We call you to all of this that you may be freed from that which you have become caught up in; that you may be freed from the deceptive lies that you are a great nation, that your leaders spread amongst you to conceal from you the despicable state to which you have reached.

b) It is saddening to tell you that you are the worst civilization witnessed by the history of mankind:

i) You are the nation who, rather than ruling by the Shariah of Allah in its Constitution and Laws, choose to invent your own laws as you will and desire. You separate religion from your policies, contradicting the pure nature which affirms Absolute Authority to the Lord and your Creator. You flee from the embarrassing question posed to you: How is it possible for Allah the Almighty to create His creation, grant them power over all the creatures and land, grant them all the amenities of life, and then deny them that which they are most in need of: knowledge of the laws which govern their lives? . . . 
If you fail to respond to all these conditions, then prepare for fight with the Islamic Nation. The Nation of Monotheism, that puts complete trust on Allah and fears none other than Him. The Nation which is addressed by its Quran with the words: Do you fear them? Allah has more right that you should fear Him if you are believers. Fight against them so that Allah will punish them by your hands and disgrace them and give you victory over them and heal the breasts of believing people. And remove the anger of their hearts. Allah accepts the repentance of whom He wills. Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. Quran 9:13-1 . . . 
If the Americans refuse to listen to our advice and the goodness, guidance and righteousness that we call them to, then be aware that you will lose this Crusade Bush began, just like the other previous Crusades in which you were humiliated by the hands of the Mujahideen, fleeing to your home in great silence and disgrace. If the Americans do not respond, then their fate will be that of the Soviets who fled from Afghanistan to deal with their military defeat, political breakup, ideological downfall, and economic bankruptcy.
This is our message to the Americans, as an answer to theirs. Do they now know why we fight them and over which form of ignorance, by the permission of Allah, we shall be victorious?<ref name="letter to America">{{cite web|url= http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver?li=1|title= Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'|publisher= Observer Worldview Extra|author= |date= November 24, 2002|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Ftheobserver%3Fli%3D1&date=2013-08-08|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

===Boko Haram===

====Abubakar Shekau's address to the President of Nigeria====

Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the terrorist organization Boko Haram, published a video in August 2012 urging Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria’s Christian president, to convert to Islam.

{{Quote||You [Goodluck Jonathan] should abandon this ungodly power, you should repent and forsake Christianity... You [Barack Obama] said I'm a global terrorist, then you are a terrorist in the next world.<ref>Aminu Abubakar - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5huLV0A2MdfKlbsb8aGgxmOv-eOiQ?docId=CNG.d3ffcd8da382f4117ce248b079227866.51|2=2013-05-09}} Nigerian leader slams sect leader's call on him to resign] - AFP, August 6, 2012</ref>}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pureislam.co.za%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D17&date=2011-04-24 The letters of the Prophet Muhammad (PDF)]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[bg:Покани за приемане на исляма, които предхождат насилието]]
[[ru:Переписка_с_предводителями_исламского_джихада]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]

Invitation to Islam Prior to Jihad

2025-12-07T23:19:14Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=2|References=4}}
The practice of inviting non-Muslim nations to join [[Islam]] or pay the [[Jizyah]] prior to engaging in offensive [[Jihad]] derives from {{Quran|9|29}}, and according to tradition, it was first initiated by the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. His [[Sunnah|example]] was then followed by the Rashidun [[Caliph]]s and leaders of Islamic empires and codified within the Islamic [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]]<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik (o9.0-8)] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>, which is today implemented by various Islamist leaders and militant terrorist organizations.

A number of letters inviting other nations into Islam were purportedly authored by Muhammad before these nations succumbed to Islamic conquest. They are recorded in various literary sources. Purported manuscripts of original letters sent by Muhammad are known to be forgeries.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 Twitter thread] by Dr Marijn van Putten. Twitter.com 8 April 2019 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20191108000922/https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 archive])</ref>

[[File:Muhammad-Letter-To-Heraclius.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Letter sent by Prophet [[Muhammad]] to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium.<ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India). ISBN 81-85738-25-4</ref>]]
==Historical==
===The Ishmaelites to Heraclius===
Drawing from what he claims is a Palestinian source, seventh-century Armenian historian Pseudo-Sebeos mentions a letter sent from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius. The text of the letter as he records it is given below.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>
{{Quote|Letter from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius - Pseudo-Sebeos, 660s CE<ref>Translation by R. W. Thomas cited in Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' p. 196</ref>|God gave that land to our father Abraham as a hereditary possession and to his seed after him. We are the sons of Abraham. You have occupied our lands long enough. Abandon it peacefully and we shall not come into your territory. Otherwise, we shall demand that possession from you with interest.}}
===Muhammad===
====Letter to Heraclius (هرقل), the Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople====

{{Quote||In the name of Allah, the most Beneficent, the most Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad, the slave of Allah, and His Apostle, to Heraculius, the Ruler of the Byzantine. Peace be upon the followers of guidance. Now then, I invite you to Islam (i.e. surrender to Allah), '''embrace Islam and you will be safe''' (أسلم تسلم, ''aslim taslam''); embrace Islam and Allah will bestow on you a double reward. But if you reject this invitation of Islam, you shall be responsible for misguiding the peasants (i.e. your nation). O people of the Scriptures! Come to a word common to you and us and you, that we worship. None but Allah, and that we associate nothing in worship with Him; and that none of us shall take others as Lords besides Allah. Then if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are (they who have surrendered (unto Him)..(3.64)<ref>M. Muhsin Khan (Translator) - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/052-sbt.php#004.052.191|2=2011-10-30}} Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Book 52, Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihaad), Number 191] - USC-MSA, [[Compendium of Muslim Texts]]</ref>}}

Professor Sean Anthony suggests that the Heraclius letter served as a model that expanded the prophetic letter topos to include other rulers. The purported letter to Heraclius itself is narrated by al-Zuhri and includes a word distinctive of Christian Palestinian Aramaic. Anthony suggests that al-Zuhri's source text did not include the orginal letter, if it ever existed. A source external to the Islamic tradition, the Armenian historian Pseudo-Sebeos in the 660s CE mentions a letter sent from "the Ismaelites" to Heraclius.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>

====Letter to the Christians of Aylah (أيلة)====

After hearing rumors that the Romans had gathered at the border of the Byzantine Empire and northern Arabia, Muhammad led his army to engage them in battle. However, upon reaching Tabuk, the rumors proved false. He then sent a detachment to the Christians and Jews east of Tabuk with a letter.

{{Quote||''To John ibn Rubah (يوحنا بن روبة) and the Chiefs of Aylah''. Peace be on you! I praise God for you, beside whom there is no Lord. I will not fight against you until I have written thus unto you. Believe, or else pay tribute. And be obedient unto the Lord and his Prophet, and unto the messengers of his Prophet. Honour them and clothe them with excellent vestments, not with inferior raiment. Specially clothe Zeid with excellent garments. As long as my messengers are pleased, so likewise am I. Ye know the tribute. If ye desire to have security by sea and by land, obey the Lord and his Apostle, and he will defend you from every demand, whether by Arab or foreigner, saving the demand of the Lord and his Apostle. But if ye oppose and displease them, I will not accept from you a single thing, until I have fought against you and taken captive your little ones and slain the elder; for I am the Apostle of the Lord in truth. Believe in the Lord and in his Prophets. And believe in the Messiah son of Mary; verily he is the Word of God: I believe in him that he was a messenger of God. Come then, before trouble reach you. I commend my messengers to you. Give to Harmala three measures of barley; and indeed Harmala hath interceded for you. As for me, if it were not for the Lord and for this (intercession of Harmala), I would not have sent any message at all unto you, until ye had seen the army. But now, if ye obey my messengers, God will be your protector, and Mahomet, and whosoever belongeth unto him. Now my messengers are Sharahbil, &c. Unto you is the guarantee of God and of Mahomet his Apostle, and peace be unto you if ye submit. And convey the people of Macna back to their land.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=-jxbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The life of Mahomet'']. (p. 456). London: Smith, Elder & Co</ref>}}

====Letter to Negus, King of Abyssinia====

{{Quote||This letter is sent from Muhammad, the Prophet to Negus Al-Ashama, the king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Peace be upon him who follows true guidance and believes in Allâh and His Messenger. I bear witness that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, He has taken neither a wife nor a son, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I call you unto the fold of Islam; if you embrace Islam, you will find safety,

"Say (O Muhammad ): ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [The Noble Qur'an 3:64]

Should you reject this invitation, then you will be held responsible for all the evils of the Christians of your people.<ref name="The sealed nectar">{{citation|title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA412&dq=The+letters+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad+to+the+kings+beyond+arabia&hl=en&ei=CsrTTuLOH9Co8AOOsoHiDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=The%20letters%20of%20the%20Prophet%20Muhammad%20to%20the%20kings%20beyond%20arabia&f=false | first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=9960899551}}, pp. 412-426</ref>}}

====Letter to Muqawqas (المقوقس), the Vicegerent of Egypt====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad slave of Allâh and His Messenger to Muqawqas, vicegerent of Egypt.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Thereafter, I invite you to accept Islam. Therefore, '''if you want security, accept Islam''' (أسلم تسلم,''aslim taslam''). If you accept Islam, Allâh, the Sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts.

"Say (O Muhammad : ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [Al-Qur'an 3:64]<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Chosroes (كسرى), Emperor of Persia====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allâh to Chosroes, king of Persia.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in Allâh and His Messenger and testifies that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I invite you to accept the religion of Allâh. I am the Messenger of Allâh sent to all people in order that I may infuse fear of Allâh in every living person, and that the charge may be proved against those who reject the Truth. '''Accept Islam as your religion so that you may live in security''' (فأسلم تسلم, ''fa aslim taslam''), otherwise, you will be responsible for all the sins of the Magians.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Haudha bin ‘Ali, Governor of Yamama====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Haudha bin ‘Ali.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere. You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to to Harith bin Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Al-Harith bin Abi Shamir.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in it and regards it as true. I invite you to believe in Allâh Alone with no associate, thenceafter your kingdom will remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to the King of ‘Oman, Jaifer, and his brother ‘Abd Al-Jalandi====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah to Jaifer and ‘Abd Al-Jalandi.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance; thereafter I invite both of you to the Call of Islam. Embrace Islam. Allâh has sent me as a Prophet to all His creatures in order that I may instil fear of Allâh in the hearts of His disobedient creatures so that there may be left no excuse for those who deny Allâh. If you two accept Islam, you will remain in command of your country; but if you refuse my Call, you’ve got to remember that all your possessions are perishable. My horsemen will appropriate your land, and my Prophethood will assume preponderance over your kingship.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

===Caliphs===

====Caliph Abu Bakr As-Siddiq to Khosru, the Persian Commander====

In 636 AD, at the Battle of Qadisiyya, Muslim commander Khalid ibn Al-Walid sent an emissary with a message from Caliph Abu Bakr to the Persian commander, Khosru.

{{Quote||Submit to Islam and be safe. Or agree to the payment of the Jizya, and you and your people will be under our protection, else you will have only yourself to blame for the consequences, for I bring the men who desire death as ardently as you desire life.<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid Tabari and History of the World], Volume IV Book XII. The Mohammedan Ascendency, page 463, by John Clark Ridpath, LL.D. 1910.</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab's letter to Yazdgird III, the King of Persia====

The following correspondence between Sassanian Yazdgird III (632 AD - 651 AD) and Umar Ibn Al-Khatab Khalifat Al-Muslemin took place after the battle of Ghadesiyeh. The original copy of this letter from Yazdgird III is housed in the British museum of London.

'''From: Umar Ibn Al Khatab Khalifat Al Muslemin''' '''To: Yazdgird III Shahanshah of Persian Empire'''

{{Quote||Yazdgird, I see not a fruitful future for you and your nation unless you accept my offer and commit Bei'at (Joining with Khalifat and bringing Islam). Once upon a time your land ruled half the known world but what has it come down to now? Your troops are defeated in all fronts and your nation is bound to collapse. I offer you a way to rescue yourself. Start praying to a mono God, a single union God, the only God who created everything in the universe.

We bring you and the world his message, he who is the true God. Stop your Fire Worship, command your nation to stop their Fire Worship which is false; join us by joining the truth. Worship Allah the only true God, The creator of universe. Worship to Allah and accept Islam as your salvation. End your Pagan ways and your false worships now and bring Islam so you can accept Allah as your savior. By doing so, you will find the only way to your survival and peace for Persians. If you know what is best for Ajam (Arabic term for Persians meaning Retarded & Weird), you will choose this path. Bei'at is the only way.

Allah O Akbar Sign, Khalifat Al Muslemin ''Omar Ibn Al Khatab''<ref name="Iran Heritage"></ref>}}

'''From: Shahanshah of Persian Empire, Yazdgird III Sassanid''' '''To: Umar Ibn Al Khatab, Khalifat of Tazi (Persian term for Arabs)'''

{{Quote||In the name of Ahura Mazda, creator of Life and Intelligence you in your letter wrote that you want to direct us towards your God, Allah, without having the true knowledge of who we are and what do we worship! It is amazing that you occupy the position of Khalifat (Ruler) of Arabs, yet your knowledge is the same as a lowly Arab rambler, roaming in deserts of Arabia and same as a desert tribal man (mardak) you offer me to worship a united and single God without knowing that it has been thousands of years that Persians worship the mono God and they pray to him Five Times a day! In this land of culture and art this has been the normal path of life for years. When we established the tradition of hospitality and good deeds in the world and we waved the flag of "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds" in our hands, you and your ancestors were roaming the deserts, eating Lizards for you had nothing else to feed yourselves and burying your innocent daughters alive (an old Arab tradition because they preferred male children to female). Tazi people have no value for God's creatures! You behead God's children, even the POWs (Prisoners of War), Rape Women, bury your daughters alive, attack the Caravans, mass murder, kidnap people's wives and steal their property! Your hearts are made of stone; we condemn all these Evil which you do. How can you teach us Godly Ways when you commit these actions? You tell me to stop my Fire Worship! Us, Persians see the Love of Creator and power of inventor in the light of Sun and warmth of Fire. Lights and Warmth of the Sun and Fire makes us see the light of truth and warms our hearts to the creator and to one another. It helps us to be kind to one another; it enlightens us and makes us to keep Mazda's Flame, alive in our hearts. Our lord is Ahura Mazda and it is strange that you people also, just discovered him and named him Allah.

But we are not the same as you; we are not in the same level as you. We help other human being, we spread love among humanity, we spread Good throughout the Earth, we have been spreading our culture but in respect for other cultures throughout the whole world for thousands of years, yet you in the name of Allah invade other men's land! You mass murder the people, create famine, fear and poverty for others, you create Evil in the name of Allah. Who is responsible for this entire catastrophe? Is it Allah who commands you to murder, pillage and to destroy? Is it you the followers of Allah who do this in his name? Or is it both? You have risen from heat of the deserts and burnt out infertile lands with no resources, you want to teach people the love of God by your military campaigns and the power of your Swords! You are Desert Savages, yet you want to teach Urban people like us who lived in the cities for thousands of years, the love of God! We have thousands of years of culture behind us, a powerful tool indeed!

Tell us? With all your military campaigns, barbarianism, murder and pillage in the name of Allah, what have you taught to this Muslim Army? What knowledge have you taught the Muslim that you also insist on teaching it to non Muslim? What culture have you learned from our Allah, now that you want to force-teach it to others? Alas, ...... that today our Persian Armies of Ahura have been defeated from your recently Allah Worshiping Armies; Now, our people have to worship the same God, the same Five times a day, but forced by the sword to call him Allah and pray to him in Arabic because your Allah only understands Arabic I suggest, you and your gang of bandits pack up and move back to your deserts where they are used to live. Take them back where they used to the burning heat of the sun, tribal life, eating Lizards and drinking Camel Milk. I forbid you to let your band of thieves loose in our fertile lands, civilized cities and our glorious nation. Don't turn these "beasts with hearts of stone" loose, to mass murder our people, kidnap our women and children, rape our wives and send our daughters to Mecca as slaves! Don't let them do these crimes in the name of Allah put a stop to your criminal behavior. Aryans are forgiving, warm, hospitable, and decent people and everywhere they went, they have spread seeds of friendship, love, knowledge and truth; therefore, they shall not punish you and your people for your pirate ways and criminal acts. I beg you to remain with your Allah in your deserts and do not move close to our civilized cities, for your believers are "Much Fearful" and your behavior is "Most Barbaric."

 Sign,
''Yazdgird III Sassanid''<ref name="Iran Heritage">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iran-heritage.org/interestgroups/islam-article4.htm|2=2011-10-29}} Yazgird III and Omar Al Muslemin letters] - Iran Heritage, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab during the conquest of Al-Basrah====

{{Quote||Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.<ref>Al-Tabari, ''The History of al-Tabari (Ta'rikh al rusul wa'l-muluk)'', vol. 12: ''The Battle of Qadissiyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine,'' trans. Yohanan Friedman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 167.</ref>}}

===Miscellaneous===
====Letter of the Zaporozhian Cossacks of Ukraine replying to the Sultan of Turkey====

This letter was written in the 1660s in response to a letter from Sultan Mohammed IV of the Turkish Empire, demanding the Cossacks of Ukraine voluntarily accept Turkish rule.

{{Quote||Thou Turkish Devil!

Brother and companion to the accursed Devil, and Secretary to Lucifer himself, Greetings!

What the hell kind of noble knight art thou? Satan voids and thy army devours. Never wilt thou be fit to have the sons of Christ under thee. Thy army we fear not, and by land and by sea in our chaikas we will do battle against thee.

Thou scullion of Babylon, thou beer-brewer of Jerusalem, thou goat-thief of Alexandria, thou swineherd of Egypt (both the Greater and the Lesser), thou Armenian pig and Tartar goat. Thou hangman of Kamyanets, thou evildoer of Podolia, thou great silly oaf of all the world and of the netherworld and, before our God, a blockhead, a swine's snout, a mare's ass, and clown of Hades. May the devil take thee!

That is what the Cossacks have to say to thee, thou basest born of runts! Unfit art thou to lord it over true Christians!

The date we know not, for no calender have we got. The moon (month) is in the sky, the year is in a book, and the day is the same with us here as with ye over there - and thou can kiss us thou knowest where!

''Koshoviy Otaman Ivan Sirko''
''and all the Zaparozhian Cossack Brotherhood''<ref>Andrew Gregorovich - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.infoukes.com/history/cossack_letter/|2=2011-10-29}} The Cossack Letter "The Most Defiant Letter!"] - InfoUkes Inc, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

==Modern==

===Muslim leaders===

====Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to the President of the United States====

On May 9, 2006, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sent an 18-page letter to U.S. President Bush via the Swiss embassy in Tehran.

{{Quote||All prophets, speak of peace and tranquility for man -- based on monotheism, justice and respect for human dignity.

Do you not think that if all of us come to believe in and abide by these principles, that is, monotheism, worship of God, justice, respect for the dignity of man, belief in the Last Day, we can overcome the present problems of the world -- that are the result of disobedience to the Almighty and the teachings of prophets – and improve our performance?
Do you not think that belief in these principles promotes and guarantees peace, friendship and justice?

Do you not think that the aforementioned written or unwritten principles are universally respected?

Will you not accept this invitation? That is, a genuine return to the teachings of prophets, to monotheism and justice, to preserve human dignity and obedience to the Almighty and His prophets?

Mr. President,
History tells us that repressive and cruel governments do not survive. God has entrusted the fate of men to them. The Almighty has not left the universe and humanity to their own devices. . . . 
The people of many countries are angry about the attacks on their cultural foundations and the disintegration of families. They are equally dismayed with the fading of care and compassion. The people of the world have no faith in international organizations, because their rights are not advocated by these organizations.

Liberalism and Western style democracy have not been able to help realize the ideals of humanity. Today these two concepts have failed. Those with insight can already hear the sounds of the shattering and fall of the ideology and thoughts of the Liberal democratic systems.

We increasingly see that people around the world are flocking towards a main focal point -- that is the Almighty God. Undoubtedly through faith in God and the teachings of the prophets, the people will conquer their problems. My question for you is: “Do you not want to join them?”

Mr. President,
Whether we like it or not, the world is gravitating towards faith in the
Almighty and justice and the will of God will prevail over all things.

'''Vasalam Ala Man Ataba’al hoda Mahmood Ahmadi-Nejad President of the Islamic Republic of Iran'''<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Perspectives_1/Text_of_Iranian_President_Ahmadinejad_s_letter_to__2607.shtml|2=2013-05-08}} Text of Iranian President Ahmadinejad's letter to President George W. Bush] - IRNA, May 9, 2006</ref>}}

===Al-Qaeda===

====Adam Yahiye Gadahn shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11====

Adam Yahiye Gadahn, a senior operative, cultural interpreter, spokesman, and media advisor for Al-Qaeda, published a video titled "Invitation to Islam" on September 2, 2006, shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11.

{{Quote||Islam is the only religion acceptable to God and came with the revealed book, the Koran, which abrogates all previous revelations, like the Torah and Evangel… God recognizes no separation between religion and state . . . 
To Americans and the rest of Christendom we say, either repent (your) misguided ways and enter into the light of truth or keep your poison to yourself and suffer the consequences in this world and the next . . . 
If the Zionist crusader missionaries of hate and counter-Islam consultants like Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, Michael Scheuer, Steven Emerson, and yes, even the crusader-in-chief George W. Bush were to abandon their unbelief and repent and enter into the light of Islam and turn their swords against the enemies of God, it would be accepted of them and they would be our brothers in Islam. And we send a special invitation to all of you fighting Bush’s crusader pipe dream in Afghanistan, Iraq, and wherever else W. has sent you to die.<ref>Links to the full video appear to be dead, however, a partial transcript has been recorded in a blog post made by Michelle Malkin, named "[{{Reference archive|1=http://michellemalkin.com/2006/09/02/convert-or-die/|2=2013-05-08}} Convert or die]" (dated September 2, 2006).</ref>}}

====Osama Bin Laden's "letter to America"====

Bin Laden's "letter to America" first appeared in Arabic on a Saudi Arabian website and has since been translated and posted on Islamic websites registered to UK domains.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/alqaida.terrorism| title = Osama issues new call to arms| publisher = The Observer| author = Jason Burke| date = November 24, 2002| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Falqaida.terrorism&date=2013-08-08| deadurl = no}}</ref>

{{Quote||What are we calling you to, and what do we want from you?

1) The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam.

a) The religion of the Unification of God; of freedom from associating partners with Him, and rejection of this; of complete love of Him, the Exalted; of complete submission to His Laws; and of the discarding of all the opinions, orders, theories and religions which contradict with the religion He sent down to His Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Islam is the religion of all the prophets, and makes no distinction between them - peace be upon them all.
It is to this religion that we call you; the seal of all the previous religions. It is the religion of Unification of God, sincerity, the best of manners, righteousness, mercy, honour, purity, and piety. It is the religion of showing kindness to others, establishing justice between them, granting them their rights, and defending the oppressed and the persecuted. It is the religion of enjoining the good and forbidding the evil with the hand, tongue and heart. It is the religion of Jihad in the way of Allah so that Allah's Word and religion reign Supreme. And it is the religion of unity and agreement on the obedience to Allah, and total equality between all people, without regarding their colour, sex, or language.

b) It is the religion whose book - the Quran - will remained preserved and unchanged, after the other Divine books and messages have been changed. The Quran is the miracle until the Day of Judgement. Allah has challenged anyone to bring a book like the Quran or even ten verses like it.

2) The second thing we call you to, is to stop your oppression, lies, immorality and debauchery that has spread among you.

a) We call you to be a people of manners, principles, honour, and purity; to reject the immoral acts of fornication, homosexuality, intoxicants, gamblings, and trading with interest.
We call you to all of this that you may be freed from that which you have become caught up in; that you may be freed from the deceptive lies that you are a great nation, that your leaders spread amongst you to conceal from you the despicable state to which you have reached.

b) It is saddening to tell you that you are the worst civilization witnessed by the history of mankind:

i) You are the nation who, rather than ruling by the Shariah of Allah in its Constitution and Laws, choose to invent your own laws as you will and desire. You separate religion from your policies, contradicting the pure nature which affirms Absolute Authority to the Lord and your Creator. You flee from the embarrassing question posed to you: How is it possible for Allah the Almighty to create His creation, grant them power over all the creatures and land, grant them all the amenities of life, and then deny them that which they are most in need of: knowledge of the laws which govern their lives? . . . 
If you fail to respond to all these conditions, then prepare for fight with the Islamic Nation. The Nation of Monotheism, that puts complete trust on Allah and fears none other than Him. The Nation which is addressed by its Quran with the words: Do you fear them? Allah has more right that you should fear Him if you are believers. Fight against them so that Allah will punish them by your hands and disgrace them and give you victory over them and heal the breasts of believing people. And remove the anger of their hearts. Allah accepts the repentance of whom He wills. Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. Quran 9:13-1 . . . 
If the Americans refuse to listen to our advice and the goodness, guidance and righteousness that we call them to, then be aware that you will lose this Crusade Bush began, just like the other previous Crusades in which you were humiliated by the hands of the Mujahideen, fleeing to your home in great silence and disgrace. If the Americans do not respond, then their fate will be that of the Soviets who fled from Afghanistan to deal with their military defeat, political breakup, ideological downfall, and economic bankruptcy.
This is our message to the Americans, as an answer to theirs. Do they now know why we fight them and over which form of ignorance, by the permission of Allah, we shall be victorious?<ref name="letter to America">{{cite web|url= http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver?li=1|title= Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'|publisher= Observer Worldview Extra|author= |date= November 24, 2002|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Ftheobserver%3Fli%3D1&date=2013-08-08|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

===Boko Haram===

====Abubakar Shekau's address to the President of Nigeria====

Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the terrorist organization Boko Haram, published a video in August 2012 urging Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria’s Christian president, to convert to Islam.

{{Quote||You [Goodluck Jonathan] should abandon this ungodly power, you should repent and forsake Christianity... You [Barack Obama] said I'm a global terrorist, then you are a terrorist in the next world.<ref>Aminu Abubakar - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5huLV0A2MdfKlbsb8aGgxmOv-eOiQ?docId=CNG.d3ffcd8da382f4117ce248b079227866.51|2=2013-05-09}} Nigerian leader slams sect leader's call on him to resign] - AFP, August 6, 2012</ref>}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pureislam.co.za%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D17&date=2011-04-24 The letters of the Prophet Muhammad (PDF)]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[bg:Покани за приемане на исляма, които предхождат насилието]]
[[ru:Переписка_с_предводителями_исламского_джихада]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]

Invitation to Islam Prior to Jihad

2025-12-07T23:16:44Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=4|Content=4|Language=2|References=4}}
The practice of inviting non-Muslim nations to join [[Islam]] or pay the [[Jizyah]] prior to engaging in offensive [[Jihad]] derives from {{Quran|9|29}}, and according to tradition, it was first initiated by the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. His [[Sunnah|example]] was then followed by the Rashidun [[Caliph]]s and leaders of Islamic empires and codified within the Islamic [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]]<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik (o9.0-8)] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>, which is today implemented by various Islamist leaders and militant terrorist organizations.

A number of letters inviting other nations into Islam were purportedly authored by Muhammad before these nations succumbed to Islamic conquest. They are recorded in various literary sources. Purported manuscripts of original letters sent by Muhammad are known to be forgeries.<ref>See this [https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 Twitter thread] by Dr Marijn van Putten. Twitter.com 8 April 2019 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20191108000922/https://twitter.com/PhDniX/status/1115340718711635970 archive])</ref>

[[File:Muhammad-Letter-To-Heraclius.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Letter sent by Prophet [[Muhammad]] to Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium.<ref>Khan, Dr. Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India). ISBN 81-85738-25-4</ref>]]
==Historical==
===The Ishmaelites to Heraclius===
Drawing from what he claims is a Palestinian source, seventh-century Armenian historian Pseudo-Sebeos mentions a letter sent from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius. The text of the letter as he records it is given below.<ref name="Anthony">Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The making of the Prophet of Islam'', Oakland CA: University of California, 2020, pp. 194-6</ref>
{{Quote|Letter from the Ishmaelites to Heraclius - Pseudo-Sebeos, 660s CE<ref>Translation by R. W. Thomas cited in Sean Anthony, ''Muhammad and the Empires of Faith'' p. 196</ref>|God gave that land to our father Abraham as a hereditary possession and to his seed after him. We are the sons of Abraham. You have occupied our lands long enough. Abandon it peacefully and we shall not come into your territory. Otherwise, we shall demand that possession from you with interest.}}
===Muhammad===
====Letter to Heraclius (هرقل), the Eastern Roman Emperor in Constantinople====

{{Quote||In the name of Allah, the most Beneficent, the most Merciful (This letter is) from Muhammad, the slave of Allah, and His Apostle, to Heraculius, the Ruler of the Byzantine. Peace be upon the followers of guidance. Now then, I invite you to Islam (i.e. surrender to Allah), '''embrace Islam and you will be safe''' (أسلم تسلم, ''aslim taslam''); embrace Islam and Allah will bestow on you a double reward. But if you reject this invitation of Islam, you shall be responsible for misguiding the peasants (i.e. your nation). O people of the Scriptures! Come to a word common to you and us and you, that we worship. None but Allah, and that we associate nothing in worship with Him; and that none of us shall take others as Lords besides Allah. Then if they turn away, say: Bear witness that we are (they who have surrendered (unto Him)..(3.64)<ref>M. Muhsin Khan (Translator) - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/052-sbt.php#004.052.191|2=2011-10-30}} Sahih Bukhari Volume 4, Book 52, Fighting for the Cause of Allah (Jihaad), Number 191] - USC-MSA, [[Compendium of Muslim Texts]]</ref>}}

====Letter to the Christians of Aylah (أيلة)====

After hearing rumors that the Romans had gathered at the border of the Byzantine Empire and northern Arabia, Muhammad led his army to engage them in battle. However, upon reaching Tabuk, the rumors proved false. He then sent a detachment to the Christians and Jews east of Tabuk with a letter.

{{Quote||''To John ibn Rubah (يوحنا بن روبة) and the Chiefs of Aylah''. Peace be on you! I praise God for you, beside whom there is no Lord. I will not fight against you until I have written thus unto you. Believe, or else pay tribute. And be obedient unto the Lord and his Prophet, and unto the messengers of his Prophet. Honour them and clothe them with excellent vestments, not with inferior raiment. Specially clothe Zeid with excellent garments. As long as my messengers are pleased, so likewise am I. Ye know the tribute. If ye desire to have security by sea and by land, obey the Lord and his Apostle, and he will defend you from every demand, whether by Arab or foreigner, saving the demand of the Lord and his Apostle. But if ye oppose and displease them, I will not accept from you a single thing, until I have fought against you and taken captive your little ones and slain the elder; for I am the Apostle of the Lord in truth. Believe in the Lord and in his Prophets. And believe in the Messiah son of Mary; verily he is the Word of God: I believe in him that he was a messenger of God. Come then, before trouble reach you. I commend my messengers to you. Give to Harmala three measures of barley; and indeed Harmala hath interceded for you. As for me, if it were not for the Lord and for this (intercession of Harmala), I would not have sent any message at all unto you, until ye had seen the army. But now, if ye obey my messengers, God will be your protector, and Mahomet, and whosoever belongeth unto him. Now my messengers are Sharahbil, &c. Unto you is the guarantee of God and of Mahomet his Apostle, and peace be unto you if ye submit. And convey the people of Macna back to their land.<ref>Muir, Sir William. (1878). [http://books.google.com/books?id=-jxbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''The life of Mahomet'']. (p. 456). London: Smith, Elder & Co</ref>}}

====Letter to Negus, King of Abyssinia====

{{Quote||This letter is sent from Muhammad, the Prophet to Negus Al-Ashama, the king of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Peace be upon him who follows true guidance and believes in Allâh and His Messenger. I bear witness that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, He has taken neither a wife nor a son, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I call you unto the fold of Islam; if you embrace Islam, you will find safety,

"Say (O Muhammad ): ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [The Noble Qur'an 3:64]

Should you reject this invitation, then you will be held responsible for all the evils of the Christians of your people.<ref name="The sealed nectar">{{citation|title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA412&dq=The+letters+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad+to+the+kings+beyond+arabia&hl=en&ei=CsrTTuLOH9Co8AOOsoHiDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=The%20letters%20of%20the%20Prophet%20Muhammad%20to%20the%20kings%20beyond%20arabia&f=false | first=Saifur Rahman Al|last=Mubarakpuri|year=2005|publisher=Darussalam Publications|isbn=9960899551}}, pp. 412-426</ref>}}

====Letter to Muqawqas (المقوقس), the Vicegerent of Egypt====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad slave of Allâh and His Messenger to Muqawqas, vicegerent of Egypt.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Thereafter, I invite you to accept Islam. Therefore, '''if you want security, accept Islam''' (أسلم تسلم,''aslim taslam''). If you accept Islam, Allâh, the Sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you will bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts.

"Say (O Muhammad : ‘O people of the Scripture (Jews and Christians), come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allâh, and that we associate no partners with Him, and that none of us shall take others as lords besides Allâh.’ Then, if they turn away, say: ‘Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ " [Al-Qur'an 3:64]<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Chosroes (كسرى), Emperor of Persia====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allâh to Chosroes, king of Persia.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in Allâh and His Messenger and testifies that there is no god but Allâh Alone with no associate, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger. I invite you to accept the religion of Allâh. I am the Messenger of Allâh sent to all people in order that I may infuse fear of Allâh in every living person, and that the charge may be proved against those who reject the Truth. '''Accept Islam as your religion so that you may live in security''' (فأسلم تسلم, ''fa aslim taslam''), otherwise, you will be responsible for all the sins of the Magians.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to Haudha bin ‘Ali, Governor of Yamama====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Haudha bin ‘Ali.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance. Be informed that my religion shall prevail everywhere. You should accept Islam, and whatever under your command shall remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to to Harith bin Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad, Messenger of Allâh to Al-Harith bin Abi Shamir.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance, believes in it and regards it as true. I invite you to believe in Allâh Alone with no associate, thenceafter your kingdom will remain yours.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

====Letter to the King of ‘Oman, Jaifer, and his brother ‘Abd Al-Jalandi====

{{Quote||In the Name of Allâh, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful.

From Muhammad bin ‘Abdullah to Jaifer and ‘Abd Al-Jalandi.

Peace be upon him who follows true guidance; thereafter I invite both of you to the Call of Islam. Embrace Islam. Allâh has sent me as a Prophet to all His creatures in order that I may instil fear of Allâh in the hearts of His disobedient creatures so that there may be left no excuse for those who deny Allâh. If you two accept Islam, you will remain in command of your country; but if you refuse my Call, you’ve got to remember that all your possessions are perishable. My horsemen will appropriate your land, and my Prophethood will assume preponderance over your kingship.<ref name="The sealed nectar"></ref>}}

===Caliphs===

====Caliph Abu Bakr As-Siddiq to Khosru, the Persian Commander====

In 636 AD, at the Battle of Qadisiyya, Muslim commander Khalid ibn Al-Walid sent an emissary with a message from Caliph Abu Bakr to the Persian commander, Khosru.

{{Quote||Submit to Islam and be safe. Or agree to the payment of the Jizya, and you and your people will be under our protection, else you will have only yourself to blame for the consequences, for I bring the men who desire death as ardently as you desire life.<ref>[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid Tabari and History of the World], Volume IV Book XII. The Mohammedan Ascendency, page 463, by John Clark Ridpath, LL.D. 1910.</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab's letter to Yazdgird III, the King of Persia====

The following correspondence between Sassanian Yazdgird III (632 AD - 651 AD) and Umar Ibn Al-Khatab Khalifat Al-Muslemin took place after the battle of Ghadesiyeh. The original copy of this letter from Yazdgird III is housed in the British museum of London.

'''From: Umar Ibn Al Khatab Khalifat Al Muslemin''' '''To: Yazdgird III Shahanshah of Persian Empire'''

{{Quote||Yazdgird, I see not a fruitful future for you and your nation unless you accept my offer and commit Bei'at (Joining with Khalifat and bringing Islam). Once upon a time your land ruled half the known world but what has it come down to now? Your troops are defeated in all fronts and your nation is bound to collapse. I offer you a way to rescue yourself. Start praying to a mono God, a single union God, the only God who created everything in the universe.

We bring you and the world his message, he who is the true God. Stop your Fire Worship, command your nation to stop their Fire Worship which is false; join us by joining the truth. Worship Allah the only true God, The creator of universe. Worship to Allah and accept Islam as your salvation. End your Pagan ways and your false worships now and bring Islam so you can accept Allah as your savior. By doing so, you will find the only way to your survival and peace for Persians. If you know what is best for Ajam (Arabic term for Persians meaning Retarded & Weird), you will choose this path. Bei'at is the only way.

Allah O Akbar Sign, Khalifat Al Muslemin ''Omar Ibn Al Khatab''<ref name="Iran Heritage"></ref>}}

'''From: Shahanshah of Persian Empire, Yazdgird III Sassanid''' '''To: Umar Ibn Al Khatab, Khalifat of Tazi (Persian term for Arabs)'''

{{Quote||In the name of Ahura Mazda, creator of Life and Intelligence you in your letter wrote that you want to direct us towards your God, Allah, without having the true knowledge of who we are and what do we worship! It is amazing that you occupy the position of Khalifat (Ruler) of Arabs, yet your knowledge is the same as a lowly Arab rambler, roaming in deserts of Arabia and same as a desert tribal man (mardak) you offer me to worship a united and single God without knowing that it has been thousands of years that Persians worship the mono God and they pray to him Five Times a day! In this land of culture and art this has been the normal path of life for years. When we established the tradition of hospitality and good deeds in the world and we waved the flag of "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds" in our hands, you and your ancestors were roaming the deserts, eating Lizards for you had nothing else to feed yourselves and burying your innocent daughters alive (an old Arab tradition because they preferred male children to female). Tazi people have no value for God's creatures! You behead God's children, even the POWs (Prisoners of War), Rape Women, bury your daughters alive, attack the Caravans, mass murder, kidnap people's wives and steal their property! Your hearts are made of stone; we condemn all these Evil which you do. How can you teach us Godly Ways when you commit these actions? You tell me to stop my Fire Worship! Us, Persians see the Love of Creator and power of inventor in the light of Sun and warmth of Fire. Lights and Warmth of the Sun and Fire makes us see the light of truth and warms our hearts to the creator and to one another. It helps us to be kind to one another; it enlightens us and makes us to keep Mazda's Flame, alive in our hearts. Our lord is Ahura Mazda and it is strange that you people also, just discovered him and named him Allah.

But we are not the same as you; we are not in the same level as you. We help other human being, we spread love among humanity, we spread Good throughout the Earth, we have been spreading our culture but in respect for other cultures throughout the whole world for thousands of years, yet you in the name of Allah invade other men's land! You mass murder the people, create famine, fear and poverty for others, you create Evil in the name of Allah. Who is responsible for this entire catastrophe? Is it Allah who commands you to murder, pillage and to destroy? Is it you the followers of Allah who do this in his name? Or is it both? You have risen from heat of the deserts and burnt out infertile lands with no resources, you want to teach people the love of God by your military campaigns and the power of your Swords! You are Desert Savages, yet you want to teach Urban people like us who lived in the cities for thousands of years, the love of God! We have thousands of years of culture behind us, a powerful tool indeed!

Tell us? With all your military campaigns, barbarianism, murder and pillage in the name of Allah, what have you taught to this Muslim Army? What knowledge have you taught the Muslim that you also insist on teaching it to non Muslim? What culture have you learned from our Allah, now that you want to force-teach it to others? Alas, ...... that today our Persian Armies of Ahura have been defeated from your recently Allah Worshiping Armies; Now, our people have to worship the same God, the same Five times a day, but forced by the sword to call him Allah and pray to him in Arabic because your Allah only understands Arabic I suggest, you and your gang of bandits pack up and move back to your deserts where they are used to live. Take them back where they used to the burning heat of the sun, tribal life, eating Lizards and drinking Camel Milk. I forbid you to let your band of thieves loose in our fertile lands, civilized cities and our glorious nation. Don't turn these "beasts with hearts of stone" loose, to mass murder our people, kidnap our women and children, rape our wives and send our daughters to Mecca as slaves! Don't let them do these crimes in the name of Allah put a stop to your criminal behavior. Aryans are forgiving, warm, hospitable, and decent people and everywhere they went, they have spread seeds of friendship, love, knowledge and truth; therefore, they shall not punish you and your people for your pirate ways and criminal acts. I beg you to remain with your Allah in your deserts and do not move close to our civilized cities, for your believers are "Much Fearful" and your behavior is "Most Barbaric."

 Sign,
''Yazdgird III Sassanid''<ref name="Iran Heritage">[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.iran-heritage.org/interestgroups/islam-article4.htm|2=2011-10-29}} Yazgird III and Omar Al Muslemin letters] - Iran Heritage, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

====Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab during the conquest of Al-Basrah====

{{Quote||Summon the people to God; those who respond to your call, accept it from them, but those who refuse must pay the poll tax out of humiliation and lowliness. If they refuse this, it is the sword without leniency. Fear God with regard to what you have been entrusted.<ref>Al-Tabari, ''The History of al-Tabari (Ta'rikh al rusul wa'l-muluk)'', vol. 12: ''The Battle of Qadissiyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine,'' trans. Yohanan Friedman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), p. 167.</ref>}}

===Miscellaneous===
====Letter of the Zaporozhian Cossacks of Ukraine replying to the Sultan of Turkey====

This letter was written in the 1660s in response to a letter from Sultan Mohammed IV of the Turkish Empire, demanding the Cossacks of Ukraine voluntarily accept Turkish rule.

{{Quote||Thou Turkish Devil!

Brother and companion to the accursed Devil, and Secretary to Lucifer himself, Greetings!

What the hell kind of noble knight art thou? Satan voids and thy army devours. Never wilt thou be fit to have the sons of Christ under thee. Thy army we fear not, and by land and by sea in our chaikas we will do battle against thee.

Thou scullion of Babylon, thou beer-brewer of Jerusalem, thou goat-thief of Alexandria, thou swineherd of Egypt (both the Greater and the Lesser), thou Armenian pig and Tartar goat. Thou hangman of Kamyanets, thou evildoer of Podolia, thou great silly oaf of all the world and of the netherworld and, before our God, a blockhead, a swine's snout, a mare's ass, and clown of Hades. May the devil take thee!

That is what the Cossacks have to say to thee, thou basest born of runts! Unfit art thou to lord it over true Christians!

The date we know not, for no calender have we got. The moon (month) is in the sky, the year is in a book, and the day is the same with us here as with ye over there - and thou can kiss us thou knowest where!

''Koshoviy Otaman Ivan Sirko''
''and all the Zaparozhian Cossack Brotherhood''<ref>Andrew Gregorovich - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.infoukes.com/history/cossack_letter/|2=2011-10-29}} The Cossack Letter "The Most Defiant Letter!"] - InfoUkes Inc, accessed October 29, 2011</ref>}}

==Modern==

===Muslim leaders===

====Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's letter to the President of the United States====

On May 9, 2006, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad sent an 18-page letter to U.S. President Bush via the Swiss embassy in Tehran.

{{Quote||All prophets, speak of peace and tranquility for man -- based on monotheism, justice and respect for human dignity.

Do you not think that if all of us come to believe in and abide by these principles, that is, monotheism, worship of God, justice, respect for the dignity of man, belief in the Last Day, we can overcome the present problems of the world -- that are the result of disobedience to the Almighty and the teachings of prophets – and improve our performance?
Do you not think that belief in these principles promotes and guarantees peace, friendship and justice?

Do you not think that the aforementioned written or unwritten principles are universally respected?

Will you not accept this invitation? That is, a genuine return to the teachings of prophets, to monotheism and justice, to preserve human dignity and obedience to the Almighty and His prophets?

Mr. President,
History tells us that repressive and cruel governments do not survive. God has entrusted the fate of men to them. The Almighty has not left the universe and humanity to their own devices. . . . 
The people of many countries are angry about the attacks on their cultural foundations and the disintegration of families. They are equally dismayed with the fading of care and compassion. The people of the world have no faith in international organizations, because their rights are not advocated by these organizations.

Liberalism and Western style democracy have not been able to help realize the ideals of humanity. Today these two concepts have failed. Those with insight can already hear the sounds of the shattering and fall of the ideology and thoughts of the Liberal democratic systems.

We increasingly see that people around the world are flocking towards a main focal point -- that is the Almighty God. Undoubtedly through faith in God and the teachings of the prophets, the people will conquer their problems. My question for you is: “Do you not want to join them?”

Mr. President,
Whether we like it or not, the world is gravitating towards faith in the
Almighty and justice and the will of God will prevail over all things.

'''Vasalam Ala Man Ataba’al hoda Mahmood Ahmadi-Nejad President of the Islamic Republic of Iran'''<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.finalcall.com/artman/publish/Perspectives_1/Text_of_Iranian_President_Ahmadinejad_s_letter_to__2607.shtml|2=2013-05-08}} Text of Iranian President Ahmadinejad's letter to President George W. Bush] - IRNA, May 9, 2006</ref>}}

===Al-Qaeda===

====Adam Yahiye Gadahn shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11====

Adam Yahiye Gadahn, a senior operative, cultural interpreter, spokesman, and media advisor for Al-Qaeda, published a video titled "Invitation to Islam" on September 2, 2006, shortly before the fifth anniversary of 9/11.

{{Quote||Islam is the only religion acceptable to God and came with the revealed book, the Koran, which abrogates all previous revelations, like the Torah and Evangel… God recognizes no separation between religion and state . . . 
To Americans and the rest of Christendom we say, either repent (your) misguided ways and enter into the light of truth or keep your poison to yourself and suffer the consequences in this world and the next . . . 
If the Zionist crusader missionaries of hate and counter-Islam consultants like Daniel Pipes, Robert Spencer, Michael Scheuer, Steven Emerson, and yes, even the crusader-in-chief George W. Bush were to abandon their unbelief and repent and enter into the light of Islam and turn their swords against the enemies of God, it would be accepted of them and they would be our brothers in Islam. And we send a special invitation to all of you fighting Bush’s crusader pipe dream in Afghanistan, Iraq, and wherever else W. has sent you to die.<ref>Links to the full video appear to be dead, however, a partial transcript has been recorded in a blog post made by Michelle Malkin, named "[{{Reference archive|1=http://michellemalkin.com/2006/09/02/convert-or-die/|2=2013-05-08}} Convert or die]" (dated September 2, 2006).</ref>}}

====Osama Bin Laden's "letter to America"====

Bin Laden's "letter to America" first appeared in Arabic on a Saudi Arabian website and has since been translated and posted on Islamic websites registered to UK domains.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/alqaida.terrorism| title = Osama issues new call to arms| publisher = The Observer| author = Jason Burke| date = November 24, 2002| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Falqaida.terrorism&date=2013-08-08| deadurl = no}}</ref>

{{Quote||What are we calling you to, and what do we want from you?

1) The first thing that we are calling you to is Islam.

a) The religion of the Unification of God; of freedom from associating partners with Him, and rejection of this; of complete love of Him, the Exalted; of complete submission to His Laws; and of the discarding of all the opinions, orders, theories and religions which contradict with the religion He sent down to His Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Islam is the religion of all the prophets, and makes no distinction between them - peace be upon them all.
It is to this religion that we call you; the seal of all the previous religions. It is the religion of Unification of God, sincerity, the best of manners, righteousness, mercy, honour, purity, and piety. It is the religion of showing kindness to others, establishing justice between them, granting them their rights, and defending the oppressed and the persecuted. It is the religion of enjoining the good and forbidding the evil with the hand, tongue and heart. It is the religion of Jihad in the way of Allah so that Allah's Word and religion reign Supreme. And it is the religion of unity and agreement on the obedience to Allah, and total equality between all people, without regarding their colour, sex, or language.

b) It is the religion whose book - the Quran - will remained preserved and unchanged, after the other Divine books and messages have been changed. The Quran is the miracle until the Day of Judgement. Allah has challenged anyone to bring a book like the Quran or even ten verses like it.

2) The second thing we call you to, is to stop your oppression, lies, immorality and debauchery that has spread among you.

a) We call you to be a people of manners, principles, honour, and purity; to reject the immoral acts of fornication, homosexuality, intoxicants, gamblings, and trading with interest.
We call you to all of this that you may be freed from that which you have become caught up in; that you may be freed from the deceptive lies that you are a great nation, that your leaders spread amongst you to conceal from you the despicable state to which you have reached.

b) It is saddening to tell you that you are the worst civilization witnessed by the history of mankind:

i) You are the nation who, rather than ruling by the Shariah of Allah in its Constitution and Laws, choose to invent your own laws as you will and desire. You separate religion from your policies, contradicting the pure nature which affirms Absolute Authority to the Lord and your Creator. You flee from the embarrassing question posed to you: How is it possible for Allah the Almighty to create His creation, grant them power over all the creatures and land, grant them all the amenities of life, and then deny them that which they are most in need of: knowledge of the laws which govern their lives? . . . 
If you fail to respond to all these conditions, then prepare for fight with the Islamic Nation. The Nation of Monotheism, that puts complete trust on Allah and fears none other than Him. The Nation which is addressed by its Quran with the words: Do you fear them? Allah has more right that you should fear Him if you are believers. Fight against them so that Allah will punish them by your hands and disgrace them and give you victory over them and heal the breasts of believing people. And remove the anger of their hearts. Allah accepts the repentance of whom He wills. Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise. Quran 9:13-1 . . . 
If the Americans refuse to listen to our advice and the goodness, guidance and righteousness that we call them to, then be aware that you will lose this Crusade Bush began, just like the other previous Crusades in which you were humiliated by the hands of the Mujahideen, fleeing to your home in great silence and disgrace. If the Americans do not respond, then their fate will be that of the Soviets who fled from Afghanistan to deal with their military defeat, political breakup, ideological downfall, and economic bankruptcy.
This is our message to the Americans, as an answer to theirs. Do they now know why we fight them and over which form of ignorance, by the permission of Allah, we shall be victorious?<ref name="letter to America">{{cite web|url= http://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/nov/24/theobserver?li=1|title= Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'|publisher= Observer Worldview Extra|author= |date= November 24, 2002|archiveurl= http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2002%2Fnov%2F24%2Ftheobserver%3Fli%3D1&date=2013-08-08|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}

===Boko Haram===

====Abubakar Shekau's address to the President of Nigeria====

Abubakar Shekau, the leader of the terrorist organization Boko Haram, published a video in August 2012 urging Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria’s Christian president, to convert to Islam.

{{Quote||You [Goodluck Jonathan] should abandon this ungodly power, you should repent and forsake Christianity... You [Barack Obama] said I'm a global terrorist, then you are a terrorist in the next world.<ref>Aminu Abubakar - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5huLV0A2MdfKlbsb8aGgxmOv-eOiQ?docId=CNG.d3ffcd8da382f4117ce248b079227866.51|2=2013-05-09}} Nigerian leader slams sect leader's call on him to resign] - AFP, August 6, 2012</ref>}}

==External Links==

*[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pureislam.co.za%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D17&date=2011-04-24 The letters of the Prophet Muhammad (PDF)]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Muhammad]]
[[bg:Покани за приемане на исляма, които предхождат насилието]]
[[ru:Переписка_с_предводителями_исламского_джихада]]
[[Category:Sacred history]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Islamic History]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Dawah]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]

Christians Jews and Muslims in Heaven

2025-12-07T22:57:52Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language and removed argumentative material

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=3|Content=4|Language=2|References=3}}
[[File:Quran 2-62.png|290px|right|thumb]]
This article analyzes the claim, commonplace among [[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadis]] in particular,<ref>For example, an article by an American Ahmadi named Dr. Faheem Younus, on his Huffington Post‎ blog, titled "[http://islamo-criticism.blogspot.com/2012/04/in-islam-heaven-is-not-exclusive-oh.html In Islam, Heaven Is Not Exclusive]".</ref> that [[People of the Book|Christians and Jews]] who adhere to their faiths will enter [[Heaven|Paradise]] alongside Muslims. The verse presented as evidence for the claim is considered alongside other verses discussing the fate of the [[People of the Book|people of the book]] in the Qur'an.
==Qur'an==

===Surah 2:62===

This verse is often cited as evidence that Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike will be accepted in Paradise.

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|62}}|Surely those who believe, and those who are Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last day and does good, they shall have their reward from their Lord, and there is no fear for them, nor shall they grieve.}}

===Others===
====Surah 5:69====

This is another less cited but similar verse:

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|69}}|Surely those who believe and those who are Jews and the Sabians and the Christians whoever believes in Allah and the last day and does good-- they shall have no fear nor shall they grieve.}}

==Analysis==

===Qur'an===

====Muhammad====

The [[Qur'an]] makes it an article of faith to believe in [[Allah]] and ''all the messengers'', which includes the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. According to the Qur'an, when Moses came with the [[Taurat]], it was necessary to follow him; likewise, when [[Jesus]] came with the [[Injil]], it was necessary to leave the laws of Moses and follow him. Finally, when Muhammad came with the Qur'an, it became necessary to abandon the teachings of Jesus and follow Islam.

{{Quote|{{Quran-range|2|4|5}}|And who believe in '''that which has been revealed to you and that which was revealed before you''' and they are sure of the hereafter. These are on a right course from their Lord and these it is that shall be successful.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|68}}|Say: O followers of the Book! you follow no good till you keep up the Taurat and the Injeel '''and that which is revealed to you from your Lord'''; and surely that which has been revealed to you from your Lord shall make many of them increase in inordinacy and unbelief; '''grieve not therefore for the unbelieving people'''.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|152}}|And those who believe in Allah '''and His messengers and do not make a distinction between any of them'''-- Allah will grant them their rewards; and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.}}

Several verses explicitly define "believers" as those who accept the prophethood of Muhammad. "Disbelievers" who do not are told they are in error and condemned to the "burning fire."

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|285}}|'''The messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord, and (so do) the believers'''; they all believe in Allah and His angels and His books '''and His messengers'''; We make no difference between any of His messengers; and they say: We hear and obey, our Lord! Thy forgiveness (do we crave), and to Thee is the eventual course.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|136}}|O you who believe! believe in Allah '''and His Messenger''' and the Book which He has revealed to His Messenger and the Book which He revealed before; and '''whoever disbelieves in Allah and His angels and His messengers''' and the last day, he indeed strays off into a remote error.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|48|13}}|And whoever does not believe in Allah '''and His Messenger''', then surely We have prepared '''burning fire for the unbelievers'''.}}

====Islam====

The Qur'an clearly states that any religion other than Islam will not be accepted by Allah in the Hereafter.

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|19}}|'''Surely the (true) religion with Allah is Islam''', and those to whom the Book had been given did not show opposition but after knowledge had come to them, out of envy among themselves; and whoever disbelieves in the communications of Allah then surely Allah is quick in reckoning.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|3|85}}|And whoever desires '''a religion other than Islam, it shall not be accepted from him''', and in the hereafter he shall be one of the losers.}}

The pluralistic interpretation of 2:62 would seem to contradict other verses in the Qur'an. Some have responded to this apparent contradiction by suggesting it is an instance of [[Abrogation]] (or Naskh).

===Commentaries===

The following analyses from Islamic scholars [[Tafsir]] and [[Fiqh]] explicate verse 2:62.

====Tafsir Ibn Abbas====

{{Quote|1=[http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=73&tSoraNo=2&tAyahNo=62&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Surah 2 Ayah 62] Tafsir Ibn 'Abbas, trans. Mokrane Guezzou, Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought|2=Then Allah went on to mention the believers among them, saying: (Lo! Those who believe) '''in Moses and all the other prophets''', these earn their reward from their Lord in Paradise; they shall have no fear perpetually and they shall perpetually not grieve. It is said that this means that no fear will come upon them concerning torment in the future life nor will they grieve about anything they have left behind. And it is also said that this means: they shall have no fear when death is slain and hell is closed. '''Then He mentioned those who did not believe in Moses or the other prophets, saying: (and those who are Jews) who deviated from the religion of Moses, (and Christians) those who became Christians''' (and Sabaeans) a Christian sect whose members shave the middle of their heads, read the Gospel, worship the angels and say: " our hearts have returned (saba'at) unto Allah " , (whoever believeth) from amongst them (in Allah and the Last Day and does right) in that which is between them and their Lord, (surely their reward is with their Lord, and there shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve).}}

====Tafsir Ibn Kathir====
{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qtafsir.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D372&date=2015-03-14 Faith and doing Righteous Deeds equals Salvation in all Times] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=After Allah described the condition - and punishment - of those who defy His commands, fall into His prohibitions and transgress set limits by committing prohibited acts, '''He stated that the earlier nations who were righteous and obedient received the rewards for their good deeds. This shall be the case, until the Day of Judgment. Therefore, whoever follows the unlettered Messenger and Prophet shall acquire eternal happiness''' and shall neither fear from what will happen in the future nor become sad for what has been lost in the past. Similarly, Allah said,

(No doubt! Verily, the Awliya' of Allah, no fear shall come upon them nor shall they grieve) (10:62).
The angels will proclaim to the dying believers, as mentioned,

(Verily, those who say: "Our Lord is Allah (alone)," and then they stand firm, on them the angels will descend (at the time of their death) (saying): "Fear not, nor grieve! But receive the glad tidings of Paradise which you have been promised!"). (41:30)}}

{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qtafsir.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D371&date=2015-03-14 The Meaning of Mu'min, or Believer] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=`Ali bin Abi Talhah narrated from Ibn `Abbas, about,
(Verily, those who believe and those who are Jews and Christians, and Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day) '''that Allah revealed the following Ayah afterwards,
(And whoever seeks religion other than Islam, it will never be accepted of him, and in the Hereafter he will be one of the losers) (3:85)'''.

'''This statement by Ibn `Abbas indicates that Allah does not accept any deed or work from anyone, unless it conforms to the Law of Muhammad that is, after Allah sent Muhammad . Before that, every person who followed the guidance of his own Prophet was on the correct path, following the correct guidance and was saved.'''

'''When Allah sent Muhammad as the Last and Final Prophet and Messenger to all of the Children of Adam, mankind was required to believe in him, obey him and refrain from what he prohibited them; those who do this are true believers'''. The Ummah of Muhammad was called `Mu'minin' (believers), because of the depth of their faith and certainty, and because they believe in all of the previous Prophets and matters of the Unseen.}}

====Tafsir Al-Jalalayn====
{{Quote|1=[http://altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=74&tSoraNo=2&tAyahNo=62&tDisplay=yes&UserProfile=0&LanguageId=2 Surah 2 Ayah 62] Tafsir al-Jalalayn, trans. Feras Hamza, Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought|2='''Surely those who believe, [who believed] before, in the prophets''', and those of Jewry, the Jews, and the Christians, and the Sabaeans, a Christian or Jewish sect, whoever, '''from among them, believes in God and the Last Day, in the time of our Prophet, and performs righteous deeds, ''according to the Law given to him''''' — their wage, that is, the reward for their deeds, is with their Lord, and no fear shall befall them, neither shall they grieve (the [singular] person of the verbs āmana, ‘believes’, and ‘amila, ‘performs’, takes account of the [singular] form of man, ‘whoever’, but in what comes afterwards [of the plural pronouns] its [plural] meaning [is taken into account]).}}

====Maariful Quran====

{{Quote|1=[http://islamicstudies.info/maarif/surah2.htm Surah 2 Ayah 62] Maulana Mufti Mohammad Shafi, trans. Prof. Muhammad Hasan Askari & Prof. Muhammad Shamim|2=In order to dispel such a misgiving, the present verse lays down a general principle: no matter how a man has been behaving earlier, so long as he submits himself fully to the commandments of Allah in his beliefs and in his deeds both, he is acceptable to Allah, and will get his reward. '''It is obvious enough that after the revelation of the Holy Qur'an, which is the last message of Allah, perfect obedience to Allah can only mean accepting Islam and following the Last Prophet Muhammad'''.

One might also ask why the verse mentions the Muslims, for if it is an invitation to Islam, there is no need to extend the invitation to those who have already accepted Islam. But if we keep in mind the richly concentrated style of the Holy Qur'an,and try to look beyond the literal sense of the words into the implications and suggestions contained in the verse, we would find that the inclusion of the Muslim factor has added a new dimension to the meaning. It is es if a king should,in a similar situation,say that his laws are impartially applicable to all his subjects, and that whosoever obeys them shall receive his reward for obedience irrespective of whether he has earlier been a friend or a foe.

'''We had better dispel another misunderstanding which is likely to arise from the wordings of the present verse -- and, which is actually being promoted by certain 'modernizers'. The verse mentions only two articles of faith of the Islamic creed -- faith in Allah and faith in the Day of Judgment. This should not be taken to mean that in order to attain salvation it is enough to have faith only in Allah and in the Day of Judgment. Fcr, the Holy Qur'an repeatedly declares that he who does not believe in the prophets, in angels and in the Books of Allah is not a Muslim'''. Faith in Allah is the first article in the Islamic creed, while faith in the Day of Judgment is the last. By mentioning only these two, the verse intends to say in a succinct manner that it is necessary to have faith in all the articles of the creed, from the first to the last. Moreover, it is through the prophets and the Books of Allah alone that man can acquire any knowledge of the essence and the attributes of Allah and of what is to happen on the Day of Judgment, while the Books of Allah are revealed to the prophets through an angel. So, it is not possible to have faith in Allah and the Day of Judgment until and unless one has faith in the angels, in the Books of Allah and in the prophets.}}

{{Quote|1=[http://islamicstudies.info/maarif/surah2.htm Surah 2 Ayah 62] Maulana Mufti Mohammad Shafi, trans. Prof. Muhammad Hasan Askari & Prof. Muhammad Shamim|2=23.Contrary to the flaccid fancies of some "modernizers" who are very happy with themselves over their "liberalism" and "tolerance", the present verse does not open the way to salvation for each and every "man of good will" irrespective of the creed he follows. If one reads the verse in its proper context and along with other relevant verses of the Holy Qur'an, one will easily see that the verse, in fact, promises salvation in the other world only to those who accept Islam. It is a n invitation to Islam extended to the Jews, the Christians, the Sabeans and, as a matter of fact, to the followers of all possible religions, and even to non-believers -- specific names only serve as examples.}}

====Biyan-ul-Quran====

{{Quote|[http://tanzeem.org/online/dorah/005-Al%20Baqara%2047-82.pdf Surah 2 Ayah 62] Dr. Israr Ahmed, Biyan-ul-Quran|'''''Some wrong headed and evil mongers'' in our time have tried to deceive people arguing erroneously from this ayah. They say that to achieve salvation one does not need to believe in the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and the two articles of faith discussed here i.e. belief in Allah (SWT) and in the hereafter, are enough for ones salvation'''. On the other hand this ayah makes it clear that it is not giving the detail of all the articles of faith which one should believe in. Those are mentioned elsewhere at numerous places. In fact this ayah clarifies the misconception that the Jews had, that they are the chosen ones and only they would enter the Paradise. On the contrary Allah (SWT) says that your salvation does not depend upon your lineage or your race but on the basis whether you are righteous or not.

As far as the belief in Prophet Muhammad (SAW) is concerned, we would like to point out the fact that, in the sixth ruku of this surah, Allah (SWT) invites the Jews to accept Islam by believing in the Prophethood of Muhammad (SAW) in order to achieve salvation and eternal bliss. '''So how can it be that the belief of a person is complete without believing in Prophet Muhammad (SAW). The context of this ayah clarifies that those people who were Jews, Christians or Sabians, and followed their own Prophet before the advent of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and they believed in Allah (SWT) and the hereafter, did righteous deeds will have their rewards from Allah (SWT). But once Allah (SWT) revealed Qur’an to Prophet Muhammad (SAW), it has become incumbent on a person to believe in him and the last revealed Book, along with other articles of faith'''.}}

====Dawat ul Quran====

{{Quote|[http://islamicstudies.info/dawat/surah2.htm Surah 2 Ayah 62] Shams Pirzada, Dawat ul Quran, trans. Abdul Karim Shaikh|Another very important point must be made clear here. '''It would be wrong to interpret the verse as implying that salvation depends upon virtuous conduct alone'''.According to such a view , one who observed one’s own religion, believed in Allah and the Hereafter and was righteous in deeds deserved salvation. '''This interpretation, however is farthest from the teachings of Quran and amounts to introducing an unjustifiable change in it'''. In this verse, the details of true belief, faith and righteous conduct are not being explained at all; they are mentioned in other places in Quran. '''Allah recognizes no belief or faith which does not accept that Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) is the last prophet of Allah and Quran is his true (undistorted) book'''. Without this belief, righteous conduct is of no avail because righteousness itself is determined by the observance of Muhammad’s shariah (pbuh). Quran is replete with such teachings, for example Surah-al-Baqarah has this as the central theme: it invites people to believe in revelation of the Quran and the prophethood of Muhammad(pbuh). This point is repeatedly stressed in many places in Quran, Allah says

With Allah, the accepted religion is Islam (Al-e-Imran 19)
Any person who will seek any religion other than Islam, it will not be accepted and he will be among the losers in the Hereafter (Al-e-Imran 85)}}

====Reliance of the Traveller====

{{Quote|[https://archive.org/details/RelianceOfTheTraveller-TheClassicManualOfIslamicSacredLawumdat Reliance of the Traveller: A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law] Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Edited and Translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller (pp. 848-849)|Suddi states that (2:62) was revealed about the former companions of Salman the Persian when he mentioned them to the Prophet, relating how they had been, saying, "They used to pray, fast, and believe in you, and testify that you would be sent as a prophet." When he had finished praising them, '''the Prophet replied, "Salman, they are the denizens of hell," which came to discomfit Salman greatly, and so Allah revealed (2:62)'''.

The faith of the Jews was that of whoever adhered to the Torah and the sunna of Moses until the coming of Jesus. When Jesus came, whoever held fast to the Torah and the sunna of Moses without giving them up and following Jesus was lost.

The faith of the Christians was that whoever adhered to the Gospel and precepts of Jesus, their faith was valid and acceptable until the coming of Muhammad. Those of them who did not then follow Muhammad and give up the sunna of Jesus and the Gospel were lost.

'''The foregoing is not contradicted by the hadith relating that (2:62) was followed by Allah revealing (3:85), for the hadith merely confirms that no one's way or spiritual works are acceptable unless they conform to the Sacred Law of Muhammad, now that he has been sent with it'''. As for people prior to this, anyone who followed the messenger of his own time was guided, on the right path, and was saved.}}

===Hadiths===

====Belief in Allah alone====

Verse 2:62 and other Qur'anic verses stipulate that belief in Allah alone is a necessity.

{{Quote|{{Quran|4|48}}|Surely '''Allah does not forgive that anything should be associated with Him''', and forgives what is besides that to whomsoever He pleases; and whoever associates anything with Allah, he devises indeed a great sin.}}

The Qur'an specifically condemns "associat[ing" other entities with Allah (such as Jesus and the Holy Spirit in the Christian trinity) as blasphemy that will lead "disbelievers" to hell.

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|72}}|'''Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah, He is the Messiah, son of Marium'''; and the Messiah said: O Children of Israel! serve Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Surely '''whoever associates (others) with Allah, then Allah has forbidden to him the garden, and his abode is the fire'''; and there shall be no helpers for the unjust.}}

{{Quote|{{Quran|5|73}}|'''Certainly they disbelieve who say: Surely Allah is the third (person) of the three'''; and there is no god but the one Allah, and if they desist not from what they say, '''a painful chastisement shall befall those among them who disbelieve'''.}}

Hadiths further clarify that believing in Allah alone is "to testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah" and that "Muhammad is His Apostle".

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||53|darussalam}}| "'''Do you know what is meant by believing in Allah Alone?'''" They replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." Thereupon the Prophet said, "'''It means: 1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah's Apostle'''. 2. To offer prayers perfectly 3. To pay the Zakat (obligatory charity) 4. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan. 5. And to pay Al-Khumus (one fifth of the booty to be given in Allah's Cause).}}

{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||87|darussalam}}| "'''Do you know what is meant by believing in Allah Alone?'''" They replied, "Allah and His Apostle know better." Thereupon the Prophet said, "('''That means to testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is His Apostle''', to offer prayers perfectly, to pay Zakat, to observe fasts during the month of Ramadan, (and) to pay Al-Khumus (one fifth of the booty to be given in Allah's cause)."}}

====Christians and Jews thrown into hell====

The following narrations from [[Sahih]] Muslim indicate that some Muslims will earn their place in Paradise and be spared [[Hell]]<nowiki/>fire by Allah on the Day of Resurrection as Christians and Jews take their place in hell.

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767a|reference}}|Abu Musa' reported that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) said: When it will be the Day of Resurrection Allah would deliver to every Muslim a Jew or a Christian and say: That is your rescue from Hell-Fire.}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767b|reference}}|Abu Burda reported on the authority of his father that Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) said: No Muslim would die but Allah would admit in his stead a Jew or a Christian in Hell-Fire. 'Umar b. Abd al-'Aziz took an oath: By One besides Whom there is no god but He, thrice that his father had narrated that to him from Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him).}}

{{Quote|{{Muslim||2767d|reference}}|Abu Burda reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: There would come people amongst the Muslims on the Day of Resurrection with as heavy sins as a mountain, and Allah would forgive them and He would place in their stead the Jews and the Christians. (As far as I think), Abu Raub said: I do not know as to who is in doubt. Abu Burda said: I narrated it to 'Umar b. 'Abd al-'Aziz, whereupon he said: Was it your father who narrated it to you from Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him)? I said: Yes.}}

====Non-Muslim women used for sex====

The following is reported in Ibn Majah, Ibn `Adi in the Kamil, and al-Bayhaqi in al-Ba`th wal-Nushur. It explains that some Christian and Jewish women, among others, will make it into Paradise after all, but only as sex [[Slavery|slaves]] for Muslim men. Al-Suyuti marked its chain as “fair” (hasan) in al-Jami` al-Saghir (7989).<ref>Shaykh Gibril Haddad - [http://www.webcitation.org/64zXNO08I How Many Wives Will The Believers Have In Paradise?] - SunniPath.com, Question ID:4828</ref>

{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/64zXNO08I Ibn Majah, Ibn `Adi in the Kamil, and al-Bayhaqi in al-Ba`th wal-Nushur]|2= Abu Umama said, Allah be well-pleased with him: The Messenger of Allah said, upon him blessings and peace:

“None is made to enter Paradise by Allah Most High except Allah Most High shall marry him to seventy-two wives, two of them from the wide-eyed maidens of Paradise and '''seventy of them his inheritance from the People of Hellfire''', not one of them but her attraction never lags nor his arousal ever wanes.”}}

===Scholars===

====Jews and Christians that will enter paradise====
{{Quote|[http://islamqa.com/en/ref/2912 Who are the Jews and Christians who will enter Paradise?] Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid, Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 2912|As far as the Jews are concerning, their faith meant believing in the Tawraat (original Torah) and following the way of Moosa (peace be upon him) until ‘Eesa came, after which whoever continued to follow the Torah and the way of Moosa, and did not leave this and follow ‘Eesa, was doomed. As far as the Christians are concerned, their faith meant believing in the Injeel (original Gospel) and following the laws of ‘Eesa; whoever did this was a believer whose faith was acceptable to Allaah, until Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) came, after which whoever did not follow Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and leave the way of ‘Eesa and the Injeel that he had been following before, was doomed.}}

====Attitude of Islam towards other religions====
{{Quote|[http://islamqa.com/en/ref/21534 Attitude of Islam towards other religions] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 21534|The ruling of Islam concerning other religions is that they are all either fabricated and false, or abrogated.}}

====Are Christians disbelievers?====
{{Quote|1=[http://spa.qibla.com/issue_view.asp?HD=12&ID=592&CATE=10 Are Christians Kafirs? Mushriks? If not, can a Muslim woman marry a non-Muslim?] Shaykh Faraz Rabbani, Qibla, Question ID:592|2=The People of the Book are kafirs, and it is obligatory to believe that they are so, as Imam Nawawi explains. There is scholarly consensus on this, because of the clear nature of the texts about this.The Christians at the time of the Prophet (Allah bless him & give him peace) already believed in the Trinity, the divinity of Jesus (peace be upon him), and such things.}}

====Ruling regarding Jews and Christians====

{{Quote|1=[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.islamweb.net%2Femainpage%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3Dshowfatwa%26Option%3DFatwaId%26Id%3D2924&date=2015-03-14 What is the ruling regarding Jews and Christians nowadays? Are they considered believers or disbelievers?] Islamweb, Fatwa No. 2924, August 30, 2010|2=The Quran, Sunnah and the consensus of scholars indicate that a man who embraces any religion other than Islam, is a disbeliever. His faith will not be accepted and, in the next life, he will be among those at loss . . . 
There is an explicit text that states that the People of the Book who do not believe in Muhammad, , or deny the Prophethood of any other Prophet, or those who associate deities with Allaah The Almighty, are disbelievers. . . . 
Everything that we have mentioned above is indisputable in Islam; and, anyone who denies or doubts any of it is deemed a disbeliever. Al-Qaadhi ‘Iyaadh reported the consensus of scholars on this matter.
Some Hanbali scholars have added that the one who doubts the disbelief of the People of the Book becomes a disbeliever}}

==See Also==

{{Hub4|Heaven|Heaven}}
*[[Misrepresentations of Islamic Scripture]]

==External Links==

*[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.answeringmuslims.com/2010/10/salvation-for-non-muslims-reconciling.html|2=2012-09-14}} Salvation for non-Muslims? Reconciling 2:62 and 3:85] ''- Answering Muslims''

 
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Qur'an]]
[[Category:People of the Book]]
{{page_title|Christians, Jews and Muslims in Heaven (Qur'an 2:62)}}
[[Category:Heaven]]
[[Category:Qadr (fate)]]
[[Category:Tafsir]]

List of Genocides, Cultural Genocides and Ethnic Cleansings under Islam

2025-12-07T21:39:02Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=1|References=4}}
This article lists genocides, cultural genocides, and acts of ethnic cleansing under islamic regimes from the origin of Islam to present day.

Such acts are not uniquely perpetrated by any particular religion or culture, and [[w:Persecution of Muslims|Muslims themselves suffer persecution]] in various parts of the world. Muslims have themselves suffered genocide, for example [[w:Bosnian genocide|in Bosnia]]. Nevertheless, regimes in the Islamic world have also perpetrated such atrocities.

Excluded from the list below are mutual population exchanges, massacres, and war crimes involving non-Muslims and Muslims (such as Greece–Turkey, India–Pakistan or Israel–Palestine).

==Main Table==

Key:

*No color: Non-Muslims targeted
*Light green: Predominantly Muslims targeted
*Orange: Both Muslims and Non-Muslims targeted
*Dark green: Mainly Shia perpetrators

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" width="100%"
!No.!!Victims!!Region!! style="width: 180px;" |Country (Present-Day Geographical Location)!!Perpetrators!!Period!!Notes
|-
|1||Arab polytheists||Arabian peninsula||{{nameandflag|Saudi Arabia}}|| ||600s AD||

|-
|2||Jews||Arabian peninsula|| || ||600s AD||

|-
|3||Christians||Arabian peninsula|| || ||600s AD||

|-
| ||Traditional Berber religion||North Africa|| ||Arab Muslims||647 onwards||

|-
| ||Berber Christians|| ||Algeria||Umayyad Caliphate<ref>''The Disappearance of Christianity from North Africa in the Wake of the Rise of Islam'' C. J. Speel, II Church History, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec., 1960), pp. 379-397</ref>||647 onwards||

|-
| ||Zoroastrians||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}}, {{nameandflag|Iraq}}||Arab and Persian Muslims||642-early 10th century||<ref>Stepaniants 2002, p. 163</ref><ref>Boyce 2001, p. 148</ref><ref name="gatha">{{cite web|url=http://www.gatha.org/english/articles/000258.html |title=The History of Zoroastrians After Arab Invasion |author=Dr. Daryush Jahanian |work=European Centre for Zoroastrian Studies |publisher= |accessdate=20 October 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414093548/http://www.gatha.org/english/articles/000258.html |archivedate=14 April 2009 }}</ref>

|-
| ||Hindus|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}|| || ||

|-
| ||Buddhists||Kabul valley, Bamiyan etc.||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||[[w:Saffarid dynasty|Saffarid dynasty]]||9th century AD||<ref> Hamid Wahed Alikuzai, ''A Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes, Volume 14'' Trafford Publishing, 2013. 1490714413. p.120</ref>

|-
| ||Dards||Kashmir and northern Pakistan||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Arab invaders, Swat princely state||c. 700 AD and 1858-1969||Most Dards were converted to Islam<ref name="Inam-ur-Rahim, Alain M. Viaro">{{cite web|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p_9tAAAAMAAJ&q=dard+people+swati&dq=dard+people+swati&lr=&cd=1|title = Swat: an Afghan society in Pakistan : urbanisation and change in tribal environment|publisher = City Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Minahan|first=James B.|title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|language=English |isbn=9781610690188|page=205|quote=Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called ''imr'o'' or ''imra'' by the Nuristani tribes. Around 700 CE, Arab invaders swept through the region now known as Afghanistan, destroying or forcibly converting the population to their new Islamic religion. Refugees from the invaders fled into the higher valleys to escape the onslaught. In their mountain strongholds, the Nuristani escaped conversion conversion to Islam and retained their ancient religion and culture. The surrounding Muslim peoples used the name ''Kafir'', meaning "unbeliever" or "infidel," to describe the independent Nuristani tribes and called their highland homeland Kafiristan.}}</ref>

|-
| ||Turgesh Turks, Sogdians||Transoxiana||{{nameandflag|Uzbekistan}}, {{nameandflag|Tajikistan}}, {{nameandflag|Kyrgyzstan}}||Umayyad Caliphate||721 onwards||The culture and heritage of the Sogdians was destroyed, and it is almost impossible to reconstruct their history.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Roudik|title=The History of the Central Asian Republics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-8_3jbZU9ikC&pg=PT48&dq=sogdian+islam&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiUpcz5uu3OAhXJ0RQKHeXYCoEQ6AEIMjAD#v=onepage&q=sogdian%20islam&f=false|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-34013-0|pages=48–}}</ref> In the post-Umayyad period, Islam had firmly established itself here.

|-
| ||Coptic Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||Caliph al-Mamun and Muslim mobs||c.832-837||In a clash between Spanish Muslim invaders and Egyptian Muslims, Copts supported the former. Their churches were looted and destroyed in retaliation. The caliph also subdued their rebellion by massacring them. Many monks were killed and monasteries destroyed in later years.<ref>Robert Morgan ''History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt''. FriesenPress, 21-Sep-2016. ISBN 9781460280270 p.203-205</ref>
|-
| ||Buddhists, proto-Iranian Hindus, Shamanists, Manichaeans||Xinjiang province||Western {{nameandflag|China}}||Kara Khanids<ref>Dust in the Wind: Retracing Dharma Master Xuanzang's Western Pilgrimage. Rhythms Monthly. 2006. pp. 479–. ISBN 978-986-81419-8-8.</ref>||900s to 1500s||There were centuries-long attacks in this region.<ref>Zhang, Longxi; Schneider, Axel, eds. (7 June 2013). "Lecture 4 The Nature of the Dunhuang Library Cave and the Reasons for its Sealing". Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang. Brill's Humanities in China Library. 5. BRILL. pp. 132–. ISBN 90-04-25233-9.</ref> Buddhist monuments and artifacts were also destroyed on a large scale. The area was largely Islamized.

|-
| ||Hindus and Buddhists||Gandhara||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Mahmud of Ghazni||998-1030||Mass conversions and coercions<ref>Afghanistan: a new history By Martin Ewans Edition: 2, illustrated Published by Routledge, 2002, Page 15, ISBN 0-415-29826-1, ISBN 978-0-415-29826-1</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Siege of Cordoba||{{nameandflag|Spain}}||Berber Muslims led by Umayyad ruler||1013||The inhabitants of Cordoba, including Jews, were massacred and looted. 2,000 were reportedly killed.<ref>Kantor, Máttis (2005-11-01). Codex Judaica: Chronological index of Jewish history, covering 5,764 years of Biblical, Talmudic & post-Talmudic history. Zichron Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0-9670378-3-7.
</ref><ref>(Fletcher, Richard (2006-05-05). Moorish Spain. University of California Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-520-24840-3.)</ref><ref> Morris, Benny (1999). ''Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict'', 1881-2001. Random House, Inc. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-679-42120-7.</ref><ref>Brann, Ross (2009-12-21). ''Power in the Portrayal: Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh- and Twelfth-Century Islamic Spain''. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14673-7.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Fez||{{nameandflag|Morocco}}||Berber soldiers||1033||In this pogrom, Muslims killed more than 6,000 Jews, kidnapped women, and pillaged belongings.<ref>{{Cite web| publisher = Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa | last = Assaleh | first = Abu-Mohammed | others = Jozé de Santo Antonio Moura (trans.) | title = Historia dos soberanos mohametanos: das primeiras quatro dysnastias e de parte da quinta, que reinarao na Mauritania | location = Lisbon | accessdate = 2011-03-30 | year = 1828 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=WFUpAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | page=117 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | publisher = Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa | pages = 47–140 | last = Moura | first = Jozé de Santo Antonio | title = Memórias de Academia das Ciências de Lisboa | chapter = Memoria sobre as dinastias mohammetanas, que tem reinado na Mauritania, com a serie chronologica dos soberanos de cada huma dellas | location = Lisbon | accessdate = 2011-03-30 | year = 1827 | chapterurl = https://books.google.com/books?id=E9NOAAAAYAAJ&dq=fez+1033+tamim&source=gbs_navlinks_s }}</ref><ref>Morris, Jan (1959). The Hashemite kings. Pantheon. p. 85</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jewish communities of the world |last=Beker |first=Avi |year=1998 |page=203 |publisher=Lerner Publications|isbn=0-8225-1934-8}}</ref>


|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Ismaili Shias||Sindh, in the Indian subcontinent||{{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Mahmud of Ghazni||1025||Mahmud defeated the Shia ruler and slaughtered many Ismailis.<ref>Sarah F. D. Ansari. ''Sufi Saints and State Power: The Pirs of Sind, 1843-1947''. Issue 50 of Cambridge South Asian Studies, ISSN 0575-6863, Volume 50 of South Asian studies. Cambridge University Press (1992). ISBN 0521405300. p.16.</ref><ref>Mushirul Hasan, ‎Asim Roy. ''Living Together Separately: Cultural India in History and Politics'' Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0195669215 p.156.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Serer religion|Serer religion]]||Tekrur||{{nameandflag|Senegal}} {{nameandflag|Gambia}} and nearby areas||King War Jabi, his Almoravid allies and many other African Muslims||1035-1867||The Serer were under pressure to embrace Islam for centuries. An unknown number of them died in these jihads, but many of them scattered.<ref>Page, Willie F., "Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)", pp 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), ISBN 0-8160-4472-4</ref><ref>Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture,'' (2010), p 11, ISBN 9987-9322-2-3</ref><ref>Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), ISBN 1-57505-951-7</ref><ref>Oliver, Roland Anthony, Fage, J. D., "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref>James Stuart Olson (1996). [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=MdaAdBC-_S4C&pg=PA516&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The Peoples of Africa: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary]. Greenwood. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-313-27918-8.</ref>

|-
| ||Armenian Christians||Ani||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Seljuk Turks under Alp Arslan||1064||Part of the Muslim conquest of Anatolia.<ref> John Julius (1991). Byzantium: The Apogee. New York: Viking. pp. 342–343. ISBN 978-0-394-53779-5.</ref><ref>Johnstone p.43</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Granada||{{nameandflag|Spain}}|| ||1066||Muslims crucified the Jewish vizier and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |title=GRANADA |publisher=Jewish Encyclopedia |author=Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815121443/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6855-granada |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>Laqueur, Walter (2006). The changing face of antisemitism: from ancient times to the present day. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9. LCCN 2005030491. OCLC 62127914.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Maghreb and Andalusia||{{nameandflag|Morocco}}, {{nameandflag|Spain}} (southern), {{nameandflag|Portugal}}, {{nameandflag|Tunisia}}||Almohad Caliphate||1126-1269||Jews were expelled, killed or forced to convert to Islam.<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170309123848/http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/39129/1/Almohad.MEAH.pdf</ref><ref>Frank and Leaman, ''The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy''. 2003, pp. 137–138</ref><ref>M.J. Viguera. "Almohads." Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World. Executive Editor: Norman A. Stillman. Brill Online, 2014</ref>

|-
| ||Jains|| ||{{nameandflag|India}}||Various Muslim invaders||1100s-1600s||Through the centuries, Muslims killed numerous Jains, destroyed many of their temples and idols, looted treasures, and burned books. This persecution was frequent until the 17th century.<ref>von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&q=74#v=snippet&q=74&f=false ''Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation''] [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted: 1999), ISBN 81-208-1376-6 pp.73-74 p.81.</ref><ref>Dundas, Paul (2002) [1992], ''The Jains'' (Second ed.), London and New York City: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26605-X pp. 145-146, 83, 124, p.163, pp. 220-221</ref><ref>{{cite web|quote=The rich body of medieval Jain literature is notable for its strident assertion of the power of the faith and images to withstand the Islamic onslaught. Images that had retreated or gone into exile reappear more powerful than ever, and even those mutilated reveal increased ability to perform miracles. Jain literature discusses the entire gamut of problems related to image worship in the medieval era, including the appropriate medium in which to fashion icons in times of Muslim threat, the sufferings of the true faith in an age of declining virtue, the necessity of hiding images for safety, the divine order to unearth images and resume their worship, the smashing of images by those wicked Muslims and their final restitution through the agency of a devotee.|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630173749/http://hindureview.com/2004/04/20/review-romila-thapar%C2%92s-%C2%93somanatha-many-voices-history/ |first=Meenakshi | last=Jain| url=http://hindureview.com/2004/04/20/review-romila-thapar%C2%92s-%C2%93somanatha-many-voices-history/ |title=Review of Romila Thapar’s Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History |work=The Pioneer | date=21 March 2004}}</ref>

|-
| ||Buddhists||Bihar||{{nameandflag|India}}||Bakhtiyar Khilji||c.1197-1203||Famous Buddhist monasteries and universities were also destroyed<ref>Ishwari Prasad, ''Medieval India'' (Allahabad, Fourth Publication, 1940), p.138.</ref><ref>The Indian Antiquary, Vol. IV, pp.366-67.</ref><ref>Habibullah, Abul Barkat Muhammad. ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India''. (Allahabad, 1961). p.147.</ref>

|-
| ||Christians||Anatolia||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Muslim Turks|| ||

|-
| ||Buddhists|| ||{{nameandflag|Maldives}}|| ||c. 1200s onwards||

|-
| ||Kanuri people||Kanem empire||{{nameandflag|Chad}}, {{nameandflag|Nigeria}}, {{nameandflag|Cameroon}}||[[w:Dunama Dabbalemi|Dunama Dabbalemi]]||1203 to 1243||All Kanuris converted to Islam.<ref>Barkindo, Bawuro, "The early states of the Central Sudan: Kanem, Borno and some of their neighbours to c. 1500 A.D.", in: J. Ajayi und M. Crowder (ed.), ''History of West Africa'', vol. I, 3. ed. Harlow 1985, 225-254.</ref><ref>"Three Continents, One History: Birmingham, the Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Caribbean", p. 18, by Clive Harris.</ref>

|-
| ||Mongol converts to Islam<ref>Smith, Vincent A. ''The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911'', Chapter 2, pp 231-235, Oxford University Press.</ref>||Delhi||{{nameandflag|India}}||[[w:Alauddin Khilji|Alauddin Khilji]]||1298||15,000-30,000 were killed.

|-
| ||Assyrian Christians||Irbil/Arbela||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}||Kurds and Arabs||1310||After the siege of Irbil, about 150,000 of its Christians were massacred.<ref> Grousset, René, ''The Empire of the Steppes'' (French), translated by Naomi Walford, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press (1970) p. 383</ref><ref name="Jonston49">Johnstone p.49</ref>


|-
| ||Hindus||Kashmir||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||[[w:Sikandar Butshikan|Sikandar Butshikan]]||1389-1413||<ref>Kaw, K.; Kashmir Education, Culture, and Science Society (2004). [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=QpjKpK7ywPIC ''Kashmir and Its People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society'']. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. ISBN 9788176485371. Retrieved 7 July 2015.</ref><ref>Haidar Malik Chãdurãh. ''Tãrîkh-i-Kashmîr''. edited and translated into English by Razia Bano, Delhi, 1991. p. 55.</ref>

|-
| ||Coptic Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||Mamluk Sultanate||1300s-1517||Rampant discrimination and persecution under the Pact of Umar forced a majority of Copts to convert to Islam.<ref>Stilt, Kristen (2011). ''Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199602438. p.120.</ref> The Mamluks destroyed most of the churches and killed an estimated 300,000 Copts over the 13th century.<ref>Johnstone p.49</ref>

|-
| ||Maronites and Greek Orthodox Christians||Coast of the Levant||{{nameandflag|Lebanon}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}||Mamluk Sultanate||1300s||These communities were expelled and their settlements were destroyed.<ref>Teule, Herman G. B. (2013). "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516". In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=dgy7SN3ZixsC&pg=PA11&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350-1500)]''. p.11. Brill. ISBN 9789004252783.</ref>

|-
| ||Nestorian Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Iran}}, {{nameandflag|Uzbekistan}}||[[w:Timur|Timur]]||1380s-1405||Timur's raids and slaughters nearly exterminated the followers of the Nestorian Church in the Near East.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorians</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Fez||{{nameandflag|Morocco}}|| ||1465||Muslim subjects overthrew the last Marinid ruler who had appointed many Jews to high positions. This had angered many Muslims and was one of the main pretexts for them to massacre the entire Jewish community of Fez.<ref> Haddad, Heskel M. (1984). ''Jews of Arab and Islamic countries: history, problems, solutions''. Shengold Publishers. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-88400-100-3.</ref><ref>Maya Shatzmiller, ''The Berbers And The Islamic State:The Marinid Experience In Pre-Protectorate Morocco'', Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2000, p. 67.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Songhai Empire||{{nameandflag|Mali}}||[[w:Askia Mohammad I|Askia Mohammad I]]||1492||Askia decreed that Jews must convert to Islam or leave, destroying their synagogue. Most of the Jews converted to Islam, and Malian intolerance towards them was reported as recently as the 20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kulanu.org:80/timbuktu/timbuktu.html |title=The Renewal of Jewish Identity in Timbuktu |publisher= |author=Karen Primack |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041017005023/http://www.kulanu.org:80/timbuktu/timbuktu.html |deadurl=yes}}</ref>

|-
| ||Zoroastrians||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}}|| style="background:#8F9779" |Persian Muslims under the Safavid dynasty||1502-1747||<ref>Jahanian, Daryoush. ''The History of Zoroastrians after Arab Invasion; Alien in Their Homeland.'' The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies. 1996 and 2001.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Sunnis||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}} , {{nameandflag|Iraq}}<ref>Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict, By William Spencer, pg.51</ref> {{nameandflag|Azerbaijan}}<ref>''Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces'', By Steven R. Ward, pg.43</ref>|| style="background:#8F9779" |Safavid dynasty||1502-1722||

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Takkalu tribe||Persia|| || style="background:#8F9779" |Shah Ismail|| ||


|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Shias||Kashmir||{{nameandflag|India}}|| ||1500s to 1800s||<ref>http://www.tehelka.com/2013/11/are-kashmiri-shias-the-next-pandits/</ref>

|-
| ||Yazidis||Baghdad, Mosul, Diyarbakir, etc.||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}, {{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Empire||1500s to 1800s||A large Yazidi community existed in Syria, but they declined due to persecution by the Ottoman Empire. Several expeditions were launched against the Yazidis by the Ottoman governors (Wāli) of Diyarbakir, Mosul and Baghdad. The aim of these attacks was the forced conversion of Yazidis to Sunni Hanafi Islam.<ref>Commins, David Dean. ''Historical Dictionary of Syria.'' Scarecrow Press. p. 282. ISBN 0-8108-4934-8.</ref><ref>Ghareeb, Edmund A. (2004). ''Historical Dictionary of Iraq''. Scarecrow Press. p. 248. ISBN 0-8108-4330-7.</ref><ref>Hastings, James (2003). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 18. Kessinger. p. 769. ISBN 0-7661-3695-7.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Alevis||Anatolia||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Selim I||1514||Sultan Selim, nicknamed "Selim the Grim", carried out a massacre of Alevis in 1514. The death toll reportedly reached 40,000.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=az2LBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA195&lpg=PA195&dq=Selim+the+Grim+massacres+40,000+Anatolian+Shi%27ites&source=bl&ots=2OQitRL8m6&sig=wWPSTMCwAPI1c5_5mOcYYAS1Ruk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjr3fyt9qzVAhUDrJQKHahrDtcQ6AEIOjAF#v=onepage&q=Selim%20the%20Grim%20massacres%2040%2C000%20Anatolian%20Shi'ites&f=false |title=Routledge International Handbook of Diversity Studies |publisher=Routledge |chapter=PART II Historical geographies of diversity
|author=Steven Vertovec |date=20-Nov-2014 | isbn=9781317600695 |edition=Revised| page=195 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Safed||present-day {{nameandflag|Israel}}||Retreating Mamluk army of Egypt and Arab civilians||1517||Jews were evicted from their homes, robbed, and forced to flee their homes naked.<ref>Shmuelevitz, Aryeh (1999). '' history and society: Jewish sources''. Isis Press. p. 15: "[Rabbi Elijah] Capsali, relying on Jewish informants, was perhaps better informed about what was happening to Jewish communities in remote parts of the Empire. He wrote about Jews suffering in time of war: the pogrom in Safed during Selim I's campaign against the Mamluks for the conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt; and preparations for a pogrom against the Jewish community in Cairo on the eve of Selim’s conquest of the city.'</ref><ref>David, Abraham (2010). ''To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in 16th-Century Eretz-Israel''. Translated by Dena Ordan. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5643-9. p.97.</ref><ref>David, Abraham (1999). ''In Zion and Jerusalem: the itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola (1521-1523)''. Translated by Dena Ordan. Bar-Ilan University. ISBN 978-9-6522-2926-7. p.62.</ref><ref>Finkelstein, Louis (1970). "Eretz Yisrael Under Ottoman Rule, 1517-1917". The Jews: Their History. Schocken Books. p.407.</ref><ref>Fine, Lawrence (2003). ''Physician of the Soul, Healer of the Cosmos: Isaac Luria and His Kabbalistic Fellowship.'' Stanford University Press. p.44.</ref>

|-
| ||Greek Cypriots||Nicosia||{{nameandflag|Cyprus}}||Ottoman army||1570||20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Only women and boys who were captured to be sold as slaves survived.<ref>Hopkins, T. C. F. (2007). Confrontation at Lepanto: Christendom Vs. Islam. Macmillan p.82</ref><ref>Turnbull, Stephen (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (Essential Histories Series #62). Osprey Publishing. p. 58</ref><ref>Johnstone p.52</ref>

|-
| ||Portuguese|| ||{{nameandflag|India}}||Shah Jahan||1632||[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=1T8KAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT503&dq=Shahjahan+attacked+the+Portuguese+in+1632&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiit9LN-srUAhWEs48KHS_AAfYQ6AEIODAE#v=onepage&q=Shahjahan%20attacked%20the%20Portuguese%20in%201632&f=false] [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=Vp_q_MjupOIC&pg=PA132&dq=Shahjahan+attacked+the+Portuguese+in+1632&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiit9LN-srUAhWEs48KHS_AAfYQ6AEIPzAF#v=onepage&q=Shahjahan%20attacked%20the%20Portuguese%20in%201632&f=false] When negotiations with Portuguese merchants broke down, Shah Jahan massacred their men and enslaved 4,000 women and children.<ref>Stephen Howarth, ''The Koh-I-Noor Diamond: The History and the Legend'', Quartet Books (1980), ISBN 0704322153 p.74</ref><ref>Diana Preston, Michael Preston. ''A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time: The Story of the Taj Mahal'' [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=K3wMt3WW-gYC&pg=PT229&lpg=PT229&dq=Jahan+besieged+and+took+the+Portuguese+settlement+at+Hugli,+and+sent+some+four+thousand+captives+to+Agra&source=bl&ots=k817n86Ez5&sig=2oq32BGZ8Ils01u0LIpEbgdeWQ0&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjr-66y_srUAhUHsI8KHVCwBaUQ6AEIIzAB#v=onepage&q=Jahan%20besieged%20and%20took%20the%20Portuguese%20settlement%20at%20Hugli%2C%20and%20sent%20some%20four%20thousand%20captives%20to%20Agra&f=false] Random House, 2010. ISBN 1446421465, 416 pages.</ref>

|-
| ||Sikhs||Punjab||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Aurangzeb<ref>McLeod, Hew (1987). "Sikhs and Muslims in the Punjab". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 22 (s1): 155–165. doi:10.1080/00856408708723379.</ref>||1658 onwards||Aurangzeb frequently persecuted the Sikhs<ref>Surinder Singh Bakhshi (2009), ''Sikhs in the Diaspora,'' pp.68-69, 0956072801</ref><ref>Latham, Martin. "The Sikhs." ''The Round Table'', 74 no. 293 (1985): 21-29.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Yemen}}||Imam of Yemen (Rassid dynasty)||1679–1680||Nearly all Jews in Yemen were exiled to a remote desert and left to die. Their property was also confiscated.<ref>Yosef Tobi, ''The Jews of Yemen (Studies in Their History and Culture)'', Brill: Leiden 1999, pp. 77-79</ref><ref>Yosef Qafiḥ (ed.), ''“Qorot Yisra’el be-Teman by Rabbi Ḥayim Ḥibshush,”'' Sefunot, Volume 2, Ben-Zvi Institute: Jerusalem 1958, pp. 246-286 (Hebrew). Yosef Qafiḥ, Ketavim (Collected Papers), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, p. 714 (Hebrew)</ref><ref>Yemenite Jewry: Origins, Culture and Literature, by Rueben Aharoni, Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1986, pp. 121–135</ref><ref>P.S. van Koningsveld, J. Sadan & Q. Al-Samarrai, ''Yemenite Authorities and Jewish Messianism'', Leiden University 1990, pp. 156-158. ISBN 9071220079</ref>

|-
| ||Austrian civilians||Perchtoldsdorf||{{nameandflag|Austria}}||Ottoman Empire||1683||<ref>''Condé Nast's Traveler'', Volume 32. "Vienna Woods". Condé Nast Publications. 1997. "''The first thing I did was to search out the local museum, which was in the mayor's office. Herr Heiduschka, the mayor, was only too happy to show me around, and we started with the painting on the wall behind his desk. There were headless corpses sprawled on the ground, blood spurting out of their necks like ghoulish fountains designed by Dracula. Women on their knees begged for mercy from swarthy turbaned men on horseback with scimitars whose blades were crimson and dripping. I couldn't appreciate his village, the mayor declared, until I understood that picture. "Here you see the massacre of the people of Perchtoldsdorf by the Osmanli in 1683," he told me. "They killed everybody - men, women, and children. Only a single family, who had managed to hide deep in a cellar, survived." The mayor pointed to the very wall where they had hidden. "And their descendants, by the name of Rabl, still live here even today," he concluded with deep pride.''"</ref>

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Civilians||Delhi||{{nameandflag|India}}||Nadir Shah||1739||In 7 hours, Nadir Shah had 20,000 men, women and children massacred in an incident termed as ''Qatl-e-aam'' in Persian. He also seized large amounts of treasure.<ref>Michael Axworthy, ''The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant''. Hardcover. p8 (26 July 2006) Publisher: I.B. Tauris Language: English ISBN 1-85043-706-8</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA38&dq=nadir+shah+delhi&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=nadir%20shah%20delhi&f=false |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813 |page=38 |chapter=Decline of the Mughal Empire |publisher=Sterling Publishers |author=Jaswant Lal Mehta |date=2005 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no |isbn=9781932705546}}</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Sikh|Sikhs]]|| ||{{nameandflag|India}}, {{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Mughal Empire vassals and Afghan soldiers||1746-62||<ref>Hari Ram Gupta, A History of the Sikhs from Nadir Shah's Invasion to the Rise of Ranjit Singh (1739–1799); Volume I: Evolution of the Sikh Confederacies (1739–1768), Simla, Minerva Book Shop, 1952, pp. 79–83.</ref>


|-
| ||Kashmiri Pandits||Kashmir valley||{{nameandflag|India}}||Afghans||1764-1820s||<ref>Col. Tej K Tikoo. ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=iuURFTHTU0EC&pg=PT69&dq=afghan+rule+in+kashmir&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiF0LKM4tnTAhUIO48KHV2GCtMQ6AEIJTAB#v=onepage&q=afghan%20rule%20in%20kashmir&f=false Kashmir: Its Aborigines and Their Exodus]'' Lancer Publishers. ISBN 1935501585.</ref>

|-
| ||Mangalorean Catholics||Kingdom of Mysore||{{nameandflag|India}}|| style="background:#8F9779" |Tipu Sultan||1784-1799||Catholics were driven out of their homes, forced onto a death march, and kept as captives for 15 years. Many faced torture, murder, and forced conversions. Out of about 60,000 Catholics, at least 30,000 died en route or in captivity.<ref>Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999), Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians, I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8. p. 216.</ref> Only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.<ref>Prabhu p. xiv</ref>

|-
| ||Nair Hindus||Kingdom of Mysore||{{nameandflag|India}}||Tipu Sultan|| ||Nair Hindus were subjected to forced conversions to Islam, execution, and torture.<ref>Fernandes 1969, p. 120</ref><ref>Knight 1858, p. 94</ref><ref>Sharma 1991, pp. 34–35</ref> <ref>Palsokar 1969, pp. 75–79</ref><ref>Punganuri 1849, p. 40</ref> Out of 30,000 Nairs put to captivity (including women and children), only a few hundred returned alive.<ref>Prabhu 1999, p. 250</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (Great Britain)|year=1842|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad9PAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA494 |page=494}}</ref>

|-
| ||Zoroastrians||Persia||{{nameandflag|Iran}}||Persian Muslims under the Qajar dynasty||1796-1925||Zoroastrians regard this period as one of their worst. They were frequently massacred, taken as captives, robbed, overtaxed, converted or married by force, and denied basic rights.<ref> Price Massoume (2005), ''Iran's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook'' (Illustrated ed.), ABC-CLIO, ISBN 9781576079935. p. 111.</ref><ref>Shahmardan, Rashid. ''History of Zoroastrians past Sasanians''. p.125.</ref><ref>Browne 1893, ''A year amongst the Persians'', Adam and Charles Black, p. 372</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Mandaeism|Mandaeans]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Iran}}||Qajar dynasty of Persia||18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, ''The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People'', New York: Oxford University Press 2002. p.6.</ref>||

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Civilians (mostly Shia)||Karbala||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||1801 or 1802||The Saudis killed 2,000–5,000 people in one day. They also plundered and destroyed the tomb of Husayn ibn Ali.<ref>Khatab, Sayed. Understanding Islamic Fundamentalism: The Theological and Ideological Basis of Al-Qa'ida's Political Tactics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9789774164996. p.74</ref><ref>Litvak, Meir (2010).{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karbala |title=KARBALA |publisher=| work=Iranica Online |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517070800/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karbala |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>Vassiliev, Alexei. ''The History of Saudi Arabia''. Saqi. ISBN 9780863567797</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Mamluks||Cairo and other places||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||[[w:Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali of Egypt]]||1805-1811||About 3,000 descendants of this slave-warrior clan were massacred. It was the end of the Mamluks in Egypt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/mamelukes-are-massacred-egypt |title=The Mamelukes are massacred in Egypt |publisher= |author= Richard Cavendish |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601185447/http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/mamelukes-are-massacred-egypt |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|-
| ||Melkite Christians||Aleppo||{{nameandflag|Syria}}||Ottoman Empire||1817-18||Most of this community fled from Syria, and those who stayed were massacred.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/chistory/syriahis.htm |title=OVERVIEW OF RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF SYRIA |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060856/http://www.ewtn.com/library/chistory/syriahis.htm |deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/melkite-church/oclc/233994580 |title=The Melkite Church |page=103 |publisher= |author=Yūsuf Shammās |date=1992 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}} OCLC Number: 233994580</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Bektashis|| ||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II||1826||The Bektashi order was outlawed, and 4,000 to 7,500 of them were executed. Their shrines were destroyed.<ref>İsmail Özmen & Koçak Yunus: ''Hamdullah Çelebi'nin Savunması - Bir inanç abidesinin çileli yaşamı'', Ankara, 2008, p. 74, 205 & 207</ref>

|-
| ||Assyrian Christians||Bohtan and Hakkari||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Badr Khan and Nurallah of Hakkari||1843-47||More than 1,000 Christians were killed.<ref>Gaunt, D; Beṯ-Şawoce, J (2006), ''Massacres, resistance, protectors: Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I'', Gorgias Press LLC, ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0. p. 32.</ref> The Muslim armies destroyed several villages and took prisoners as war booty.<ref>Aboona, Hirmis (2008), ''Assyrians, Kurds, and Ottomans: intercommunal relations on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire'', Cambria Press, ISBN 978-1-60497-583-3. pp.218-219</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Throughout the Middle East and North Africa|| || ||1840-1908||Following the [[w:Damascus affair|Damascus affair]], riots and massacres of Jews occurred in Aleppo (1850, 1875), Damascus (1840, 1848, 1890), Beirut (1862, 1874), Dayr al-Qamar (1847), Jerusalem (1847), Cairo (1844, 1890, 1901–02), Mansura (1877), Alexandria (1870, 1882, 1901–07), Port Said (1903, 1908), Damanhur (1871, 1873, 1877, 1891), Istanbul (1870, 1874), Buyukdere (1864), Kuzguncuk (1866), Eyub (1868), Edirne (1872), and Izmir (1872, 1874).<ref name="Benny">Morris, Benny. ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict'', 1881–2001. Vintage Books, 2001, pp. 10–11.</ref>

|-
| ||Jews||Mashhad, Barfurush||{{nameandflag|Iran}}|| ||1839, 1867||Mashhad witnessed forced conversions of Jews to Islam to avert a massarce. In Barfurush, Jews were massacred.<ref name="Benny" /><ref>Patai, Raphael (1997). Jadid al-Islam: The Jewish "New Muslims" of Meshhed. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2652-8.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Bábís|| ||{{nameandflag|Iran}}|| ||1852||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bahai-library.com/pdf/a/affolter_ideological_genocide.pdf |title=The Specter of Ideological Genocide: The Bahá’ís of Iran* |publisher= |author=Friedrich W. Affolter |date=2005 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619204921/http://bahai-library.com/pdf/a/affolter_ideological_genocide.pdf |deadurl=no}} ''War Crimes, Genocide, & Crimes against Humanity.'' Volume 1, no. 1. p.79</ref>

|-
| ||Polytheists||[[w:Kafiristan|Kafiristan]]||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}|| ||1890s||

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Hazara Shias|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Pashtuns||1888-90, 1892, 1893||Emir Abdul Rehman eliminated an estimated 60% of the Hazara population by massacres, enslavement, and the looting and pillaging of homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d693d.html |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Afghanistan : Hazaras |publisher=[[w:UNHCR|UNHCR]] and Minority Rights Group International |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230557/http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d693d.html |deadurl=no}}</ref> Many of the survivors fled.<ref>"HAZĀRA: ii. HISTORY". Alessandro Monsutti (Online ed.). United States: ''Encyclopædia Iranica''. December 15, 2003. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hazara-2</ref><ref>Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, NY: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Hamidian massacres|Armenians and Assyrians]]|| |Eastern Turkey||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Empire Kurdish and Turkoman irregulars||1894–1896||100,000–300,000 were killed.<ref>[[Taner Akcam|Akçam, Taner]]. ''A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility''. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.</ref>

|-
| ||Serbs||Kolašin and other areas<ref>Bataković, Dušan T. (1988) [1987]. "[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=pqxqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA309&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Погибија руског конзула Г. С. Шчербине у Митровици 1903. године]". ''Историјски институт''. XXXIV: 309–325.</ref>||{{nameandflag|Kosovo}} (present day)||Albanians under the Ottoman Empire||1901||The Serbs were targeted in several massacres, rapes, looting and eviction.<ref>''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=NX5pAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y Kosovsko-Metohijski zbornik]''. '''3'''. SANU. 2005. p. 191.</ref><ref>Skendi, Stavro (2015). The Albanian National Awakening. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4776-1. p.201, p.293</ref>

|-
| ||Uighur Christians||Xinjiang||{{nameandflag|China}}||First East Turkestan Republic||1894-1938||Most Uighur converts to Christianity were killed, tortured and jailed.<ref>Missionary Review of the World ; 1878-1939. Princeton Press. 1939. p. 130. vol.62. </ref><ref>Claydon, David (2005). [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=gV32uPMChgAC&pg=PA385&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false A New Vision, a New Heart, a Renewed Call]. William Carey Library. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-87808-363-3.</ref><ref>Uhalley, Stephen; Wu, Xiaoxin (2015). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=iPnqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future]''. London: Routledge. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-317-47501-9.</ref> Some Hindus were murdered and Christian missionaries were expelled.<ref> Forbes, Andrew D. W. (1986). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA84&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949]''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 84, 87. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Ahmediyyas|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Kings of Afghanistan||1900-1924||Ahmadis, a small religious minority in Afghanistan, were exterminated via killings and forced conversions to Sunni Islam.<ref>Frank A. Martin, Under the Absolute Amir, ISBN 978-1-4304-9488-1, p.204</ref><ref>Adil Hussain Khan. ''From Sufism to Ahmadiyya: A Muslim Minority Movement in South Asia'' Indiana University Press, 6 April 2015 pp.131-133</ref><ref>Yohanan Friedmann. ''Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background'', Oxford University Press India 2003, pg 26–29</ref><ref>Vincent Littrell. [Islam: Ahmadiyya]. World Association of International Studies. (John Eipper, USA, 02/17/06).</ref>

|-
| ||Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}|| ||1900s-1951||The Afghan Jewish community declined from about 40,000 in the early 20th Century to 5,000 in 1934.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1934/07/11/archive/trials-of-jews-in-afghanistan-bared-in-persia |title=Trials of Jews in Afghanistan Bared in Persia | Jewish Telegraphic Agency |publisher=JTA |date=1934-07-11 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref> Many Jews were expelled from their homes and robbed of their property.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jta.org/1929/05/20/archive/soviet-press-reports-anti-jewish-pogrom-occurred-in-afghanistan |title=Soviet Press Reports Anti-jewish Pogrom Occurred in Afghanistan | Jewish Telegraphic Agency |publisher=JTA |date=1929-05-20 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref><ref name="Roland">{{cite book|author=Joan G. Roland|title=The Jewish Communities of India: Identity in a Colonial Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHJccZ92IecC&pg=PA349|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1-4128-3748-4|page=349}}</ref><ref>On wings of eagles: the plight, exodus, and homecoming of oriental Jewry by Joseph Schechtman pp 258-259</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://jtn.stparchive.com/Archive/JTN/JTN01191934P07.php |title=The Jewish Transcript January 19, 1934 Page 7 |publisher=Jtn.stparchive.com |date=1934-01-19 |accessdate=2016-05-02}}</ref> After 1951, most Jews moved to Israel and the United States.<ref>New York, 19 June 2007 ([[Radio Free Europe|RFE/RL]]), [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/6/c837c590-c06b-4c30-9017-36f29fc98437.html U.S.: Afghan Jews Keep Traditions Alive Far From Home]</ref>

|-
| ||Armenians||Adana Vilayet||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Young Turk government under the Ottoman Empire||1909||15,000–30,000 were killed.<ref>Akcam, Taner. ''A Shameful Act''. 2006, page 69–70: "fifteen to twenty thousand Armenians were killed"</ref><ref>''Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views'' By Samuel. Totten, William S. Parsons, Israel W. Charny</ref>

|-
| ||Bulgarians||Thrace||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Young Turk government under the Ottoman Empire||1913||50,000–60,000 Thracian Bulgarians were murdered, which was around 20 % of the Bulgarian population in Thrace at that time. Most of the villages with predominantly Bulgarian populations were destroyed and the survivors expelled from their places of origin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-13719-3_4 | chapter=Resettlement Waves, Historical Memory and Identity Construction: The Case of Thracian Refugees in Bulgaria |page=63-84 | isbn=9783319137186 |publisher=Springer International |title=Migration in the Southern Balkans |author=Nikolai Vukov |date=2015 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-13719-3_4&date=2017-07-22 |deadurl=no}} doi 10.1007/978-3-319-13719-3</ref><ref>Carnegie (1914). ''Report of the international commission to inquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan Wars''. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. pp. 123–135.</ref>

|-
| ||Maronite Christians||Mount Lebanon||{{nameandflag|Lebanon}}||Ottoman Empire||1915-1918||The Ottomans deliberately cut off food supplies to the Maronites in order to feed their military.<ref>Harris, William (2012). ''Lebanon: A History, 600–2011.'' Oxford University Press. pp. 173–179. ISBN 9780195181111.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Assyrian genocide|Assyrian Christians]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}, {{nameandflag|Iran}}<ref>Alexander Laban Hinton,Thomas La Pointe,Douglas Irvin-Erickson. ''Hidden Genocides: Power, Knowledge, Memory''. pp 117. Rutgers University Press, ISBN 0813561647.</ref>|| ||1914-1918||200,000 to 275,000 were killed.<ref>Travis, Hannibal. '''Native Christians Massacred: The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians During World War I.'' Genocide Studies and Prevention, Vol. 1, No. 3, December 2006, pp. 327–371.</ref><ref>(French) Yacoub, Joseph. ''La question assyro-chaldéenne, les Puissances européennes et la SDN (1908–1938)'', 4 vol., thèse Lyon, 1985, p. 156.</ref> About half of the Assyrian population in the Ottoman Empire perished.<ref>Jones, Adam (2010). ''Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction''. "The Assyrian Genocide." Routledge. ISBN 9781136937965. </ref>

|-
| ||Armenians|| ||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Ottoman Empire, Young Turks||1915-1918 or 1923||An estimated 600,000–1,800,000 Armenians were systematically massacred.<ref>Göçek, Fatma Müge (2015). Denial of violence : Ottoman past, Turkish present and collective violence against the Armenians, 1789-2009. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 019933420X.</ref><ref>Auron, Yair (2000). ''[https://books.google.co.in/books?id=nnUR4hSTb8gC&pg=PA44&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The banality of indifference: Zionism & the Armenian genocide]''. Transaction Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7658-0881-3.</ref> The Turkish government currently denies the genocide. Considered the first modern genocide by scholars.

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Kurds||Zilan river valley||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}|| ||1930||[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilan_massacre]

|-
| ||Jews||Thrace||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}||Turkish mobs||1934||The Thrace pogroms of Jews occurred in four cities. 1,500 Jews fled the region and many soon left Turkey. Casualties unknown.<ref>Özkimirli, Umut; Sofos, Spyros A (2008). Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey. Columbia University Press. p. 167. ISBN 9780231700528. OCLC 608489245.</ref><ref>Bayraktar, Hatice (May 2006), "The anti-Jewish pogrom in Eastern Thrace in 1934: new evidence for the responsibility of the Turkish government", Patterns of Prejudice, Routledge, 40 (2): 95–111, doi:10.1080/00313220600634238</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||[[w:Alevi|Alevi]] Kurds||Dersim||{{nameandflag|Turkey}}|| ||1937-38||13,000-40,000 killed.<ref>David McDowall. ''A Modern History of the Kurds: Third Edition'' p. 209, I.B.Tauris, 2004. ISBN 1850434166.</ref>

|-
| ||Tibetans||Qinghai Province||{{nameandflag|China}}||Ma Bufang and his Muslim soldiers||1932-41||Thousands of casualties occurred in an attempted ethnic cleansing of Tibetans.<ref>Rab-brtan-rdo-rje (Ñag-roṅ-pa.) (translated by Jamyang Norbu) (1979). Horseman in the snow: the story of Aten, an old Khampa warrior. Information Office, Central Tibetan Secretariat. p. 134.</ref><ref>Jamyang Norbu (1986). Warriors of Tibet: the story of Aten, and the Khampas' fight for the freedom of their country. Wisdom Publications. p. gbooks says 46, (the actual paper says 146). ISBN 0-86171-050-9.</ref><ref>Hsaio-ting Lin (1 January 2011). Tibet and Nationalist China's Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928-49. UBC Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-7748-5988-2.</ref><ref>David S. G. Goodman (2004). ''China's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectives''. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-521-61349-3.</ref><ref>Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002). ''Dilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity''. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 54. ISBN 0-7425-1144-8.</ref>


|-
| ||Hindus|| ||{{nameandflag|Pakistan}}|| ||1947-present||

|-
| ||Hindus|| ||{{nameandflag|Bangladesh}}|| ||1947-present||

|-
| ||Christians<ref>{{cite web |quote=“I call it a ‘drip drip genocide’, because it’s the most dangerous kind of wiping out of religious communities,” said Ispahani, whose book ‘Purifying the Land of the Pure’ was launched in the US this month. “It (genocide) doesn’t happen in one day. It doesn’t happen over a few months. Little by little by little, laws and institutions and bureaucracies and penal codes, textbooks that malign other communities, until you come to the point of having this sort of jihadi culture that is running rampant”. |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/religious-minorities-experiencing-genocide-in-pakistan-scholar/story-t49a0hvBKq1Q0zbOYx5G0N.html |title=Religious minorities experiencing genocide in Pakistan: Scholar |publisher=HT |author= |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301050934/http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/religious-minorities-experiencing-genocide-in-pakistan-scholar/story-t49a0hvBKq1Q0zbOYx5G0N.html |deadurl=no}}</ref>|| ||{{nameandflag|Pakistan}}||Pakistani Muslim civilians and terrorists||2000s-present||In recent decades, Pakistani Christians have increasingly become victims of riots, bombings, church demolitions and imprisonment on mere allegations of blasphemy.

|-
| ||Egyptian Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}|| ||1948-1957||
|-
| ||Iraqi and Kurdish Jews|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||1941 and 1950s-1969||<ref>''Republic of fear: the politics of modern Iraq'' By Kanan Makiya, chapter 2 "A World of Fear", University of California 1998</ref> See also: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhud]

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||[[w:Harki|Harkis]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Algeria}}|| || ||An estimated 30,000 (and possibly as many as 150,000) Muslim supporters of the French colonizers were killed.<ref>Sheehan, James. ''The Monopoly of Violence''. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-571-22086-1.</ref><ref>John Keegan (1993), p.55, ''A History of Warfare''. Random House. ISBN 0-09-174527-6</ref><ref>Horne, Alistair. ''A Savage War of Peace''. p. 537. ISBN 0-670-61964-7.</ref>

|-
| ||[[w:Igbo people|Igbo people]]|| ||{{nameandflag|Nigeria}}||Hausa and Fulani tribes (both Muslim)||1966||10,000 to 30,000 Igbos were killed.<ref>Akinyemi, A.B. (October 1972). "The British Press and the Nigerian Civil War". ''African Affairs''. Oxford University Press. 71 (285): 408–426. JSTOR 720847.</ref><ref>McKenna, Joseph C. (1969). "Elements of a Nigerian Peace". ''Foreign Affairs''. 47 (4): 668. JSTOR 20039407. doi:10.2307/20039407.</ref> These events led to a civil war.<ref>Abbott, Charles; Anthony, Douglas A. (2003). "Poison and Medicine: Ethnicity, Power, and Violence in a Nigerian City, 1966-86". ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies''. 36 (1): 133. JSTOR 3559324. doi:10.2307/3559324. </ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Bihari Muslims and West Pakistanis|| ||{{nameandflag|Bangladesh}}||Mukti Bahini militias and other Bengali Muslims||1971-72||About 30,000-200,000 were killed during and after the war of independence of Bangladesh.<ref>Gerlach, Christian (2010). ''Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World'' (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-70681-0.
p.148. [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=48N-XbOltMEC&pg=PA148&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false] </ref><ref>Bennett Jones, Owen (2003). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm (2nd revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-300-10147-8.</ref><ref>Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. ISBN 978-0415486194.</ref><ref>Saikia, Yasmin (2011). Women, War, and the Making of Bangladesh: Remembering 1971. Duke University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-8223-5038-5.</ref>

|-
| || || ||{{nameandflag|East Timor}}||{{nameandflag|Indonesia}}||1975-1999||Described as a genocide

|-
| ||Chakma, Marma, Tripuri and other indigenous people||Chittagong Hill Tracts||{{nameandflag|Bangladesh}}||Bangladeshi army and Muslim settlers||1977-1997||<ref>Nagendra K. Singh (2003). Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 222–223. ISBN 81-261-1390-1.</ref><ref>Shelley, Mizanur Rahman (1992). The Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: The untold story. Centre for Development Research, Bangladesh. p. 129.</ref>

|-
| ||Dinka people||Diein||{{nameandflag|Sudan}}||Rizeigat Muslims||1987||<ref>{{cite book|url= |title=Let the Nations Be Glad!: The Supremacy of God in Missions |publisher=Baker Academic |author=John Piper |page=103 |date=2010 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no |isbn=9781441207647 |edition=3}}</ref><ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/07/world/hundreds-of-villagers-reported-slain-in-the-sudan.html</ref>

|-
| ||Kashmiri Pandits and other Hindus||Kashmir valley||{{nameandflag|India}}||Kashmiri Muslim mobs and Pakistani terrorists||1989-2001||

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Kurds||Iraqi Kurdistan||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}||Saddam Hussein||1986-89||50,000-182,000 civilians killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/ |title=Iraqi Anfal|publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=1993 |accessdate=2013-08-31}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/iraq501/events_anfal.html The Crimes of Saddam Hussein – 1988 The Anfal Campaign] PBS Frontline.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Isaaq clan (Muslim) of Somalis|| ||{{nameandflag|Somalia}}||[[w:Siad Barre|Siad Barre]]||1988-1990||50,000-100,000 killed (possibly up to 200,000)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tOgOwSXB164C&pg=PA23&lpg=PA23&dq=50,000&source=bl&ots=gDxdHZNEgV&sig=tQB8KBkmIN2qBGzghefetUE7ITo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwig3YSDnsjRAhVI1BoKHbKaBUEQ6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q=50,000%20isaaq%20deaths&f=false|title=Stopping Mass Killings in Africa: Genocide, Airpower, and Intervention|last=Peifer|first=Douglas C.|date=2009-05-01|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=9781437912814|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mKWiBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT149&dq=&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi17-PMzMzRAhXLVhoKHZERA3w4ChDoAQg-MAc#v=onepage&q=%22large%20systematic%20scale%22&f=false|title=Making and Unmaking Nations: The Origins and Dynamics of Genocide in Contemporary Africa|last=Straus|first=Scott|date=2015-03-24|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=9780801455674|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Jones">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZybbAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=By+then,+any+surviving+urban+Isaaks+-|title=Genocide, war crimes and the West: history and complicity|last=Jones|first=Adam|date=2017-01-22|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=9781842771914|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/02/investigating-genocide-somaliland-20142310820367509.html|title=Investigating genocide in Somaliland|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Bantu people (Christians, Muslims and Traditional African religion)||Jubba Valley||{{nameandflag|Somalia}}||Somali militias||1991 onwards||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/ |title=Genocide in Somalia’s Jubba Valley and Somali Bantu Refugees in the U.S. |publisher=Social Science Research Council |author=Catherine L. Besteman |date=April 9 2007 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20160327033104/http://hornofafrica.ssrc.org/Besteman/ |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Hazara Shias||Mazar-e-Sharif, Bamiyan||{{nameandflag|Afghanistan}}||Taliban||1998||More than 8,000 noncombatants were reported killed after the Taliban captured the city.<ref>Goodson, Larry P.''Afghanistan's Endless War: State Failure, Regional Politics, and the Rise of the Taliban'', University of Washington Press (2001), ISBN 0295981113 p.79</ref> Goats and donkeys were also killed.<ref>Ahmed Rashid. ''Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia'' (2000), p.73.</ref>

|-
| ||Serbian Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Kosovo}}|| ||1999-2004||Many Serbs were expelled from entire villages and churches, and symbols of Serb heritage were destroyed in this period.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2015&mm=03&dd=17&nav_id=93505 |title=11 years since "March Pogrom" of Serbs in Kosovo |publisher=B92 |date=17 March 2015 |accessdate=7 September 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/apr/9/20050409-102733-9741r/ Anti-Serb programs in Kosovo], By The Washington Times</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ERP KiM Info|title=Dopunjeni i ispravljeni spisak uništenih i oštećenih pravoslavnih crkava i manastira na Kosovu u toku martovskog nasilja|work=B92 Specijal|date=26 April 2004|publisher=B92|url=http://www.b92.net/specijal/kosovo2004/unistenecrkve.php|ref=harv}}</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Muslim Roma, Ashkalis and purported Egyptians|| ||{{nameandflag|Kosovo}}||Albanian Muslims||1999 onwards||The persecution of these communities began during the Yugoslav wars but escalated after 1999. Most of them were expelled from Kosovo and their houses were destroyed.<ref>{{cite web|author=Claude Cahn |author-link= |year=2007 |title=Birth of a Nation: Kosovo and the Persecution of Pariah Minorities |journal=German Law Journal |volume=8 |issue=1 |issn=2071-8322 |url=http://www.germanlawjournal.org/pdfs/Vol08No01/PDF_Vol_08_No_01_81-94_SI_Cahn.pdf |mode=cs1 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215183028/http://www.germanlawjournal.org/pdfs/Vol08No01/PDF_Vol_08_No_01_81-94_SI_Cahn.pdf |archivedate=15 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gfbv.it/2c-stampa/2005/050201en.html |title=Memorandum of the Society for Threatened People on the Issue of Lead Poisoning of Roma in IDP Camps in Kosovo |publisher= |author= |date= |archiveurl= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Non-Arab and Black tribes (Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa)||Darfur||{{nameandflag|Sudan}}||Omar al-Bashir and janjaweed militias||2003-present||

|-
| ||Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Somalia}}||Al Shabab||2005 onwards||<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/node/14707279 |title=Somalia's embattled Christians: Almost expunged |publisher=The Economist |author= |date= |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20160413054603/http://www.economist.com/node/14707279 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

|-
| ||Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Palestine}}||Hamas, Muslim mobs, Islamic terorrist groups||2002 onwards||Muslims targeted Christians frequently in the West Bank and Gaza, burning churches and seizing properties. The Christian population fell from about 3,000 in 2007 to 1,400 in 2011. They were also the target of bomb attacks, murders, and discrimination under Hamas rule.<ref>{{cite web|last=Radin|first=Charles A.|title=Defendants killed in court; mob fears grow in West Bank|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-7705112.html|accessdate=|work=The Boston Globe|date=6 February 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=de Quetteville|first=Harry|title='Islamic mafia' accused of persecuting Holy Land Christians|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/palestinianauthority/1498033/Islamic-mafia-accused-of-persecuting-Holy-Land-Christians.html|accessdate= |work=The Daily Telegraph|date=9 September 2005|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Muslim attacks against Christians on the rise in West Bank |url=http://www.worldnewstribune.com/2012/05/28/muslim-attacks-against-christians-on-the-rise-in-west-bank/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212000435/http://www.worldnewstribune.com/2012/05/28/muslim-attacks-against-christians-on-the-rise-in-west-bank/ |deadurl=yes |archive-date=12 February 2016 |accessdate= |work=World Tribune |date=28 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Hadid|first=Diaa|title=For Gaza's Christians, new reality unsettling|url=http://www.chron.com/news/nation-world/article/For-Gaza-s-Christians-new-reality-unsettling-1807109.php|accessdate=|work=The Houston Chronicle|date=27 June 2007|agency=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Abu Toameh|first=Khaled|title=Christian-Muslim tensions heat up|url=http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast//Article.aspx?id=76420|accessdate=|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=25 April 2007|authorlink=Khaled Abu Toameh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Silver|first=Eric|title=Gaza's Christian bookseller killed|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/gazas-christian-bookseller-killed-396283.html|accessdate=|work=The Independent|date=8 October 2007|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Militants bomb Gaza YMCA library|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7246454.stm|accessdate=|work=BBC News|date=15 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Greenwood|first=Phoebe|title=Gaza Christians long for days before Hamas cancelled Christmas|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/23/gaza-christians-hamas-cancelled-christmas|accessdate=|work=The Guardian|date=23 December 2011|location=London}}</ref>

|-
| ||Mandaeans|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||2003 onwards||<ref>http://www.aina.org/reports/mhrar200803.pdf</ref>

|-
| ||Assyrian Christians|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}|| ||1933-2014||<ref>http://www.aina.org/articles/contestednations.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.aina.org/reports/ig.pdf</ref><ref>https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/oct/06/religion.iraq</ref>

|-
| ||Yazidis||Iraqi Kurdistan||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}||ISIS||2014-||

|-
| ||Arab Christians, Levantines, Armenians, Arameans, Assyrians (Syriacs or Chaldeans) and Copts|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}, {{nameandflag|Libya}}||ISIS||2014-||At least 1,000 casualties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/2015/12/24/460906980/as-christians-flee-governments-pressured-to-declare-isis-guilty-of-genocide|title=As Christians Flee, Governments Pressured To Declare ISIS Guilty Of Genocide|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=24 December 2015|quote=At least a thousand Christians have been killed. Hundreds of thousands have fled.}}</ref> Described as a genocide by the EU.<ref>2014. [http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/24/us-libya-egyptians-idUSBREA1N13V20140224 Seven Egyptian Christians found shot execution-style on Libyan beach] Reuters.</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Moore|first=Jack|date=February 4, 2016|title=European Parliament Recognizes ISIS Killing of Religious Minorities as Genocide|url=http://www.newsweek.com/european-parliament-recognizes-isis-killing-religious-minorities-genocide-423008 |newspaper=[[Newsweek]]}}</ref><ref name="Kaplan">{{cite news|last=Kaplan|first=Michael|date=February 4, 2016|title=ISIS Genocide Against Christians, Yazidis? European Parliament Recognizes Islamic State Targeting Religious Minorities|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/isis-genocide-against-christians-yazidis-european-parliament-recognizes-islamic-state-2294384 |newspaper=[[International Business Times]] |quote=The European Parliament characterized the persecution as "genocide" Thursday.}}</ref><ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bMOTION%2bP8-RC-2016-0149%2b0%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN JOINT MOTION FOR A RESOLUTION], European Parliament.</ref>

|- style="background:lightgreen"
| ||Shias (including ethnic Turkmen and Shabak)|| ||{{nameandflag|Iraq}}, {{nameandflag|Syria}}||[[w:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]]||2014-Present||<ref>{{cite web|title = Isis accused of ethnic cleansing as story of Shia prison massacre emerges|url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/aug/25/isis-ethnic-cleansing-shia-prisoners-iraq-mosul|website = the Guardian|accessdate = 2015-12-22|first = Luke|last = Harding|first2 = Fazel Hawramy |last2 = Irbil}}</ref><ref>http://europe.newsweek.com/isis-genocide-kerry-yazidis-christians-shia-437944?rm=eu</ref>

|- style="background:orange"
| ||Christians and Muslims|| ||{{nameandflag|Nigeria}}||Boko Haram||2014-present||<ref>http://genocidewatch.net/2016/02/09/justice-for-jos-project-and-us-nigeria-law-group-on-boko-haram-attacks/</ref><ref>https://www.naij.com/1097991-catholic-bishop-reveals-boko-haram-killed-500-priests-borno-state.html Archive at [https://web-beta.archive.org/web/20170406214448/https://www.naij.com/1097991-catholic-bishop-reveals-boko-haram-killed-500-priests-borno-state.html]</ref>

|-
| ||Coptic Christians||North Sinai||{{nameandflag|Egypt}}||[[w:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]]||Feb 2017-present||<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170308101839/http://www.aina.org/news/20170308034228.htm</ref><ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170309063403/http://www.financialexpress.com/world-news/isis-butchering-egyptian-christians-in-their-own-homes/580189/</ref><ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20170308190158/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/02/egypt-coptic-christians-flee-sinai-ismailiya-170226154942356.html</ref>

|} 

==Miscellaneous==

*The Serbian church was persecuted for centuries under Turkish rule and severely weakened by the 18th century. This caused the emigration of many Serbs from their native region and a failed revolt.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=JmFetR5Wqd8C&pg=PT1111&lpg=PT1111&dq=ottoman+persecution+orthodox&source=bl&ots=SptLtIlsKK&sig=Br-7RQXh6EYrgANkBEv_BGKXz0Y&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjyuqPWkIHVAhUCTI8KHSN8BvAQ6AEIVDAI#v=onepage&q=ottoman%20persecution%20orthodox&f=false |title=The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |author=John Anthony McGuckin |date=2010 |archiveurl= |deadurl=no |chapter=Serbian Church Under Ottoman And Habsburg Rule | isbn=9781444392548}}</ref>
*Since the mid-1980s, more than 20,000 Shia Muslims and hundreds of Ahmadis have been killed in Pakistan by Sunni terrorists sponsored by generals of the Pakistani Army.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http%3A%2F%2Fabna.ir%2Fdata.asp%3Flang%3D3%26id%3D365815|2=2012-11-21}} Over the last several decades 6000 Shia children killed in Pakistan + Pic] - ABNA, November 18, 2012 See also [http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12278919], archived at [https://web.archive.org/web/20170827055925/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12278919].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==

*Boyce, Mary (2001), [https://books.google.co.in/books?id=a6gbxVfjtUEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Zoroastrians,+their+religious+beliefs+and+practices&pg=PP1&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false Zoroastrians, their religious beliefs and practices] (2 ed.), New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 148-252, ISBN 9780415239028
*Stepaniants, Marietta (2002), "The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam", ''Philosophy East and West'', University of Hawai'i Press, 52 (2): pp. 159–172, doi:10.1353/pew.2002.0030, ISSN 0031-8221, JSTOR 1399963.
*Johnstone, Patrick. [https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possiblities] InterVarsity Press, 17 Jan 2014. ISBN 0830856951

==See also==

*[[The Turkish Genocides]]

[[Category:Islamic History]]

Islam and Homosexuality

2025-12-07T20:52:56Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{#seo:
|title=Islam and Homosexuality
|title_mode={{{title_mode|}}}
|keywords={{{keywords|}}}
|description={{{description|}}}
|image=Homophobes.jpg
}}
[[Category:Homosexuality]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Sex]]
{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=2|References=3}}Homosexuality is considered a sin in Islam and punishable under [[Islamic Law|Islamic law]], which is derived from the [[Qur'an|Quran]] and [[Hadith]] (accounts of [[Muhammad|Muhammad's]] life). Homosexual acts and relationships are forbidden in many Islamic countries, though surveys show increasing acceptance among Muslim populations in Western countries.
==In Islamic law==
The four [[Sunni]] [[Madhab|schools of jurisprudence]] all agree that practicing homosexuality is an egregious crime that merits an especially harsh [[Punishments|punishment]], although the exact punishment varies. In the Hanafi school, homosexuals are first to be beaten harshly and then executed if they persist in their behavior. In the Shafi'i school, they are punished in the same manner as one who engages in [[Zina|illegal intercourse (''zina'')]], receiving 100 lashes if unmarried or being stoned to death if married. Some scholars, referencing the practices of the four [[Rashidun Caliphs|Rightly-Guided (''Rashidun'') Caliphs]], hold that homosexuals should be thrown from tall buildings,<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545556 Fatwa Bank: Death Fall as Punishment for Homosexuality] - Islam Online, July 22, 2002</ref> while others believe that the punishment for homosexual acts should be life imprisonment or stoning.<ref>"''So when Our punishment came upon the people of Lut, We turned the city upside down and showered them with stones of baked clay, one after another.''" - {{Quran|11|82}}</ref> One opinion holds that "passive" participants in homosexual acts should be executed in all circumstances, while the "active" participant may escape execution if unmarried and instead receive 100 lashes.<ref>See the chapter on "hudud" in Sharaya and Sharh Lum'a also al-Khu'i, Takmilah, p. 42-44.</ref> Opinions also vary on whether the means of execution should be stoning or beheading.
==In the Muslim world==
Some modern academics place the blame for Islamic hostility towards homosexuality on "the adoption of European Victorian attitudes by the new Westernized elite."<ref>El-Rouayheb, 2005, p. 156</ref> However, the Islamic tradition has long drawn its views on homosexuality from accounts of Muhammad's perspective, which are found in various hadith.

Sunan Abu Dawood indicates that Muhammad instructed: "''If you find anyone doing as Lot's people did, kill the one who does it, and the one to whom it is done.''”<ref>"''Narrated Abdullah ibn Abbas: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If you find anyone doing as Lot's people did, kill the one who does it, and the one to whom it is done.''" - {{Abu Dawud||4462|darussalam}}</ref> In Bukhari, he curses effeminate men and masculine women and orders his followers to ''"Turn them out of your houses."''<ref>"''Narrated Ibn 'Abbas: The Prophet cursed effeminate men (those men who are in the similitude (assume the manners of women) and those women who assume the manners of men, and he said, "Turn them out of your houses ." The Prophet turned out such-and-such man, and 'Umar turned out such-and-such woman.''" - {{Bukhari|||5886|darussalam}}</ref> This attitude on homosexuality was adopted by Muhammad's successors: [[Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Uthman|Abu Bakr]], the first Rashidun caliph, had a homosexual burned at the stake, and the fourth, Muhammad’s son-in-law [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]], ordered that homosexuals be stoned (he also had at least one thrown from the minaret of a mosque).<ref>Serge Trifkovic - [http://97.74.65.51/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=20145 Islam's Love-Hate Relationship with Homosexuality] - FrontPageMag, January 24, 2003</ref> While individual and societal perspectives have varied through time, these foundational texts and events have exerted significant influence on Islamic thought regarding homosexuality.

Saudi scholar Shaykh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid blamed "the spread of homosexuality" on the rise of diseases such as AIDS.<ref>Sheikh Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid - [http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/10050 Why does Islam forbid lesbianism and homosexuality?] - Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 10050</ref> Among the 3% of the world's Muslims living in "more-developed regions",<ref>''"As of 2010, about three-quarters of the world’s Muslims (74.1%) live in the 49 countries in which Muslims make up a majority of the population. More than a fifth of all Muslims (23.3%) live in non-Muslim-majority countries in the developing world. About 3% of the world’s Muslims live in more-developed regions, such as Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan."'' - [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx|2=2012-12-02}} The Future of the Global Muslim Population], The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, January 27, 2011</ref> homosexuality is generally considered unacceptable, although there have been some trends toward more socially liberal views. In a Gallup survey conducted in early 2009, no British Muslims expressed the view that homosexuality was morally acceptable.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/may/07/muslims-britain-france-germany-homosexuality|2=2011-11-30}} Muslims in Britain have zero tolerance of homosexuality, says poll] - The Guardian, May 7, 2009</ref><ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://www.euro-islam.info/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/gallup_coexist_2009_interfaith_relations_uk_france_germany.pdf|2=2011-11-30}} The Gallup Coexist Index 2009: A Global Study of Interfaith Relations] - Section 2: Public Perceptions Toward Integration, p. 31</ref> Later, in a 2016 Ipsos-MORI review of poll data, 52% of British Muslims thought homosexuality should be illegal in Britain, with 18% saying it should be legal. This number rose to 28% among respondents aged 18-24.<ref>[https://barrowcadbury.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/IPSOs-Mori-Muslim-report.pdf A review of survey results on Muslims in Britain] - Ipsos-MORI - February 2018</ref>

A Zogby International poll of American Muslims taken in 2001 found that 71% opposed "allowing gays and lesbians to marry legally."<ref>[http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/sexualminorities/Islamic%20World100202.pdf Islamohomophobia] - WorldNetDaily, October 2, 2002</ref> However, a 2017 Pew Research Center survey found that 52% of American Muslims believed society should be accepting of homosexuality, up from 39% in 2011 and 27% in 2007.<ref>[https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/07/26/political-and-social-views/pf_2017-06-26_muslimamericans-04new-06/ Like Americans overall, Muslims now more accepting of homosexuality] - Pew Research Centre, 25 July 2017</ref>

In Indonesia, owing to pressure from the conservative Islamic population, some local authorities have been given permission to draw on Islamic law in the treatment of homosexuality.<ref>[http://www.globalgayz.com/country/Indonesia/view/IDN/gay-indonesia-news-and-reports-2#article9 Muslim Communities Thwart Indonesian Protections For Gays] - 365Gay.com, October 4, 2006</ref> Attempts to legalize homosexuality in India have been opposed by Islamic clerics, who have cited its impermissibility in Islamic law and called it immoral.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Muslim-leaders-join-Deoband-slam-gay-sex/articleshow/4723843.cms After Deoband, other Muslim leaders condemn homosexuality] - Times of India, July 1, 2009</ref> In September 2018, the Indian Supreme Court legalised homosexual intercourse, overturning a 2013 judgement which had upheld a colonial-era law.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-45429664 India court legalises gay sex in landmark ruling] - BBC news, 6 September 2018</ref>

===Treatment of homosexuals===
Religious and governmental authorities in much of the Muslim world maintain that LGBT individuals should be either executed or subjected to harsh punishment. The following excerpt is taken from a 2007 Saudi Ministry of Education textbook:{{Quote|1=[http://www.hudson.org/files/pdf_upload/Excerpts_from_Saudi_Textbooks_715.pdf Saudi Ministry of Education Textbooks for Islamic Studies: 2007-2008 Academic Year] Center for Religious Freedom of Hudson Institute|2="Homosexuality is one of the most disgusting sins and greatest crimes.... It is a vile perversion that goes against sound nature, and is one of the most corrupting and hideous sins.... The punishment for homosexuality is death. Both the active and passive participants are to be killed whether or not they have previously had sexual intercourse in the context of a legal marriage.... Some of the companions of the Prophet stated that [the perpetrator] is to be burned with fire. It has also been said that he should be stoned, or thrown from a high place."}}As of 2009, homosexual relationships, acts, or behavior were forbidden in approximately 36 Muslim-majority countries, with punishments ranging from fines to life imprisonment.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_issues_and_Islam#Homosexuality_laws_in_Muslim_countries Homosexuality laws in Muslim countries] - Wikipedia, accessed July 29, 2009</ref><ref name="IL2">H. Tavakoli - [http://www.iranian.com/Letters/1999/September/gay.html The New Dark Ages] - The Iranian,September 20, 1999</ref> In ten of those countries -- Iran, Mauritania, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi-Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and some states in Malaysia -- homosexuality is punishable by death.<ref>Sean Yoong - [http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/malaysia/mynews033.htm Malaysian State Legislature Passes Bill on Strict Islamic Criminal Code] - Associated Press, July 8, 2002</ref>

According to Iranian gay and lesbian rights group Homan, the Iranian government has executed an estimated 4,000 homosexuals since the Islamic revolution of 1979.<ref name="IL2" /> In Muslim-majority nations that have legalized homosexuality, members of the LGBT community often fall victim to vigilante violence. In Iraq, for instance, where no official laws criminalize homosexuality, vigilante squads throughout the country routinely target suspected homosexuals for murder, at one point reportedly killing 68 gay and transgender men in the space of four months. These vigilante executions have been carried out in torturous and humiliating ways, such as gluing victims' anuses shut and inducing fatal diarrhea.<ref>Ben Lando - [http://www.iraqoilreport.com/security-conflict/iraqi-gay-community-a-target-1950/ Iraqi gay community a target] - Iraq Oil Report, July 9, 2009</ref><ref>[http://iglhrc.wordpress.com/2009/04/20/iraq-torture-cruel-inhuman-and-degrading-treatment-of-lgbt-people/ Iraq: Torture, Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment of LGBT People] - International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission, April 20, 2009</ref>

Turkey is host to widespread vigilante violence against homosexuals, with 11 being killed in the first half of 2009.<ref>[http://www.ilmediterraneo.it/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1657&lang=en&Itemid=7 Homosexuals in Turkey: Istanbul week for gay rights] - ANSAmed, June 24, 2009</ref><ref>[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=8216religion-loves-tolerance-but-is-not-tolerant8217-2009-11-17 'Religion loves tolerance, but is not tolerant'] - Hürriyet Daily News, November 17, 2009</ref>

==Articles==
The following are summaries of other articles discussing Islam's relationship with homosexuality.
===Islamic Writing and Homosexuality===
{{Main|Qur'an, Hadith and Scholars:Homosexuality}}The Qur'an, Hadith, and Islamic scholars scholars have all commented extensively on homosexuality.{{quote | 1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=4&tid=10619 The Adulteress is Confined in her House; A Command Later Abrogated] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=[وَاللَّذَانَ يَأْتِيَـنِهَا مِنكُمْ فَـَاذُوهُمَا]

(And the two persons among you who commit illegal sexual intercourse, punish them both.) Ibn `Abbas and Sa`id bin Jubayr said that this punishment includes cursing, shaming them and beating them with sandals. This was the ruling until '''Allah abrogated it with flogging or stoning,''' as we stated. Mujahid said, "It was revealed about the case of two men who do it.'' As if he was referring to the actions of the people of Lut, and Allah knows best. The collectors of Sunan recorded that Ibn `Abbas said that the Messenger of Allah said,

«مَنْ رَأَيْتُمُوهُ يَعْمَلُ عَمَلَ قَوْمِ لُوطٍ، فَاقْتُلُوا الْفَاعِلَ وَالْمَفْعُولَ بِه»

('''Whoever you catch committing the act of the people of Lut (homosexuality), then kill both parties to the act.''')}}
===The People of Lot===
{{Main|Lut}}The story of ''Lot'' (لوط, Lūṭ) from the Hebrew Bible is also found in the Qur'an, with some differences. The Qur'anic version links the destruction of Sodom specifically to the homosexual activities of its inhabitants. The Qur'an also states that the people of Lot were the first to experience homosexuality, whereas archeological research has revealed that homosexuality was practiced in ancient cultures as early as 7000 BC. The story of Seth and Horus is one of many examples of stories describing homosexual relationships which appear before the time of Lot and Abraham.
==External Links==

*[http://www.answering-islam.org/Authors/Arlandson/homosexual.htm Muhammad and the homosexual] ''- By James M. Arlandson''

*[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1212925221746&pagename=Zone-English-Living_Shariah/LSELayout How Islam Views Homosexuality] ''- 15 Fatwas from Islam-Online''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]

99 names of Allah

2025-12-05T22:27:03Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}
The Quran references the "beautiful names of Allah." Hadith elaborate on this further, specifying that Allah has exactly 99 names. Muslims are expected to learn these names, though not all are listed in the Quran or hadith. This required Islamic scholars to use [[ijtihad]] (independent judgement) to locate these names in the Quran and Sunnah, with different scholars proposing different lists. As many as 276 names have been proposed.

==The phrase "beautiful names of Allah" mentioned in the Qur'an==
The Quran states that Allah has "beautiful names" (الأسماء الحسنى, ''al-asmaa' ul-husnaa''). It does not specify the names or their number.
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|180}}|And to Allah belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى), so invoke Him by them. And leave [the company of] those who practice deviation concerning His names. They will be recompensed for what they have been doing.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|110}}|Say, "Call upon Allah or call upon the Most Merciful. Whichever [name] you call - to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى)." And do not recite [too] loudly in your prayer or [too] quietly but seek between that an [intermediate] way.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|8}}|Allah - there is no deity except Him. To Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|59|24}}|He is Allah, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى). Whatever is in the heavens and earth is exalting Him. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
}}
==Hadith==
Numerous hadith, such as the following from Sahih Bukhari, indicate that Allah has 99 names:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7392|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Allah has ninety-nine Names, one-hundred less one; and he who memorized them all by heart will enter Paradise." To count something means to know it by heart.}}
Some Islamic scholars and public figures argue that the above hadith indicates that Allah has ''at least'' 99 names. However, this specification does not appear in the original Arabic, which simply indicates that Allah has "ninety-nine" or "one-hundred less one" names.

==The popular list==
===Source===
A popular list of Allah's 99 names originates from a weak (da'if) hadith from the collection of Tirmidhi.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|45|3507}} (weak)|Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

“Indeed, Allah has ninety-nine Names, one hundred less one, whoever counts them shall enter Paradise. He is Allah, the one whom there is none worthy of worship except for Him (Allāhu Lā Ilāha Illā Huwa), the Most Merciful (to the creation) (Ar-Raḥmān), the Most Beneficent (to the believers) (Ar-Raḥīm), the King (Al-Malik), the Free of Deficiencies (Al-Quddūs), the Granter of Safety (As-Salām), the Granter of Security (Al-Mu’min), the Watcher (Al-Muhaimin), the Mighty (Al-`Azīz), the Compeller (Al-Jabbār), the Supreme (Al-Mutakabbir), the Creator (Al-Khāliq), the Originator (Al-Bāri’), the Fashioner (Al-Muṣawwir), the Pardoner (Al-Ghaffār), the Overwhelming (Al-Qahhār), the Giving (Al-Wahhāb), the Provider (Ar-Razzāq), the Opener (Al-Fattāḥ), the Knowing (Al-`Alīm), the Taker (Al-Qābiḍ), the Giver (Al-Bāsiṭ), the Abaser (Al-Khāfiḍ), the Exalter (Ar-Rāfi`), the One who grants honor (Al-Mu`izz), the One who humiliates (Al-Mudhil), the Hearing (As-Samī`), the Seeing (Al-Baṣīr), the Judge (Al-Ḥakam), the Just (Al-`Adl), the Kind (Al-Laṭīf), the Aware (Al-Khabīr), the Forbearing (Al-Ḥalīm), the Magnificent (Al-`Aẓīm), the Oft-Forgiving (Al-Ghafūr), the Grateful (Ash-Shakūr), the Most High (Al-`Aliyy), the Great (Al-Kabīr), the Guardian (Al-Ḥafīẓ), the Powerful (Al-Muqīt), the Reckoner (Al-Ḥasīb), the Glorious (Al-Jalīl), the Generous (Al-Karīm), the Watcher (Ar-Raqīb), the Responder (Al-Mujīb), the Liberal Giver (Al-Wāsi`), the Wise (Al-Ḥakīm), the Loving (Al-Wadūd), the Majestic (Al-Majīd), the Reviver (Al-Bā`ith), the Witness (Ash-Shahīd), the Truth (Al-Ḥaqq), the Guarantor (Al-Wakīl), the Strong (Al-Qawiyy), the Firm (Al-Matīn), the One Who Aids (Al-Waliyy), the Praiseworthy (Al-Ḥamīd), the Encompasser (Al-Muḥṣi), the One Who Begins things (Al-Mubdi’), the One Who brings things back (Al-Mu`īd), the One Who gives life (Al-Muḥyi), the One Who causes death (Al-Mumīt), the Living (Al-Ḥayyu), the Self-Sufficient (Al-Qayyūm), the One Who brings into existence (Al-Wājid), the Illustrious (Al-Mājid), the One (Al-Wāḥid), the Master (Aṣ-Ṣamad), the Able (Al-Qādir), the Powerful (Al-Muqtadir), the One who hastens (Al-Muqaddim), the One who delays (Al-Mu’akhkhir), the First (Al-Awwal), the Last (Al-Ākhir), the Apparent (Aẓ-Ẓāhir), the Inner (Al-Bāṭin), the Owner (Al-Wāli), the Exalted (Al-Muta`āli), the Doer of Good (Al-Barr), the Acceptor of repentance (At-Tawwāb), the Avenger (Al-Muntaqim), the Pardoning (Al-`Afuww), the Kind (Ar-Ra’ūf), the Owner of Dominion (Mālikul-Mulk), the Possessor of Glory and Generosity (Dhul Jalāli wal Ikrām), the One who does justice (Al-Muqsiṭ), the Gatherer (Al-Jāmi`), the Rich (Al-Ghaniyy), the Enricher (Al-Mughni), the Preventer (Al-Māni`), the Harmer (Aḍ-Ḍār), the One who benefits (An-Nāfi`), the Light (An-Nūr), the Guide (Al-Hādi), the Originator (Al-Badī`), the Lasting (Al-Bāqi), the Inheritor (Al-Wārith), the Guide (Ar-Rashīd), the Tolerant (Aṣ-Ṣabūr).”}}
Tirmidhi elaborates on the quality of the hadith:
{{Quote|Tirmidhi comment on the list|"This (version of the) hadith is gharib [unusual, scarce]; it has been narrated from various routes on the authority of Abu Hurairah, but we do not know of the mention of the Names in the numerous narrations, except this one."
}}
From Ibn Tamiyya: {{Quote|Ibn Taimyya|"Al-Walid (one of the narrators of the hadith) related the Names from (the saying of) one of his Syrian teachers ... '''specific mention of the Names is not from the words of the Prophet''' (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), by the agreement of those familiar with Hadith."}}

===The list===
Some of the words given as names of Allah in the list are not present in the Quran. The following table links to Quranic verses cited as sources of each name and notes instances where the name does not appear (for example where the same root word appears as a verb).
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
!Num.
!In Arabic
!Transliteration
!Offical translation
!Actual translation
!Reference
!Notes
|-
|1||الرحمان||''ar-rahmaan''||The Most Gracious||The Gracious||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|2||الرحيم||''ar-raheem''||The Most Merciful||The Merciful||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|3||المالك||''al-maalik''||The King||The Posessor <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||Some translations say "sovereign" <ref>http://quranx.com/59.23</ref>
|-
|4||القدوس||''al-quddoos''||The Holy||The Holy||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|5||السلام||''as-salaam''||The Peace||Free from defect||{{Quran|59|23}}||Ibn Kathir understands it as "free from defect" <ref>http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1602&Itemid=115</ref>
|-
|6||المؤمن||''al-mu'min''||The Granter of Security||The Believer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%85%D9%86/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||''Mu'min'' in all other verses means "believer" <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amn</ref>
|-
|7||المهيمن||''al-muhaymin''||The Controller||The Controller||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|8||العزيز||''al-'azeez''||The Powerful||The Honorable <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2/</ref>||{{Quran|3|6}}||
|-
|9||الجبار||''al-jabbar''||The Strong||The Forceful <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/</ref>|||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|10||المتكبر||''al-mutakabbir''||The Supreme||The Arrogant/The Boaster <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|11||الخالق||''al-khaaliq''||The Creator||The Creator||{{Quran|6|102}}||
|-
|12||البارئ||''al-baari''||The Maker||The Maker||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|13||المصور||''al-musawwir''||The Fashioner||The Fashioner||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|14||الغفار||''al-ghaffaar''||The Repeatedly Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|20|82}}||
|-
|15||القهار||''al-qahhaar''||The Subduer||The Despot / The Conqueror||{{Quran|12|39}}||
|-
|16||الوهاب||''al-wahhaab''||The Bestower||The Provider <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8/</ref>||{{Quran|38|9}}||Also a name of the founder of Wahhabism.
|-
|17||الرزاق||''ar-razaaq''||The Provider||The Provider||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|18||الفتاح||''al-fattaah''||The Opener||The Opener||{{Quran|34|26}}||"fath" (opening) is a euphemism for Islamic conquests (''futuhaat islamiyya'', literally "Islamic openings").
|-
|19||العليم||''al-'aleem''||The Knowing||The Knowing||{{Quran|2|158}}||
|-
|20||القابض||''al-qaabid''||The Restrainer||The Grabbing <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B6/</ref>||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||قبضة or ''qabda'' is fist
|-
|21||الباسط||''al-baasit''||The Extender||The Extender||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||It should be rendered as باصط.
|-
|22||الخافض||''al-khaafid''||The Humiliator||The Lessener/Lowerer||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|23||الرافع||''ar-raafee''||The Exalter||The Raiser||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|24||المعز||''al-muiz''||The Giver of Honor||The Honored||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|25||المذل||''al-mudhil''||The Giver of Dishonor||The Humiliating <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%84/</ref>||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|26||السميع||''as-samii''||The Hearing||The Hearing||{{Quran|2|127}}||
|-
|27||البصير||''al-baseer''||The All-Seeing||The Seeing||{{Quran|4|58}}||
|-
|28||الحكم||''al-hakam''||The Judge||The Judge||{{Quran|22|69}} (it's not there)||
|-
|29||العدل||''al-adl''||The Just||The Justice||{{Quran|6|115}} (it's not there)||
|-
|30||اللطيف||''al-lateef''||The Subtly Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|22|63}}||
|-
|31||الخبير||''al-khabeer''||The All-aware||The Informed <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|6|18}}||
|-
|32||الحليم||''al-haleem''||The Forbearing||The Forbearing||{{Quran|2|235}}||
|-
|33||العظيم||''al-'azeem''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|34||الغفور||''al-ghafoor''||The Much Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|2|173}}||
|-
|35||الشكور||''ash-shakoor''||The Grateful||The Thankful||{{Quran|35|30}}||
|-
|36||العلى||''al-aliyy''||The Sublime||The Exalted||{{Quran|4|34}}||
|-
|37||الكبير||''al-kabeer''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|38||الحفيظ||''al-hafeez''||The Preserver||The Preserver||{{Quran|11|57}}||
|-
|39||المقيت||''al-muqeet''||The Nourisher||The Nourisher||{{Quran|4|85}}||
|-
|40||الحسيب||''al-haseeb''||The Bringer of Judgment||The Accountant||{{Quran|4|6}}||حساب or hisaab means "account"
|-
|41||الجليل||''al-jaleel''||The Majestic||The Majestic||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|143}} (it's not there)||
|-
|42||الكريم||''al-kareem''||The Bountiful||The Bountiful||{{Quran|27|40}}||
|-
|43||الرقيب||''ar-raqeeb''||The Watchful||The Watchman||{{Quran|4|1}}||
|-
|44||المجيب||''al-mujeeb''||The Responsive||The Responsive||{{Quran|11|61}}||
|-
|45||الواسع||''al-waasie''||The Vast||The Vast||{{Quran|2|268}}||
|-
|46||الحكيم||''al-hakeem''||The Wise||The Wise||{{Quran|31|27}}||
|-
|47||الودود||''al-wadood''||The Affectionate||The Affectionate||{{Quran|11|90}}||
|-
|48||المجيد||''al-majeed''||The Glorious||The Glorious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|49||الباعث||''al-baaith''||The Resurrector||The Resurrector||{{Quran|22|7}} (it's not there)||
|-
|50||الشهيد||''ash-shaheed''||The Witness||The Witness||{{Quran|4|166}}||
|-
|51||الحق||''al-haqq''||The Truth||The Truth||{{Quran|22|6}}||
|-
|52||الوكيل||''al-wakeel''||The Trustee||The Trustee||{{Quran|3|173}}||
|-
|53||القوي||''al-qawee''||The Strong||The Strong||{{Quran|22|40}}||
|-
|54||المتين||''al-mateen''||The Firm||The Firm||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|55||الولي||''al-walee''||The Friend||The Friend||{{Quran|4|45}}||
|-
|56||الحميد||''al-hameed''||The All Praiseworthy||The Praiseworthy||{{Quran|14|8}}||Muhammad (محمد) is derived from the same root
|-
|57||المحصى||''al-muhsee''||The Accounter||The Accounter||{{Quran|72|28}} (it's not there), {{Quran|78|29}} (it's not there)||إحصىء means "statistics"
|-
|58||المبدئ||''al-mubdi''||The Initiator||The Initiator||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|59||المعيد||''al-mueed''||The Restorer||The Lecturer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|60||المحي||''al-muhee''||The Giver of Life||The Giver of Life||{{Quran|30|50}}||
|-
|61||المميت||''al-mumeet''||The Bringer of Death||The Deadly <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA/</ref>||{{Quran|3|156}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|158}} (it's not there), {{Quran|15|23}} (it's not there), {{Quran|57|2}} (it's not there)||
|-
|61||الحى||''al-hayy''||The Living||The Living||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|63||القيوم||''al-qayyum''||The Subsisting||The Subsisting||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|64||الواجد||''al-waajid''||The Perceiver||The Angry <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|38|44}} (it's not there)||
|-
|65||الماجد||''al-maajid''||The Illustrious||The Illustrious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|66||الواحد||''al-waahid''||The Single||The Single||{{Quran|13|16}}||
|-
|67||الأحد||''al-ahad''||The One||The One||{{Quran|112|1}}||
|-
|68||الصمد||''as-samad''||The Eternal||The Eternal||{{Quran|112|2}}||
|-
|69||القادر||''al-qaadir''||The All-Powerful||The Able||{{Quran|6|65}}||
|-
|70||المقتدر||''al-muqtadir''||The Determiner||The Able||{{Quran|18|45}}||
|-
|71||المقدم||''al-muqaddim''||He Who Brings Forward||The Donor||{{Quran|16|61}} (it's not there)||
|-
|72||المؤخر||''al-muakhir''||The Delayer||The Delayer||{{Quran|71|4}} (it's not there)||
|-
|73||الأول||''al-awwal''||The First||The First||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|74||الآخر||''al-aakhir''||The Last||The Last||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|75||الظاهر||''az-zaahir''||The Apparent||The Apparent||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|76||الباطن||''al-baatin''||The Inner||The Inner||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|77||الوالي||''al-waali''||The Patron||The Patron||{{Quran|13|11}}||
|-
|78||المتعالي||''al-mutaali''||The Most High||The Arrogant <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A/</ref>||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|79||البر||''al-barr''||The Good||The Good||{{Quran|52|28}}||
|-
|80||التواب||''at-tawwaab''||The Ever-Returning||The Merciful||{{Quran|4|64}}||
|-
|81||المنتقم||''al-muntaqim''||The Avenger||The Revenger||{{Quran|32|22}}||Appears in plural form
|-
|82||العفو||''al-'afuu''||The Pardoner||The Pardoner||{{Quran|4|43}}||
|-
|83||الرؤف||''ar-rauf''||The Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|9|117}}||
|-
|84||مالك الملك||''maalik ul-mulk''||The Owner of all Sovereignty||The Owner of all Dominion||{{Quran|3|26}}||
|-
|85||ذو الجلال والإكرام||''dhul jalaal wal ikraam''||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||{{Quran|55|27}}||
|-
|86||المقسط||''al-muqsit''||The Equitable||The Equitable||{{Quran|3|18}} (it's not there)||
|-
|87||الجامع||''al-jaami''||The Gatherer||The Gatherer||{{Quran|3|9}}||
|-
|88||الغني||''al-ghaani''||The Rich||The Rich||{{Quran|57|24}}||
|-
|89||المغني||''al-mughni''||The Enricher||The Enricher||{{Quran|9|28}} (it's not there)||
|-
|90||المانع||''al-maani''||The Preventer||The Preventer||{{Quran|67|21}} (it's not there)||No form of the relevant word appears
|-
|91||الضار||''ad-daar''||The Harmer||The Harmer||{{Quran|6|17}} (it's not there)||
|-
|92||النافع||''an-naafi''||The Propitious||The Propitious||{{Quran|30|37}} (it's not there)||No form of the relevant word appears
|-
|93||النور||''an-noor''||The Light||The Light||{{Quran|24|35}}||
|-
|94||الهادي||''al-haadi''||The Guide||The Guide||{{Quran|22|54}}||
|-
|95||البديع||''al-badee''||The Originator||The Originator||{{Quran|2|117}}||
|-
|96||الباقي||''al-baaqi''||The Immutable||The Remaining||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there)||"And there '''will remain''' the Face of your Lord..."
|-
|97||الوارث||''al-waarith''||The Heir||The Heir||{{Quran|15|23}}||Appears in plural form
|-
|98||الرشيد||''ar-rasheed''||The Guide to the Right Path||The ِRightly Guided||{{Quran|72|10}} (it's not there)||"And we do not know [therefore] whether evil is intended for those on earth or whether their Lord intends for them '''a right course''' (رشدا)."
|-
|99||الصبور||''as-saboor''||The Patient||The Patient||{{Quran|2|153}} (it's not there), {{Quran|3|200}} (it's not there), {{Quran|103|3}} (it's not there)||
|}

===Issues===
==== "The Compassionate" ====
Reynolds (2020) discusses one of the most commonly used names for Allah, Al-Rahman or The Compassionate:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 94-96). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|Most tellingly, perhaps, on fifty-six occasions the Qur’an simply names God al-rahman, “the Compassionate.” This would seem to suggest that the Qur’an’s idea of God is deeply intertwined with the concept of mercy. A closer analysis, however, complicates this suggestion in three ways. First, the name al-rahman is used for God in a number of verses in which God is not merciful.14 This is the case with Q 19:45, in which Abraham tells his (pagan) father, “I am indeed afraid that a punishment from al-rahman will befall you, and you will become Satan’s accomplice.” This paradoxical use of al-rahman appears again in Q 21:42, where God commands the Prophet: “Say, ‘Who can guard you, day and night, against [the punishment of] al-rahman.”15Second, in the Qur’an the term al-rahman always appears with the definite article (al) and never as a simple adjective. And third, whereas rahim is used to refer to things other than God (e.g., in Q 9:128 Muhammad is rahim), al-rahman is used only to refer to God. Together these things suggest that the Qur’an’s author meant to use al-rahman principally as a proper noun for God. This possibility seems more likely in light of what we know from the evidence left behind on rocks by monotheists who lived in Arabia before Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabian rock inscriptions often refer to God, or God the Father in the Christian Trinity, with a version of the name al-rahman. In South Arabian the name appears as rahmanan.16In North Arabia, too, God, or a god, was referred to as “the merciful.” A North Arabian inscription (in a variety of Ancient North Arabian known as Safaitic) includes an appeal to a god who is referred to with a term related to Arabic rahim and rahman.17 Thus, al-rahman (or other versions of it) seems simply to have been a typical way to refer to God in Arabia.18}}
"Rahmanan" above is synonymous with al-rahman, with the definite article being expressed through the 'an' suffix,as in some Southern Arabian languages, rather than the 'al' prefix as in contemporary Arabic.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 254)'''.''''' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

Footnote 16: This is not the only name that Arabian monotheists used for God. The French archaeologist Christian Robin has carefully catalogued names for God used by Jews in the South Arabian kingdom of Himyar in the fifth and sixth centuries. In addition to rahmanan (“the Compassionate”; the an at the end of the word is the definite article used in certain South Arabian languages), they used a name close to Arabic allah (ʾlahan) along with rabb (“lord”)—a term closely related to a name used for God in the Qurʾan..

</ref>

====Duplicates====
The verse 55:27 is considered as an instance of both "ذو الجلال والإكرام" and "الجليل". It is not clear what the difference could be between الغفور and الغفار or between "مالك" and "مالك الملك".

====Names not mentioned in the Quran====
Some of the purported names of Allah do not appear in the Quran, for example the last on the list, الصبور (The Patient). It is often cited as appearing in verse 2:153:{{Quote|{{Quran|2|153}}|
O you who have believed, seek help '''through patience''' (بالصبر) and prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the patient.
}}
In this case, the relevant word means "patience" and not "The Patient One."

Another verse from which the claim is derived uses the term as a verb and command for believers:
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|200}}|O you who have believed, '''persevere and endure''' (اصبروا وصابروا) and remain stationed and fear Allah that you may be successful.
}}Another verse similarly translates to "patience," not "The Patient One":
{{Quote|{{Quran|103|3}}|Except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and advised each other '''to patience''' (بالصبر).
}}
A similar phenomenon occurs with another purported name, The Preventer (المانع), which is cited as occuring in verse 67:21: the verb in this verse is not derived from the same root, منع.

====Other names not mentioned in the list====
The Qur'an refers to Allah as [[Allah the Best Deceiver|The Best of Deceivers]] (''khayru al-makireena'').{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and Allah cheated/deceived, and Allah (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

The list also doesn't mention the word "Allah" itself (الله).

==See also==

External:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101_Names_of_God Wikipedia: 101 Names of God in Zoroastrianism]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_and_titles_of_Muhammad Wikipedia: Names and titles of Muhammad]
*[https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%89#%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%87%D8%A7 Arabic Wikipedia article compiling lists of Allah's names]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Sufism]]
[[Category:Supernatural beings]]

99 names of Allah

2025-12-05T22:26:36Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}
The Quran references the "beautiful names of Allah." Hadith elaborate on this further, specifying that Allah has exactly 99 names. Muslims are expected to learn these names, though not all are listed in the Quran or hadith. This required Islamic scholars to use [[ijtihad]] (independent judgement) to locate these names in the Quran and Sunnah, with different scholars proposing different lists. As many as 276 names have been proposed.

==The phrase "beautiful names of Allah" mentioned in the Qur'an==
The Quran states that Allah has "beautiful names" (الأسماء الحسنى, ''al-asmaa' ul-husnaa''). It does not specify the names or their number.
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|180}}|And to Allah belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى), so invoke Him by them. And leave [the company of] those who practice deviation concerning His names. They will be recompensed for what they have been doing.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|110}}|Say, "Call upon Allah or call upon the Most Merciful. Whichever [name] you call - to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى)." And do not recite [too] loudly in your prayer or [too] quietly but seek between that an [intermediate] way.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|8}}|Allah - there is no deity except Him. To Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|59|24}}|He is Allah, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى). Whatever is in the heavens and earth is exalting Him. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
}}
==Hadith==
Numerous hadith, such as the following from Sahih Bukhari, indicate that Allah has 99 names:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7392|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Allah has ninety-nine Names, one-hundred less one; and he who memorized them all by heart will enter Paradise." To count something means to know it by heart.}}
Some Islamic scholars and public figures argue that the above hadith indicates that Allah has ''at least'' 99 names. However, this specification does not appear in the original Arabic, which simply indicates that Allah has "ninety-nine" or "one-hundred less one" names.

==The popular list==
===Source===
A popular list of Allah's 99 names originates from a weak (da'if) hadith from the collection of Tirmidhi.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|45|3507}} (weak)|Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

“Indeed, Allah has ninety-nine Names, one hundred less one, whoever counts them shall enter Paradise. He is Allah, the one whom there is none worthy of worship except for Him (Allāhu Lā Ilāha Illā Huwa), the Most Merciful (to the creation) (Ar-Raḥmān), the Most Beneficent (to the believers) (Ar-Raḥīm), the King (Al-Malik), the Free of Deficiencies (Al-Quddūs), the Granter of Safety (As-Salām), the Granter of Security (Al-Mu’min), the Watcher (Al-Muhaimin), the Mighty (Al-`Azīz), the Compeller (Al-Jabbār), the Supreme (Al-Mutakabbir), the Creator (Al-Khāliq), the Originator (Al-Bāri’), the Fashioner (Al-Muṣawwir), the Pardoner (Al-Ghaffār), the Overwhelming (Al-Qahhār), the Giving (Al-Wahhāb), the Provider (Ar-Razzāq), the Opener (Al-Fattāḥ), the Knowing (Al-`Alīm), the Taker (Al-Qābiḍ), the Giver (Al-Bāsiṭ), the Abaser (Al-Khāfiḍ), the Exalter (Ar-Rāfi`), the One who grants honor (Al-Mu`izz), the One who humiliates (Al-Mudhil), the Hearing (As-Samī`), the Seeing (Al-Baṣīr), the Judge (Al-Ḥakam), the Just (Al-`Adl), the Kind (Al-Laṭīf), the Aware (Al-Khabīr), the Forbearing (Al-Ḥalīm), the Magnificent (Al-`Aẓīm), the Oft-Forgiving (Al-Ghafūr), the Grateful (Ash-Shakūr), the Most High (Al-`Aliyy), the Great (Al-Kabīr), the Guardian (Al-Ḥafīẓ), the Powerful (Al-Muqīt), the Reckoner (Al-Ḥasīb), the Glorious (Al-Jalīl), the Generous (Al-Karīm), the Watcher (Ar-Raqīb), the Responder (Al-Mujīb), the Liberal Giver (Al-Wāsi`), the Wise (Al-Ḥakīm), the Loving (Al-Wadūd), the Majestic (Al-Majīd), the Reviver (Al-Bā`ith), the Witness (Ash-Shahīd), the Truth (Al-Ḥaqq), the Guarantor (Al-Wakīl), the Strong (Al-Qawiyy), the Firm (Al-Matīn), the One Who Aids (Al-Waliyy), the Praiseworthy (Al-Ḥamīd), the Encompasser (Al-Muḥṣi), the One Who Begins things (Al-Mubdi’), the One Who brings things back (Al-Mu`īd), the One Who gives life (Al-Muḥyi), the One Who causes death (Al-Mumīt), the Living (Al-Ḥayyu), the Self-Sufficient (Al-Qayyūm), the One Who brings into existence (Al-Wājid), the Illustrious (Al-Mājid), the One (Al-Wāḥid), the Master (Aṣ-Ṣamad), the Able (Al-Qādir), the Powerful (Al-Muqtadir), the One who hastens (Al-Muqaddim), the One who delays (Al-Mu’akhkhir), the First (Al-Awwal), the Last (Al-Ākhir), the Apparent (Aẓ-Ẓāhir), the Inner (Al-Bāṭin), the Owner (Al-Wāli), the Exalted (Al-Muta`āli), the Doer of Good (Al-Barr), the Acceptor of repentance (At-Tawwāb), the Avenger (Al-Muntaqim), the Pardoning (Al-`Afuww), the Kind (Ar-Ra’ūf), the Owner of Dominion (Mālikul-Mulk), the Possessor of Glory and Generosity (Dhul Jalāli wal Ikrām), the One who does justice (Al-Muqsiṭ), the Gatherer (Al-Jāmi`), the Rich (Al-Ghaniyy), the Enricher (Al-Mughni), the Preventer (Al-Māni`), the Harmer (Aḍ-Ḍār), the One who benefits (An-Nāfi`), the Light (An-Nūr), the Guide (Al-Hādi), the Originator (Al-Badī`), the Lasting (Al-Bāqi), the Inheritor (Al-Wārith), the Guide (Ar-Rashīd), the Tolerant (Aṣ-Ṣabūr).”}}
Tirmidhi elaborates on the quality of the hadith:
{{Quote|Tirmidhi comment on the list|"This (version of the) hadith is gharib [unusual, scarce]; it has been narrated from various routes on the authority of Abu Hurairah, but we do not know of the mention of the Names in the numerous narrations, except this one."
}}
From Ibn Tamiyya: {{Quote|Ibn Taimyya|"Al-Walid (one of the narrators of the hadith) related the Names from (the saying of) one of his Syrian teachers ... '''specific mention of the Names is not from the words of the Prophet''' (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), by the agreement of those familiar with Hadith."}}

===The list===
Some of the words given as names of Allah in the list are not present in the Quran. The following table links to Quranic verses cited as sources of each name and notes instances where the name does not appear (for example where the same root word actually appears as a verb, not a name).
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
!Num.
!In Arabic
!Transliteration
!Offical translation
!Actual translation
!Reference
!Notes
|-
|1||الرحمان||''ar-rahmaan''||The Most Gracious||The Gracious||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|2||الرحيم||''ar-raheem''||The Most Merciful||The Merciful||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|3||المالك||''al-maalik''||The King||The Posessor <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||Some translations say "sovereign" <ref>http://quranx.com/59.23</ref>
|-
|4||القدوس||''al-quddoos''||The Holy||The Holy||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|5||السلام||''as-salaam''||The Peace||Free from defect||{{Quran|59|23}}||Ibn Kathir understands it as "free from defect" <ref>http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1602&Itemid=115</ref>
|-
|6||المؤمن||''al-mu'min''||The Granter of Security||The Believer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%85%D9%86/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||''Mu'min'' in all other verses means "believer" <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amn</ref>
|-
|7||المهيمن||''al-muhaymin''||The Controller||The Controller||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|8||العزيز||''al-'azeez''||The Powerful||The Honorable <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2/</ref>||{{Quran|3|6}}||
|-
|9||الجبار||''al-jabbar''||The Strong||The Forceful <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/</ref>|||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|10||المتكبر||''al-mutakabbir''||The Supreme||The Arrogant/The Boaster <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|11||الخالق||''al-khaaliq''||The Creator||The Creator||{{Quran|6|102}}||
|-
|12||البارئ||''al-baari''||The Maker||The Maker||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|13||المصور||''al-musawwir''||The Fashioner||The Fashioner||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|14||الغفار||''al-ghaffaar''||The Repeatedly Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|20|82}}||
|-
|15||القهار||''al-qahhaar''||The Subduer||The Despot / The Conqueror||{{Quran|12|39}}||
|-
|16||الوهاب||''al-wahhaab''||The Bestower||The Provider <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8/</ref>||{{Quran|38|9}}||Also a name of the founder of Wahhabism.
|-
|17||الرزاق||''ar-razaaq''||The Provider||The Provider||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|18||الفتاح||''al-fattaah''||The Opener||The Opener||{{Quran|34|26}}||"fath" (opening) is a euphemism for Islamic conquests (''futuhaat islamiyya'', literally "Islamic openings").
|-
|19||العليم||''al-'aleem''||The Knowing||The Knowing||{{Quran|2|158}}||
|-
|20||القابض||''al-qaabid''||The Restrainer||The Grabbing <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B6/</ref>||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||قبضة or ''qabda'' is fist
|-
|21||الباسط||''al-baasit''||The Extender||The Extender||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||It should be rendered as باصط.
|-
|22||الخافض||''al-khaafid''||The Humiliator||The Lessener/Lowerer||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|23||الرافع||''ar-raafee''||The Exalter||The Raiser||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|24||المعز||''al-muiz''||The Giver of Honor||The Honored||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|25||المذل||''al-mudhil''||The Giver of Dishonor||The Humiliating <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%84/</ref>||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|26||السميع||''as-samii''||The Hearing||The Hearing||{{Quran|2|127}}||
|-
|27||البصير||''al-baseer''||The All-Seeing||The Seeing||{{Quran|4|58}}||
|-
|28||الحكم||''al-hakam''||The Judge||The Judge||{{Quran|22|69}} (it's not there)||
|-
|29||العدل||''al-adl''||The Just||The Justice||{{Quran|6|115}} (it's not there)||
|-
|30||اللطيف||''al-lateef''||The Subtly Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|22|63}}||
|-
|31||الخبير||''al-khabeer''||The All-aware||The Informed <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|6|18}}||
|-
|32||الحليم||''al-haleem''||The Forbearing||The Forbearing||{{Quran|2|235}}||
|-
|33||العظيم||''al-'azeem''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|34||الغفور||''al-ghafoor''||The Much Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|2|173}}||
|-
|35||الشكور||''ash-shakoor''||The Grateful||The Thankful||{{Quran|35|30}}||
|-
|36||العلى||''al-aliyy''||The Sublime||The Exalted||{{Quran|4|34}}||
|-
|37||الكبير||''al-kabeer''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|38||الحفيظ||''al-hafeez''||The Preserver||The Preserver||{{Quran|11|57}}||
|-
|39||المقيت||''al-muqeet''||The Nourisher||The Nourisher||{{Quran|4|85}}||
|-
|40||الحسيب||''al-haseeb''||The Bringer of Judgment||The Accountant||{{Quran|4|6}}||حساب or hisaab means "account"
|-
|41||الجليل||''al-jaleel''||The Majestic||The Majestic||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|143}} (it's not there)||
|-
|42||الكريم||''al-kareem''||The Bountiful||The Bountiful||{{Quran|27|40}}||
|-
|43||الرقيب||''ar-raqeeb''||The Watchful||The Watchman||{{Quran|4|1}}||
|-
|44||المجيب||''al-mujeeb''||The Responsive||The Responsive||{{Quran|11|61}}||
|-
|45||الواسع||''al-waasie''||The Vast||The Vast||{{Quran|2|268}}||
|-
|46||الحكيم||''al-hakeem''||The Wise||The Wise||{{Quran|31|27}}||
|-
|47||الودود||''al-wadood''||The Affectionate||The Affectionate||{{Quran|11|90}}||
|-
|48||المجيد||''al-majeed''||The Glorious||The Glorious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|49||الباعث||''al-baaith''||The Resurrector||The Resurrector||{{Quran|22|7}} (it's not there)||
|-
|50||الشهيد||''ash-shaheed''||The Witness||The Witness||{{Quran|4|166}}||
|-
|51||الحق||''al-haqq''||The Truth||The Truth||{{Quran|22|6}}||
|-
|52||الوكيل||''al-wakeel''||The Trustee||The Trustee||{{Quran|3|173}}||
|-
|53||القوي||''al-qawee''||The Strong||The Strong||{{Quran|22|40}}||
|-
|54||المتين||''al-mateen''||The Firm||The Firm||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|55||الولي||''al-walee''||The Friend||The Friend||{{Quran|4|45}}||
|-
|56||الحميد||''al-hameed''||The All Praiseworthy||The Praiseworthy||{{Quran|14|8}}||Muhammad (محمد) is derived from the same root
|-
|57||المحصى||''al-muhsee''||The Accounter||The Accounter||{{Quran|72|28}} (it's not there), {{Quran|78|29}} (it's not there)||إحصىء means "statistics"
|-
|58||المبدئ||''al-mubdi''||The Initiator||The Initiator||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|59||المعيد||''al-mueed''||The Restorer||The Lecturer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|60||المحي||''al-muhee''||The Giver of Life||The Giver of Life||{{Quran|30|50}}||
|-
|61||المميت||''al-mumeet''||The Bringer of Death||The Deadly <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA/</ref>||{{Quran|3|156}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|158}} (it's not there), {{Quran|15|23}} (it's not there), {{Quran|57|2}} (it's not there)||
|-
|61||الحى||''al-hayy''||The Living||The Living||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|63||القيوم||''al-qayyum''||The Subsisting||The Subsisting||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|64||الواجد||''al-waajid''||The Perceiver||The Angry <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|38|44}} (it's not there)||
|-
|65||الماجد||''al-maajid''||The Illustrious||The Illustrious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|66||الواحد||''al-waahid''||The Single||The Single||{{Quran|13|16}}||
|-
|67||الأحد||''al-ahad''||The One||The One||{{Quran|112|1}}||
|-
|68||الصمد||''as-samad''||The Eternal||The Eternal||{{Quran|112|2}}||
|-
|69||القادر||''al-qaadir''||The All-Powerful||The Able||{{Quran|6|65}}||
|-
|70||المقتدر||''al-muqtadir''||The Determiner||The Able||{{Quran|18|45}}||
|-
|71||المقدم||''al-muqaddim''||He Who Brings Forward||The Donor||{{Quran|16|61}} (it's not there)||
|-
|72||المؤخر||''al-muakhir''||The Delayer||The Delayer||{{Quran|71|4}} (it's not there)||
|-
|73||الأول||''al-awwal''||The First||The First||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|74||الآخر||''al-aakhir''||The Last||The Last||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|75||الظاهر||''az-zaahir''||The Apparent||The Apparent||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|76||الباطن||''al-baatin''||The Inner||The Inner||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|77||الوالي||''al-waali''||The Patron||The Patron||{{Quran|13|11}}||
|-
|78||المتعالي||''al-mutaali''||The Most High||The Arrogant <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A/</ref>||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|79||البر||''al-barr''||The Good||The Good||{{Quran|52|28}}||
|-
|80||التواب||''at-tawwaab''||The Ever-Returning||The Merciful||{{Quran|4|64}}||
|-
|81||المنتقم||''al-muntaqim''||The Avenger||The Revenger||{{Quran|32|22}}||Appears in plural form
|-
|82||العفو||''al-'afuu''||The Pardoner||The Pardoner||{{Quran|4|43}}||
|-
|83||الرؤف||''ar-rauf''||The Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|9|117}}||
|-
|84||مالك الملك||''maalik ul-mulk''||The Owner of all Sovereignty||The Owner of all Dominion||{{Quran|3|26}}||
|-
|85||ذو الجلال والإكرام||''dhul jalaal wal ikraam''||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||{{Quran|55|27}}||
|-
|86||المقسط||''al-muqsit''||The Equitable||The Equitable||{{Quran|3|18}} (it's not there)||
|-
|87||الجامع||''al-jaami''||The Gatherer||The Gatherer||{{Quran|3|9}}||
|-
|88||الغني||''al-ghaani''||The Rich||The Rich||{{Quran|57|24}}||
|-
|89||المغني||''al-mughni''||The Enricher||The Enricher||{{Quran|9|28}} (it's not there)||
|-
|90||المانع||''al-maani''||The Preventer||The Preventer||{{Quran|67|21}} (it's not there)||No form of the relevant word appears
|-
|91||الضار||''ad-daar''||The Harmer||The Harmer||{{Quran|6|17}} (it's not there)||
|-
|92||النافع||''an-naafi''||The Propitious||The Propitious||{{Quran|30|37}} (it's not there)||No form of the relevant word appears
|-
|93||النور||''an-noor''||The Light||The Light||{{Quran|24|35}}||
|-
|94||الهادي||''al-haadi''||The Guide||The Guide||{{Quran|22|54}}||
|-
|95||البديع||''al-badee''||The Originator||The Originator||{{Quran|2|117}}||
|-
|96||الباقي||''al-baaqi''||The Immutable||The Remaining||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there)||"And there '''will remain''' the Face of your Lord..."
|-
|97||الوارث||''al-waarith''||The Heir||The Heir||{{Quran|15|23}}||Appears in plural form
|-
|98||الرشيد||''ar-rasheed''||The Guide to the Right Path||The ِRightly Guided||{{Quran|72|10}} (it's not there)||"And we do not know [therefore] whether evil is intended for those on earth or whether their Lord intends for them '''a right course''' (رشدا)."
|-
|99||الصبور||''as-saboor''||The Patient||The Patient||{{Quran|2|153}} (it's not there), {{Quran|3|200}} (it's not there), {{Quran|103|3}} (it's not there)||
|}

===Issues===
==== "The Compassionate" ====
Reynolds (2020) discusses one of the most commonly used names for Allah, Al-Rahman or The Compassionate:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 94-96). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|Most tellingly, perhaps, on fifty-six occasions the Qur’an simply names God al-rahman, “the Compassionate.” This would seem to suggest that the Qur’an’s idea of God is deeply intertwined with the concept of mercy. A closer analysis, however, complicates this suggestion in three ways. First, the name al-rahman is used for God in a number of verses in which God is not merciful.14 This is the case with Q 19:45, in which Abraham tells his (pagan) father, “I am indeed afraid that a punishment from al-rahman will befall you, and you will become Satan’s accomplice.” This paradoxical use of al-rahman appears again in Q 21:42, where God commands the Prophet: “Say, ‘Who can guard you, day and night, against [the punishment of] al-rahman.”15Second, in the Qur’an the term al-rahman always appears with the definite article (al) and never as a simple adjective. And third, whereas rahim is used to refer to things other than God (e.g., in Q 9:128 Muhammad is rahim), al-rahman is used only to refer to God. Together these things suggest that the Qur’an’s author meant to use al-rahman principally as a proper noun for God. This possibility seems more likely in light of what we know from the evidence left behind on rocks by monotheists who lived in Arabia before Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabian rock inscriptions often refer to God, or God the Father in the Christian Trinity, with a version of the name al-rahman. In South Arabian the name appears as rahmanan.16In North Arabia, too, God, or a god, was referred to as “the merciful.” A North Arabian inscription (in a variety of Ancient North Arabian known as Safaitic) includes an appeal to a god who is referred to with a term related to Arabic rahim and rahman.17 Thus, al-rahman (or other versions of it) seems simply to have been a typical way to refer to God in Arabia.18}}
"Rahmanan" above is synonymous with al-rahman, with the definite article being expressed through the 'an' suffix,as in some Southern Arabian languages, rather than the 'al' prefix as in contemporary Arabic.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 254)'''.''''' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

Footnote 16: This is not the only name that Arabian monotheists used for God. The French archaeologist Christian Robin has carefully catalogued names for God used by Jews in the South Arabian kingdom of Himyar in the fifth and sixth centuries. In addition to rahmanan (“the Compassionate”; the an at the end of the word is the definite article used in certain South Arabian languages), they used a name close to Arabic allah (ʾlahan) along with rabb (“lord”)—a term closely related to a name used for God in the Qurʾan..

</ref>

====Duplicates====
The verse 55:27 is considered as an instance of both "ذو الجلال والإكرام" and "الجليل". It is not clear what the difference could be between الغفور and الغفار or between "مالك" and "مالك الملك".

====Names not mentioned in the Quran====
Some of the purported names of Allah do not appear in the Quran, for example the last on the list, الصبور (The Patient). It is often cited as appearing in verse 2:153:{{Quote|{{Quran|2|153}}|
O you who have believed, seek help '''through patience''' (بالصبر) and prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the patient.
}}
In this case, the relevant word means "patience" and not "The Patient One."

Another verse from which the claim is derived uses the term as a verb and command for believers:
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|200}}|O you who have believed, '''persevere and endure''' (اصبروا وصابروا) and remain stationed and fear Allah that you may be successful.
}}Another verse similarly translates to "patience," not "The Patient One":
{{Quote|{{Quran|103|3}}|Except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and advised each other '''to patience''' (بالصبر).
}}
A similar phenomenon occurs with another purported name, The Preventer (المانع), which is cited as occuring in verse 67:21: the verb in this verse is not derived from the same root, منع.

====Other names not mentioned in the list====
The Qur'an refers to Allah as [[Allah the Best Deceiver|The Best of Deceivers]] (''khayru al-makireena'').{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and Allah cheated/deceived, and Allah (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

The list also doesn't mention the word "Allah" itself (الله).

==See also==

External:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101_Names_of_God Wikipedia: 101 Names of God in Zoroastrianism]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_and_titles_of_Muhammad Wikipedia: Names and titles of Muhammad]
*[https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%89#%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%87%D8%A7 Arabic Wikipedia article compiling lists of Allah's names]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Sufism]]
[[Category:Supernatural beings]]

99 names of Allah

2025-12-05T22:24:22Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}
The Quran references the "beautiful names of Allah." Hadith elaborate on this further, specifying that Allah has exactly 99 names. Muslims are expected to learn these names, though not all are listed in the Quran or hadith. This required Islamic scholars to use [[ijtihad]] (independent judgement) to locate these names in the Quran and Sunnah, with different scholars proposing different lists. As many as 276 names have been proposed.

==The phrase "beautiful names of Allah" mentioned in the Qur'an==
The Quran states that Allah has "beautiful names" (الأسماء الحسنى, ''al-asmaa' ul-husnaa''). It does not specify the names or their number.
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|180}}|And to Allah belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى), so invoke Him by them. And leave [the company of] those who practice deviation concerning His names. They will be recompensed for what they have been doing.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|110}}|Say, "Call upon Allah or call upon the Most Merciful. Whichever [name] you call - to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى)." And do not recite [too] loudly in your prayer or [too] quietly but seek between that an [intermediate] way.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|8}}|Allah - there is no deity except Him. To Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|59|24}}|He is Allah, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى). Whatever is in the heavens and earth is exalting Him. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
}}
==Hadith==
Numerous hadith, such as the following from Sahih Bukhari, indicate that Allah has 99 names:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7392|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Allah has ninety-nine Names, one-hundred less one; and he who memorized them all by heart will enter Paradise." To count something means to know it by heart.}}
Some Islamic scholars and public figures argue that the above hadith indicates that Allah has ''at least'' 99 names. However, this specification does not appear in the original Arabic, which simply indicates that Allah has "ninety-nine" or "one-hundred less one" names.

==The popular list==
===Source===
A popular list of Allah's 99 names originates from a weak (da'if) hadith from the collection of Tirmidhi.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|45|3507}} (weak)|Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

“Indeed, Allah has ninety-nine Names, one hundred less one, whoever counts them shall enter Paradise. He is Allah, the one whom there is none worthy of worship except for Him (Allāhu Lā Ilāha Illā Huwa), the Most Merciful (to the creation) (Ar-Raḥmān), the Most Beneficent (to the believers) (Ar-Raḥīm), the King (Al-Malik), the Free of Deficiencies (Al-Quddūs), the Granter of Safety (As-Salām), the Granter of Security (Al-Mu’min), the Watcher (Al-Muhaimin), the Mighty (Al-`Azīz), the Compeller (Al-Jabbār), the Supreme (Al-Mutakabbir), the Creator (Al-Khāliq), the Originator (Al-Bāri’), the Fashioner (Al-Muṣawwir), the Pardoner (Al-Ghaffār), the Overwhelming (Al-Qahhār), the Giving (Al-Wahhāb), the Provider (Ar-Razzāq), the Opener (Al-Fattāḥ), the Knowing (Al-`Alīm), the Taker (Al-Qābiḍ), the Giver (Al-Bāsiṭ), the Abaser (Al-Khāfiḍ), the Exalter (Ar-Rāfi`), the One who grants honor (Al-Mu`izz), the One who humiliates (Al-Mudhil), the Hearing (As-Samī`), the Seeing (Al-Baṣīr), the Judge (Al-Ḥakam), the Just (Al-`Adl), the Kind (Al-Laṭīf), the Aware (Al-Khabīr), the Forbearing (Al-Ḥalīm), the Magnificent (Al-`Aẓīm), the Oft-Forgiving (Al-Ghafūr), the Grateful (Ash-Shakūr), the Most High (Al-`Aliyy), the Great (Al-Kabīr), the Guardian (Al-Ḥafīẓ), the Powerful (Al-Muqīt), the Reckoner (Al-Ḥasīb), the Glorious (Al-Jalīl), the Generous (Al-Karīm), the Watcher (Ar-Raqīb), the Responder (Al-Mujīb), the Liberal Giver (Al-Wāsi`), the Wise (Al-Ḥakīm), the Loving (Al-Wadūd), the Majestic (Al-Majīd), the Reviver (Al-Bā`ith), the Witness (Ash-Shahīd), the Truth (Al-Ḥaqq), the Guarantor (Al-Wakīl), the Strong (Al-Qawiyy), the Firm (Al-Matīn), the One Who Aids (Al-Waliyy), the Praiseworthy (Al-Ḥamīd), the Encompasser (Al-Muḥṣi), the One Who Begins things (Al-Mubdi’), the One Who brings things back (Al-Mu`īd), the One Who gives life (Al-Muḥyi), the One Who causes death (Al-Mumīt), the Living (Al-Ḥayyu), the Self-Sufficient (Al-Qayyūm), the One Who brings into existence (Al-Wājid), the Illustrious (Al-Mājid), the One (Al-Wāḥid), the Master (Aṣ-Ṣamad), the Able (Al-Qādir), the Powerful (Al-Muqtadir), the One who hastens (Al-Muqaddim), the One who delays (Al-Mu’akhkhir), the First (Al-Awwal), the Last (Al-Ākhir), the Apparent (Aẓ-Ẓāhir), the Inner (Al-Bāṭin), the Owner (Al-Wāli), the Exalted (Al-Muta`āli), the Doer of Good (Al-Barr), the Acceptor of repentance (At-Tawwāb), the Avenger (Al-Muntaqim), the Pardoning (Al-`Afuww), the Kind (Ar-Ra’ūf), the Owner of Dominion (Mālikul-Mulk), the Possessor of Glory and Generosity (Dhul Jalāli wal Ikrām), the One who does justice (Al-Muqsiṭ), the Gatherer (Al-Jāmi`), the Rich (Al-Ghaniyy), the Enricher (Al-Mughni), the Preventer (Al-Māni`), the Harmer (Aḍ-Ḍār), the One who benefits (An-Nāfi`), the Light (An-Nūr), the Guide (Al-Hādi), the Originator (Al-Badī`), the Lasting (Al-Bāqi), the Inheritor (Al-Wārith), the Guide (Ar-Rashīd), the Tolerant (Aṣ-Ṣabūr).”}}
Tirmidhi elaborates on the quality of the hadith:
{{Quote|Tirmidhi comment on the list|"This (version of the) hadith is gharib [unusual, scarce]; it has been narrated from various routes on the authority of Abu Hurairah, but we do not know of the mention of the Names in the numerous narrations, except this one."
}}
From Ibn Tamiyya: {{Quote|Ibn Taimyya|"Al-Walid (one of the narrators of the hadith) related the Names from (the saying of) one of his Syrian teachers ... '''specific mention of the Names is not from the words of the Prophet''' (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), by the agreement of those familiar with Hadith."}}

===The list===
Some of the words given as names of Allah in this list are not present in the Quran. The following list links to Quranic verses cited as sources of each name and notes instances where the name does not appear.
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
!Num.
!In Arabic
!Transliteration
!Offical translation
!Actual translation
!Reference
!Notes
|-
|1||الرحمان||''ar-rahmaan''||The Most Gracious||The Gracious||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|2||الرحيم||''ar-raheem''||The Most Merciful||The Merciful||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|3||المالك||''al-maalik''||The King||The Posessor <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||Some translations say "sovereign" <ref>http://quranx.com/59.23</ref>
|-
|4||القدوس||''al-quddoos''||The Holy||The Holy||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|5||السلام||''as-salaam''||The Peace||Free from defect||{{Quran|59|23}}||Ibn Kathir understands it as "free from defect" <ref>http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1602&Itemid=115</ref>
|-
|6||المؤمن||''al-mu'min''||The Granter of Security||The Believer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%85%D9%86/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||''Mu'min'' in all other verses means "believer" <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amn</ref>
|-
|7||المهيمن||''al-muhaymin''||The Controller||The Controller||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|8||العزيز||''al-'azeez''||The Powerful||The Honorable <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2/</ref>||{{Quran|3|6}}||
|-
|9||الجبار||''al-jabbar''||The Strong||The Forceful <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/</ref>|||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|10||المتكبر||''al-mutakabbir''||The Supreme||The Arrogant/The Boaster <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|11||الخالق||''al-khaaliq''||The Creator||The Creator||{{Quran|6|102}}||
|-
|12||البارئ||''al-baari''||The Maker||The Maker||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|13||المصور||''al-musawwir''||The Fashioner||The Fashioner||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|14||الغفار||''al-ghaffaar''||The Repeatedly Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|20|82}}||
|-
|15||القهار||''al-qahhaar''||The Subduer||The Despot / The Conqueror||{{Quran|12|39}}||
|-
|16||الوهاب||''al-wahhaab''||The Bestower||The Provider <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8/</ref>||{{Quran|38|9}}||Also a name of the founder of Wahhabism.
|-
|17||الرزاق||''ar-razaaq''||The Provider||The Provider||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|18||الفتاح||''al-fattaah''||The Opener||The Opener||{{Quran|34|26}}||"fath" (opening) is a euphemism for Islamic conquests (''futuhaat islamiyya'', literally "Islamic openings").
|-
|19||العليم||''al-'aleem''||The Knowing||The Knowing||{{Quran|2|158}}||
|-
|20||القابض||''al-qaabid''||The Restrainer||The Grabbing <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B6/</ref>||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||قبضة or ''qabda'' is fist
|-
|21||الباسط||''al-baasit''||The Extender||The Extender||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||It should be rendered as باصط.
|-
|22||الخافض||''al-khaafid''||The Humiliator||The Lessener/Lowerer||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|23||الرافع||''ar-raafee''||The Exalter||The Raiser||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|24||المعز||''al-muiz''||The Giver of Honor||The Honored||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|25||المذل||''al-mudhil''||The Giver of Dishonor||The Humiliating <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%84/</ref>||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|26||السميع||''as-samii''||The Hearing||The Hearing||{{Quran|2|127}}||
|-
|27||البصير||''al-baseer''||The All-Seeing||The Seeing||{{Quran|4|58}}||
|-
|28||الحكم||''al-hakam''||The Judge||The Judge||{{Quran|22|69}} (it's not there)||
|-
|29||العدل||''al-adl''||The Just||The Justice||{{Quran|6|115}} (it's not there)||
|-
|30||اللطيف||''al-lateef''||The Subtly Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|22|63}}||
|-
|31||الخبير||''al-khabeer''||The All-aware||The Informed <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|6|18}}||
|-
|32||الحليم||''al-haleem''||The Forbearing||The Forbearing||{{Quran|2|235}}||
|-
|33||العظيم||''al-'azeem''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|34||الغفور||''al-ghafoor''||The Much Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|2|173}}||
|-
|35||الشكور||''ash-shakoor''||The Grateful||The Thankful||{{Quran|35|30}}||
|-
|36||العلى||''al-aliyy''||The Sublime||The Exalted||{{Quran|4|34}}||
|-
|37||الكبير||''al-kabeer''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|38||الحفيظ||''al-hafeez''||The Preserver||The Preserver||{{Quran|11|57}}||
|-
|39||المقيت||''al-muqeet''||The Nourisher||The Nourisher||{{Quran|4|85}}||
|-
|40||الحسيب||''al-haseeb''||The Bringer of Judgment||The Accountant||{{Quran|4|6}}||حساب or hisaab means "account"
|-
|41||الجليل||''al-jaleel''||The Majestic||The Majestic||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|143}} (it's not there)||
|-
|42||الكريم||''al-kareem''||The Bountiful||The Bountiful||{{Quran|27|40}}||
|-
|43||الرقيب||''ar-raqeeb''||The Watchful||The Watchman||{{Quran|4|1}}||
|-
|44||المجيب||''al-mujeeb''||The Responsive||The Responsive||{{Quran|11|61}}||
|-
|45||الواسع||''al-waasie''||The Vast||The Vast||{{Quran|2|268}}||
|-
|46||الحكيم||''al-hakeem''||The Wise||The Wise||{{Quran|31|27}}||
|-
|47||الودود||''al-wadood''||The Affectionate||The Affectionate||{{Quran|11|90}}||
|-
|48||المجيد||''al-majeed''||The Glorious||The Glorious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|49||الباعث||''al-baaith''||The Resurrector||The Resurrector||{{Quran|22|7}} (it's not there)||
|-
|50||الشهيد||''ash-shaheed''||The Witness||The Witness||{{Quran|4|166}}||
|-
|51||الحق||''al-haqq''||The Truth||The Truth||{{Quran|22|6}}||
|-
|52||الوكيل||''al-wakeel''||The Trustee||The Trustee||{{Quran|3|173}}||
|-
|53||القوي||''al-qawee''||The Strong||The Strong||{{Quran|22|40}}||
|-
|54||المتين||''al-mateen''||The Firm||The Firm||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|55||الولي||''al-walee''||The Friend||The Friend||{{Quran|4|45}}||
|-
|56||الحميد||''al-hameed''||The All Praiseworthy||The Praiseworthy||{{Quran|14|8}}||Muhammad (محمد) is derived from the same root
|-
|57||المحصى||''al-muhsee''||The Accounter||The Accounter||{{Quran|72|28}} (it's not there), {{Quran|78|29}} (it's not there)||إحصىء means "statistics"
|-
|58||المبدئ||''al-mubdi''||The Initiator||The Initiator||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|59||المعيد||''al-mueed''||The Restorer||The Lecturer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|60||المحي||''al-muhee''||The Giver of Life||The Giver of Life||{{Quran|30|50}}||
|-
|61||المميت||''al-mumeet''||The Bringer of Death||The Deadly <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA/</ref>||{{Quran|3|156}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|158}} (it's not there), {{Quran|15|23}} (it's not there), {{Quran|57|2}} (it's not there)||
|-
|61||الحى||''al-hayy''||The Living||The Living||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|63||القيوم||''al-qayyum''||The Subsisting||The Subsisting||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|64||الواجد||''al-waajid''||The Perceiver||The Angry <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|38|44}} (it's not there)||
|-
|65||الماجد||''al-maajid''||The Illustrious||The Illustrious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|66||الواحد||''al-waahid''||The Single||The Single||{{Quran|13|16}}||
|-
|67||الأحد||''al-ahad''||The One||The One||{{Quran|112|1}}||
|-
|68||الصمد||''as-samad''||The Eternal||The Eternal||{{Quran|112|2}}||
|-
|69||القادر||''al-qaadir''||The All-Powerful||The Able||{{Quran|6|65}}||
|-
|70||المقتدر||''al-muqtadir''||The Determiner||The Able||{{Quran|18|45}}||
|-
|71||المقدم||''al-muqaddim''||He Who Brings Forward||The Donor||{{Quran|16|61}} (it's not there)||
|-
|72||المؤخر||''al-muakhir''||The Delayer||The Delayer||{{Quran|71|4}} (it's not there)||
|-
|73||الأول||''al-awwal''||The First||The First||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|74||الآخر||''al-aakhir''||The Last||The Last||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|75||الظاهر||''az-zaahir''||The Apparent||The Apparent||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|76||الباطن||''al-baatin''||The Inner||The Inner||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|77||الوالي||''al-waali''||The Patron||The Patron||{{Quran|13|11}}||
|-
|78||المتعالي||''al-mutaali''||The Most High||The Arrogant <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A/</ref>||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|79||البر||''al-barr''||The Good||The Good||{{Quran|52|28}}||
|-
|80||التواب||''at-tawwaab''||The Ever-Returning||The Merciful||{{Quran|4|64}}||
|-
|81||المنتقم||''al-muntaqim''||The Avenger||The Revenger||{{Quran|32|22}}||Appears in plural form
|-
|82||العفو||''al-'afuu''||The Pardoner||The Pardoner||{{Quran|4|43}}||
|-
|83||الرؤف||''ar-rauf''||The Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|9|117}}||
|-
|84||مالك الملك||''maalik ul-mulk''||The Owner of all Sovereignty||The Owner of all Dominion||{{Quran|3|26}}||
|-
|85||ذو الجلال والإكرام||''dhul jalaal wal ikraam''||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||{{Quran|55|27}}||
|-
|86||المقسط||''al-muqsit''||The Equitable||The Equitable||{{Quran|3|18}} (it's not there)||
|-
|87||الجامع||''al-jaami''||The Gatherer||The Gatherer||{{Quran|3|9}}||
|-
|88||الغني||''al-ghaani''||The Rich||The Rich||{{Quran|57|24}}||
|-
|89||المغني||''al-mughni''||The Enricher||The Enricher||{{Quran|9|28}} (it's not there)||
|-
|90||المانع||''al-maani''||The Preventer||The Preventer||{{Quran|67|21}} (it's not there)||No form of the relevant word appears
|-
|91||الضار||''ad-daar''||The Harmer||The Harmer||{{Quran|6|17}} (it's not there)||
|-
|92||النافع||''an-naafi''||The Propitious||The Propitious||{{Quran|30|37}} (it's not there)||No form of the relevant word appears
|-
|93||النور||''an-noor''||The Light||The Light||{{Quran|24|35}}||
|-
|94||الهادي||''al-haadi''||The Guide||The Guide||{{Quran|22|54}}||
|-
|95||البديع||''al-badee''||The Originator||The Originator||{{Quran|2|117}}||
|-
|96||الباقي||''al-baaqi''||The Immutable||The Remaining||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there)||"And there '''will remain''' the Face of your Lord..."
|-
|97||الوارث||''al-waarith''||The Heir||The Heir||{{Quran|15|23}}||Appears in plural form
|-
|98||الرشيد||''ar-rasheed''||The Guide to the Right Path||The ِRightly Guided||{{Quran|72|10}} (it's not there)||"And we do not know [therefore] whether evil is intended for those on earth or whether their Lord intends for them '''a right course''' (رشدا)."
|-
|99||الصبور||''as-saboor''||The Patient||The Patient||{{Quran|2|153}} (it's not there), {{Quran|3|200}} (it's not there), {{Quran|103|3}} (it's not there)||
|}

===Issues===
==== "The Compassionate" ====
Reynolds (2020) discusses one of the most commonly used names for Allah, Al-Rahman or The Compassionate:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 94-96). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|Most tellingly, perhaps, on fifty-six occasions the Qur’an simply names God al-rahman, “the Compassionate.” This would seem to suggest that the Qur’an’s idea of God is deeply intertwined with the concept of mercy. A closer analysis, however, complicates this suggestion in three ways. First, the name al-rahman is used for God in a number of verses in which God is not merciful.14 This is the case with Q 19:45, in which Abraham tells his (pagan) father, “I am indeed afraid that a punishment from al-rahman will befall you, and you will become Satan’s accomplice.” This paradoxical use of al-rahman appears again in Q 21:42, where God commands the Prophet: “Say, ‘Who can guard you, day and night, against [the punishment of] al-rahman.”15Second, in the Qur’an the term al-rahman always appears with the definite article (al) and never as a simple adjective. And third, whereas rahim is used to refer to things other than God (e.g., in Q 9:128 Muhammad is rahim), al-rahman is used only to refer to God. Together these things suggest that the Qur’an’s author meant to use al-rahman principally as a proper noun for God. This possibility seems more likely in light of what we know from the evidence left behind on rocks by monotheists who lived in Arabia before Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabian rock inscriptions often refer to God, or God the Father in the Christian Trinity, with a version of the name al-rahman. In South Arabian the name appears as rahmanan.16In North Arabia, too, God, or a god, was referred to as “the merciful.” A North Arabian inscription (in a variety of Ancient North Arabian known as Safaitic) includes an appeal to a god who is referred to with a term related to Arabic rahim and rahman.17 Thus, al-rahman (or other versions of it) seems simply to have been a typical way to refer to God in Arabia.18}}
"Rahmanan" above is synonymous with al-rahman, with the definite article being expressed through the 'an' suffix,as in some Southern Arabian languages, rather than the 'al' prefix as in contemporary Arabic.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 254)'''.''''' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

Footnote 16: This is not the only name that Arabian monotheists used for God. The French archaeologist Christian Robin has carefully catalogued names for God used by Jews in the South Arabian kingdom of Himyar in the fifth and sixth centuries. In addition to rahmanan (“the Compassionate”; the an at the end of the word is the definite article used in certain South Arabian languages), they used a name close to Arabic allah (ʾlahan) along with rabb (“lord”)—a term closely related to a name used for God in the Qurʾan..

</ref>

====Duplicates====
The verse 55:27 is considered as an instance of both "ذو الجلال والإكرام" and "الجليل". It is not clear what the difference could be between الغفور and الغفار or between "مالك" and "مالك الملك".

====Names not mentioned in the Quran====
Some of the purported names of Allah do not appear in the Quran, for example the last on the list, الصبور (The Patient). It is often cited as appearing in verse 2:153:{{Quote|{{Quran|2|153}}|
O you who have believed, seek help '''through patience''' (بالصبر) and prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the patient.
}}
In this case, the relevant word means "patience" and not "The Patient One."

Another verse from which the claim is derived uses the term as a verb and command for believers:
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|200}}|O you who have believed, '''persevere and endure''' (اصبروا وصابروا) and remain stationed and fear Allah that you may be successful.
}}Another verse similarly translates to "patience," not "The Patient One":
{{Quote|{{Quran|103|3}}|Except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and advised each other '''to patience''' (بالصبر).
}}
A similar phenomenon occurs with another purported name, The Preventer (المانع), which is cited as occuring in verse 67:21: the verb in this verse is not derived from the same root, منع.

====Other names not mentioned in the list====
The Qur'an refers to Allah as [[Allah the Best Deceiver|The Best of Deceivers]] (''khayru al-makireena'').{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and Allah cheated/deceived, and Allah (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

The list also doesn't mention the word "Allah" itself (الله).

==See also==

External:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101_Names_of_God Wikipedia: 101 Names of God in Zoroastrianism]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_and_titles_of_Muhammad Wikipedia: Names and titles of Muhammad]
*[https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%89#%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%87%D8%A7 Arabic Wikipedia article compiling lists of Allah's names]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Sufism]]
[[Category:Supernatural beings]]

99 names of Allah

2025-12-05T22:18:56Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=3}}
The Quran references the "beautiful names of Allah." Hadith elaborate on this further, specifying that Allah has exactly 99 names. Muslims are expected to learn these names, though not all are listed in the Quran or hadith. This required Islamic scholars to use [[ijtihad]] (independent judgement) to locate these names in the Quran and Sunnah, with different scholars proposing different lists. As many as 276 names have been proposed.

==The phrase "beautiful names of Allah" mentioned in the Qur'an==
The Quran states that Allah has "beautiful names" (الأسماء الحسنى, ''al-asmaa' ul-husnaa''). It does not specify the names or their number.
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|180}}|And to Allah belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى), so invoke Him by them. And leave [the company of] those who practice deviation concerning His names. They will be recompensed for what they have been doing.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|110}}|Say, "Call upon Allah or call upon the Most Merciful. Whichever [name] you call - to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى)." And do not recite [too] loudly in your prayer or [too] quietly but seek between that an [intermediate] way.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|8}}|Allah - there is no deity except Him. To Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|59|24}}|He is Allah, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى). Whatever is in the heavens and earth is exalting Him. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
}}
==Hadith==
Numerous hadith, such as the following from Sahih Bukhari, indicate that Allah has 99 names:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7392|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Allah has ninety-nine Names, one-hundred less one; and he who memorized them all by heart will enter Paradise." To count something means to know it by heart.}}
Some Islamic scholars and public figures argue that the above hadith indicates that Allah has ''at least'' 99 names. However, this specification does not appear in the original Arabic, which simply indicates that Allah has "ninety-nine" or "one-hundred less one" names.

==The popular list==
===Source===
A popular list of Allah's 99 names originates from a weak (da'if) hadith from the collection of Tirmidhi.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|45|3507}} (weak)|Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

“Indeed, Allah has ninety-nine Names, one hundred less one, whoever counts them shall enter Paradise. He is Allah, the one whom there is none worthy of worship except for Him (Allāhu Lā Ilāha Illā Huwa), the Most Merciful (to the creation) (Ar-Raḥmān), the Most Beneficent (to the believers) (Ar-Raḥīm), the King (Al-Malik), the Free of Deficiencies (Al-Quddūs), the Granter of Safety (As-Salām), the Granter of Security (Al-Mu’min), the Watcher (Al-Muhaimin), the Mighty (Al-`Azīz), the Compeller (Al-Jabbār), the Supreme (Al-Mutakabbir), the Creator (Al-Khāliq), the Originator (Al-Bāri’), the Fashioner (Al-Muṣawwir), the Pardoner (Al-Ghaffār), the Overwhelming (Al-Qahhār), the Giving (Al-Wahhāb), the Provider (Ar-Razzāq), the Opener (Al-Fattāḥ), the Knowing (Al-`Alīm), the Taker (Al-Qābiḍ), the Giver (Al-Bāsiṭ), the Abaser (Al-Khāfiḍ), the Exalter (Ar-Rāfi`), the One who grants honor (Al-Mu`izz), the One who humiliates (Al-Mudhil), the Hearing (As-Samī`), the Seeing (Al-Baṣīr), the Judge (Al-Ḥakam), the Just (Al-`Adl), the Kind (Al-Laṭīf), the Aware (Al-Khabīr), the Forbearing (Al-Ḥalīm), the Magnificent (Al-`Aẓīm), the Oft-Forgiving (Al-Ghafūr), the Grateful (Ash-Shakūr), the Most High (Al-`Aliyy), the Great (Al-Kabīr), the Guardian (Al-Ḥafīẓ), the Powerful (Al-Muqīt), the Reckoner (Al-Ḥasīb), the Glorious (Al-Jalīl), the Generous (Al-Karīm), the Watcher (Ar-Raqīb), the Responder (Al-Mujīb), the Liberal Giver (Al-Wāsi`), the Wise (Al-Ḥakīm), the Loving (Al-Wadūd), the Majestic (Al-Majīd), the Reviver (Al-Bā`ith), the Witness (Ash-Shahīd), the Truth (Al-Ḥaqq), the Guarantor (Al-Wakīl), the Strong (Al-Qawiyy), the Firm (Al-Matīn), the One Who Aids (Al-Waliyy), the Praiseworthy (Al-Ḥamīd), the Encompasser (Al-Muḥṣi), the One Who Begins things (Al-Mubdi’), the One Who brings things back (Al-Mu`īd), the One Who gives life (Al-Muḥyi), the One Who causes death (Al-Mumīt), the Living (Al-Ḥayyu), the Self-Sufficient (Al-Qayyūm), the One Who brings into existence (Al-Wājid), the Illustrious (Al-Mājid), the One (Al-Wāḥid), the Master (Aṣ-Ṣamad), the Able (Al-Qādir), the Powerful (Al-Muqtadir), the One who hastens (Al-Muqaddim), the One who delays (Al-Mu’akhkhir), the First (Al-Awwal), the Last (Al-Ākhir), the Apparent (Aẓ-Ẓāhir), the Inner (Al-Bāṭin), the Owner (Al-Wāli), the Exalted (Al-Muta`āli), the Doer of Good (Al-Barr), the Acceptor of repentance (At-Tawwāb), the Avenger (Al-Muntaqim), the Pardoning (Al-`Afuww), the Kind (Ar-Ra’ūf), the Owner of Dominion (Mālikul-Mulk), the Possessor of Glory and Generosity (Dhul Jalāli wal Ikrām), the One who does justice (Al-Muqsiṭ), the Gatherer (Al-Jāmi`), the Rich (Al-Ghaniyy), the Enricher (Al-Mughni), the Preventer (Al-Māni`), the Harmer (Aḍ-Ḍār), the One who benefits (An-Nāfi`), the Light (An-Nūr), the Guide (Al-Hādi), the Originator (Al-Badī`), the Lasting (Al-Bāqi), the Inheritor (Al-Wārith), the Guide (Ar-Rashīd), the Tolerant (Aṣ-Ṣabūr).”}}
Tirmidhi elaborates on the quality of the hadith:
{{Quote|Tirmidhi comment on the list|"This (version of the) hadith is gharib [unusual, scarce]; it has been narrated from various routes on the authority of Abu Hurairah, but we do not know of the mention of the Names in the numerous narrations, except this one."
}}
From Ibn Tamiyya: {{Quote|Ibn Taimyya|"Al-Walid (one of the narrators of the hadith) related the Names from (the saying of) one of his Syrian teachers ... '''specific mention of the Names is not from the words of the Prophet''' (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), by the agreement of those familiar with Hadith."}}

===The list===
Some of the words given as names of Allah in this list are not present in the Quran. The following list links to Quranic verses cited as sources of each name and notes instances where the name does not actually appear.
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
!Num.
!In Arabic
!Transliteration
!Offical translation
!Actual translation
!Reference
!Notes
|-
|1||الرحمان||''ar-rahmaan''||The Most Gracious||The Gracious||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|2||الرحيم||''ar-raheem''||The Most Merciful||The Merciful||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|3||المالك||''al-maalik''||The King||The Posessor <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||Some translations say "sovereign" <ref>http://quranx.com/59.23</ref>
|-
|4||القدوس||''al-quddoos''||The Holy||The Holy||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|5||السلام||''as-salaam''||The Peace||Free from defect||{{Quran|59|23}}||Ibn Kathir understands it as "free from defect" <ref>http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1602&Itemid=115</ref>
|-
|6||المؤمن||''al-mu'min''||The Granter of Security||The Believer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%85%D9%86/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||''Mu'min'' in all other verses means "believer" <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amn</ref>
|-
|7||المهيمن||''al-muhaymin''||The Controller||The Controller||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|8||العزيز||''al-'azeez''||The Powerful||The Honorable <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2/</ref>||{{Quran|3|6}}||
|-
|9||الجبار||''al-jabbar''||The Strong||The Forceful <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/</ref>|||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|10||المتكبر||''al-mutakabbir''||The Supreme||The Arrogant/The Boaster <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|11||الخالق||''al-khaaliq''||The Creator||The Creator||{{Quran|6|102}}||
|-
|12||البارئ||''al-baari''||The Maker||The Maker||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|13||المصور||''al-musawwir''||The Fashioner||The Fashioner||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|14||الغفار||''al-ghaffaar''||The Repeatedly Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|20|82}}||
|-
|15||القهار||''al-qahhaar''||The Subduer||The Despot / The Conqueror||{{Quran|12|39}}||
|-
|16||الوهاب||''al-wahhaab''||The Bestower||The Provider <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8/</ref>||{{Quran|38|9}}||Also a name of the founder of Wahhabism.
|-
|17||الرزاق||''ar-razaaq''||The Provider||The Provider||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|18||الفتاح||''al-fattaah''||The Opener||The Opener||{{Quran|34|26}}||"fath" (opening) is a euphemism for Islamic conquests (''futuhaat islamiyya'', literally "islamic openings").
|-
|19||العليم||''al-'aleem''||The Knowing||The Knowing||{{Quran|2|158}}||
|-
|20||القابض||''al-qaabid''||The Restrainer||The Grabbing <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B6/</ref>||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||قبضة ''qabda'' is fist
|-
|21||الباسط||''al-baasit''||The Extender||The Extender||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||It should be actually باصط.
|-
|22||الخافض||''al-khaafid''||The Humiliator||The Lessener/Lowerer||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|23||الرافع||''ar-raafee''||The Exalter||The Raiser||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|24||المعز||''al-muiz''||The Giver of Honor||The Honored||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|25||المذل||''al-mudhil''||The Giver of Dishonor||The Humiliating <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%84/</ref>||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|26||السميع||''as-samii''||The Hearing||The Hearing||{{Quran|2|127}}||
|-
|27||البصير||''al-baseer''||The All-Seeing||The Seeing||{{Quran|4|58}}||
|-
|28||الحكم||''al-hakam''||The Judge||The Judge||{{Quran|22|69}} (it's not there)||
|-
|29||العدل||''al-adl''||The Just||The Justice||{{Quran|6|115}} (it's not there)||
|-
|30||اللطيف||''al-lateef''||The Subtly Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|22|63}}||
|-
|31||الخبير||''al-khabeer''||The All-aware||The Informed <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|6|18}}||
|-
|32||الحليم||''al-haleem''||The Forbearing||The Forbearing||{{Quran|2|235}}||
|-
|33||العظيم||''al-'azeem''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|34||الغفور||''al-ghafoor''||The Much Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|2|173}}||The list already contains Ghaffar, which means the same.
|-
|35||الشكور||''ash-shakoor''||The Grateful||The Thankful||{{Quran|35|30}}||
|-
|36||العلى||''al-aliyy''||The Sublime||The Exalted||{{Quran|4|34}}||
|-
|37||الكبير||''al-kabeer''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|13|9}}||Not ''akbar'' (اكبر) - the Greatest??
|-
|38||الحفيظ||''al-hafeez''||The Preserver||The Preserver||{{Quran|11|57}}||
|-
|39||المقيت||''al-muqeet''||The Nourisher||The Nourisher||{{Quran|4|85}}||
|-
|40||الحسيب||''al-haseeb''||The Bringer of Judgment||The Accountant||{{Quran|4|6}}||حساب hisaab means account
|-
|41||الجليل||''al-jaleel''||The Majestic||The Majestic||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|143}} (it's not there)||
|-
|42||الكريم||''al-kareem''||The Bountiful||The Bountiful||{{Quran|27|40}}||
|-
|43||الرقيب||''ar-raqeeb''||The Watchful||The Watchman||{{Quran|4|1}}||
|-
|44||المجيب||''al-mujeeb''||The Responsive||The Responsive||{{Quran|11|61}}||
|-
|45||الواسع||''al-waasie''||The Vast||The Vast||{{Quran|2|268}}||
|-
|46||الحكيم||''al-hakeem''||The Wise||The Wise||{{Quran|31|27}}||
|-
|47||الودود||''al-wadood''||The Affectionate||The Affectionate||{{Quran|11|90}}||
|-
|48||المجيد||''al-majeed''||The Glorious||The Glorious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|49||الباعث||''al-baaith''||The Resurrector||The Resurrector||{{Quran|22|7}} (it's not there)||
|-
|50||الشهيد||''ash-shaheed''||The Witness||The Witness||{{Quran|4|166}}||
|-
|51||الحق||''al-haqq''||The Truth||The Truth||{{Quran|22|6}}||Allah in the Quran claims that the [[Flat Earth and the Quran|Earth is flat]].
|-
|52||الوكيل||''al-wakeel''||The Trustee||The Trustee||{{Quran|3|173}}||
|-
|53||القوي||''al-qawee''||The Strong||The Strong||{{Quran|22|40}}||
|-
|54||المتين||''al-mateen''||The Firm||The Firm||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|55||الولي||''al-walee''||The Friend||The Friend||{{Quran|4|45}}||
|-
|56||الحميد||''al-hameed''||The All Praiseworthy||The Praiseworthy||{{Quran|14|8}}||Muhammad (محمد) is derived from the same root.
|-
|57||المحصى||''al-muhsee''||The Accounter||The Accounter||{{Quran|72|28}} (it's not there), {{Quran|78|29}} (it's not there)||إحصىء means "statistics"
|-
|58||المبدئ||''al-mubdi''||The Initiator||The Initiator||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|59||المعيد||''al-mueed''||The Restorer||The Lecturer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|60||المحي||''al-muhee''||The Giver of Life||The Giver of Life||{{Quran|30|50}}||
|-
|61||المميت||''al-mumeet''||The Bringer of Death||The Deadly <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA/</ref>||{{Quran|3|156}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|158}} (it's not there), {{Quran|15|23}} (it's not there), {{Quran|57|2}} (it's not there)||
|-
|61||الحى||''al-hayy''||The Living||The Living||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|63||القيوم||''al-qayyum''||The Subsisting||The Subsisting||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|64||الواجد||''al-waajid''||The Perceiver||The Angry <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|38|44}} (it's not there)||
|-
|65||الماجد||''al-maajid''||The Illustrious||The Illustrious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|66||الواحد||''al-waahid''||The Single||The Single||{{Quran|13|16}}||
|-
|67||الأحد||''al-ahad''||The One||The One||{{Quran|112|1}}||
|-
|68||الصمد||''as-samad''||The Eternal||The Eternal||{{Quran|112|2}}||
|-
|69||القادر||''al-qaadir''||The All-Powerful||The Able||{{Quran|6|65}}||
|-
|70||المقتدر||''al-muqtadir''||The Determiner||The Able||{{Quran|18|45}}||
|-
|71||المقدم||''al-muqaddim''||He Who Brings Forward||The Donor||{{Quran|16|61}} (it's not there)||
|-
|72||المؤخر||''al-muakhir''||The Delayer||The Delayer||{{Quran|71|4}} (it's not there)||
|-
|73||الأول||''al-awwal''||The First||The First||{{Quran|57|3}}||The first what?
|-
|74||الآخر||''al-aakhir''||The Last||The Last||{{Quran|57|3}}||The last what?
|-
|75||الظاهر||''az-zaahir''||The Apparent||The Apparent||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|76||الباطن||''al-baatin''||The Inner||The Inner||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|77||الوالي||''al-waali''||The Patron||The Patron||{{Quran|13|11}}||"And there is not for them besides Him any patron." - is it really a name?
|-
|78||المتعالي||''al-mutaali''||The Most High||The Arrogant <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A/</ref>||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|79||البر||''al-barr''||The Good||The Good||{{Quran|52|28}}||
|-
|80||التواب||''at-tawwaab''||The Ever-Returning||The Merciful||{{Quran|4|64}}||
|-
|81||المنتقم||''al-muntaqim''||The Avenger||The Revenger||{{Quran|32|22}}||It's in plural form.
|-
|82||العفو||''al-'afuu''||The Pardoner||The Pardoner||{{Quran|4|43}}||
|-
|83||الرؤف||''ar-rauf''||The Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|9|117}}||
|-
|84||مالك الملك||''maalik ul-mulk''||The Owner of all Sovereignty||The Owner of all Dominion||{{Quran|3|26}}||
|-
|85||ذو الجلال والإكرام||''dhul jalaal wal ikraam''||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||{{Quran|55|27}}||
|-
|86||المقسط||''al-muqsit''||The Equitable||The Equitable||{{Quran|3|18}} (it's not there)||
|-
|87||الجامع||''al-jaami''||The Gatherer||The Gatherer||{{Quran|3|9}}||
|-
|88||الغني||''al-ghaani''||The Rich||The Rich||{{Quran|57|24}}||
|-
|89||المغني||''al-mughni''||The Enricher||The Enricher||{{Quran|9|28}} (it's not there)||
|-
|90||المانع||''al-maani''||The Preventer||The Preventer||{{Quran|67|21}} (it's not there)||It's not there at all.
|-
|91||الضار||''ad-daar''||The Harmer||The Harmer||{{Quran|6|17}} (it's not there)||
|-
|92||النافع||''an-naafi''||The Propitious||The Propitious||{{Quran|30|37}} (it's not there)||It's not there at all.
|-
|93||النور||''an-noor''||The Light||The Light||{{Quran|24|35}}||
|-
|94||الهادي||''al-haadi''||The Guide||The Guide||{{Quran|22|54}}||
|-
|95||البديع||''al-badee''||The Originator||The Originator||{{Quran|2|117}}||
|-
|96||الباقي||''al-baaqi''||The Immutable||The Remaining||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there)||"And there '''will remain''' the Face of your Lord..." - not a name.
|-
|97||الوارث||''al-waarith''||The Heir||The Heir||{{Quran|15|23}}||It's in plural
|-
|98||الرشيد||''ar-rasheed''||The Guide to the Right Path||The ِRightly Guided||{{Quran|72|10}} (it's not there)||"And we do not know [therefore] whether evil is intended for those on earth or whether their Lord intends for them '''a right course''' (رشدا)."
|-
|99||الصبور||''as-saboor''||The Patient||The Patient||{{Quran|2|153}} (it's not there), {{Quran|3|200}} (it's not there), {{Quran|103|3}} (it's not there)||
|}

===Issues===
==== "The Compassionate" ====
Reynolds (2020) discusses one of the most commonly used names for Allah, Al-Rahman or The Compassionate:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 94-96). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|Most tellingly, perhaps, on fifty-six occasions the Qur’an simply names God al-rahman, “the Compassionate.” This would seem to suggest that the Qur’an’s idea of God is deeply intertwined with the concept of mercy. A closer analysis, however, complicates this suggestion in three ways. First, the name al-rahman is used for God in a number of verses in which God is not merciful.14 This is the case with Q 19:45, in which Abraham tells his (pagan) father, “I am indeed afraid that a punishment from al-rahman will befall you, and you will become Satan’s accomplice.” This paradoxical use of al-rahman appears again in Q 21:42, where God commands the Prophet: “Say, ‘Who can guard you, day and night, against [the punishment of] al-rahman.”15Second, in the Qur’an the term al-rahman always appears with the definite article (al) and never as a simple adjective. And third, whereas rahim is used to refer to things other than God (e.g., in Q 9:128 Muhammad is rahim), al-rahman is used only to refer to God. Together these things suggest that the Qur’an’s author meant to use al-rahman principally as a proper noun for God. This possibility seems more likely in light of what we know from the evidence left behind on rocks by monotheists who lived in Arabia before Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabian rock inscriptions often refer to God, or God the Father in the Christian Trinity, with a version of the name al-rahman. In South Arabian the name appears as rahmanan.16In North Arabia, too, God, or a god, was referred to as “the merciful.” A North Arabian inscription (in a variety of Ancient North Arabian known as Safaitic) includes an appeal to a god who is referred to with a term related to Arabic rahim and rahman.17 Thus, al-rahman (or other versions of it) seems simply to have been a typical way to refer to God in Arabia.18}}
"Rahmanan" above is synonymous with al-rahman, with the definite article being expressed through the 'an' suffix,as in some Southern Arabian languages, rather than the 'al' prefix as in contemporary Arabic.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 254)'''.''''' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

Footnote 16: This is not the only name that Arabian monotheists used for God. The French archaeologist Christian Robin has carefully catalogued names for God used by Jews in the South Arabian kingdom of Himyar in the fifth and sixth centuries. In addition to rahmanan (“the Compassionate”; the an at the end of the word is the definite article used in certain South Arabian languages), they used a name close to Arabic allah (ʾlahan) along with rabb (“lord”)—a term closely related to a name used for God in the Qurʾan..

</ref>

====Duplicates====
The verse 55:27 is considered as an instance of both "ذو الجلال والإكرام" and "الجليل". It is not clear what the difference could be between الغفور and الغفار or between "مالك" and "مالك الملك".

====Names not mentioned in the Quran====
Some of the purported names of Allah do not appear in the Quran, for example the last on the list, الصبور (The Patient). It is often cited as appearing in verse 2:153:{{Quote|{{Quran|2|153}}|
O you who have believed, seek help '''through patience''' (بالصبر) and prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the patient.
}}
In this case, the relevant word means "patience" and not "The Patient One."

Another verse from which the claim is derived uses the term as a verb and command for believers:
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|200}}|O you who have believed, '''persevere and endure''' (اصبروا وصابروا) and remain stationed and fear Allah that you may be successful.
}}Another verse similarly translates to "patience," not "The Patient One":
{{Quote|{{Quran|103|3}}|Except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and advised each other '''to patience''' (بالصبر).
}}
A similar phenomenon occurs with another purported name, The Preventer (المانع), which is cited as occuring in verse 67:21: the verb in this verse is not derived from the same root, منع.

====Other names not mentioned in the list====
The Qur'an refers to Allah as [[Allah the Best Deceiver|The Best of Deceivers]] (''khayru al-makireena'').{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and Allah cheated/deceived, and Allah (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

The list also doesn't mention the word "Allah" itself (الله).

==See also==

External:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101_Names_of_God Wikipedia: 101 Names of God in Zoroastrianism]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_and_titles_of_Muhammad Wikipedia: Names and titles of Muhammad]
*[https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%89#%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%87%D8%A7 Arabic Wikipedia article compiling lists of Allah's names]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Sufism]]
[[Category:Supernatural beings]]

99 names of Allah

2025-12-05T22:18:42Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language and removed argumentative material

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=2|References=3}}
The Quran references the "beautiful names of Allah." Hadith elaborate on this further, specifying that Allah has exactly 99 names. Muslims are expected to learn these names, though not all are listed in the Quran or hadith. This required Islamic scholars to use [[ijtihad]] (independent judgement) to locate these names in the Quran and Sunnah, with different scholars proposing different lists. As many as 276 names have been proposed.

==The phrase "beautiful names of Allah" mentioned in the Qur'an==
The Quran states that Allah has "beautiful names" (الأسماء الحسنى, ''al-asmaa' ul-husnaa''). It does not specify the names or their number.
{{Quote|{{Quran|7|180}}|And to Allah belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى), so invoke Him by them. And leave [the company of] those who practice deviation concerning His names. They will be recompensed for what they have been doing.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|17|110}}|Say, "Call upon Allah or call upon the Most Merciful. Whichever [name] you call - to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى)." And do not recite [too] loudly in your prayer or [too] quietly but seek between that an [intermediate] way.
}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|20|8}}|Allah - there is no deity except Him. To Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى).}}
{{Quote|{{Quran|59|24}}|He is Allah, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong '''the best names''' (الأسماء الحسنى). Whatever is in the heavens and earth is exalting Him. And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
}}
==Hadith==
Numerous hadith, such as the following from Sahih Bukhari, indicate that Allah has 99 names:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari|||7392|darussalam}}|Narrated Abu Huraira:

Allah's Messenger (ﷺ) said, "Allah has ninety-nine Names, one-hundred less one; and he who memorized them all by heart will enter Paradise." To count something means to know it by heart.}}
Some Islamic scholars and public figures argue that the above hadith indicates that Allah has ''at least'' 99 names. However, this specification does not appear in the original Arabic, which simply indicates that Allah has "ninety-nine" or "one-hundred less one" names.

==The popular list==
===Source===
A popular list of Allah's 99 names originates from a weak (da'if) hadith from the collection of Tirmidhi.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||6|45|3507}} (weak)|Abu Hurairah narrated that the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) said:

“Indeed, Allah has ninety-nine Names, one hundred less one, whoever counts them shall enter Paradise. He is Allah, the one whom there is none worthy of worship except for Him (Allāhu Lā Ilāha Illā Huwa), the Most Merciful (to the creation) (Ar-Raḥmān), the Most Beneficent (to the believers) (Ar-Raḥīm), the King (Al-Malik), the Free of Deficiencies (Al-Quddūs), the Granter of Safety (As-Salām), the Granter of Security (Al-Mu’min), the Watcher (Al-Muhaimin), the Mighty (Al-`Azīz), the Compeller (Al-Jabbār), the Supreme (Al-Mutakabbir), the Creator (Al-Khāliq), the Originator (Al-Bāri’), the Fashioner (Al-Muṣawwir), the Pardoner (Al-Ghaffār), the Overwhelming (Al-Qahhār), the Giving (Al-Wahhāb), the Provider (Ar-Razzāq), the Opener (Al-Fattāḥ), the Knowing (Al-`Alīm), the Taker (Al-Qābiḍ), the Giver (Al-Bāsiṭ), the Abaser (Al-Khāfiḍ), the Exalter (Ar-Rāfi`), the One who grants honor (Al-Mu`izz), the One who humiliates (Al-Mudhil), the Hearing (As-Samī`), the Seeing (Al-Baṣīr), the Judge (Al-Ḥakam), the Just (Al-`Adl), the Kind (Al-Laṭīf), the Aware (Al-Khabīr), the Forbearing (Al-Ḥalīm), the Magnificent (Al-`Aẓīm), the Oft-Forgiving (Al-Ghafūr), the Grateful (Ash-Shakūr), the Most High (Al-`Aliyy), the Great (Al-Kabīr), the Guardian (Al-Ḥafīẓ), the Powerful (Al-Muqīt), the Reckoner (Al-Ḥasīb), the Glorious (Al-Jalīl), the Generous (Al-Karīm), the Watcher (Ar-Raqīb), the Responder (Al-Mujīb), the Liberal Giver (Al-Wāsi`), the Wise (Al-Ḥakīm), the Loving (Al-Wadūd), the Majestic (Al-Majīd), the Reviver (Al-Bā`ith), the Witness (Ash-Shahīd), the Truth (Al-Ḥaqq), the Guarantor (Al-Wakīl), the Strong (Al-Qawiyy), the Firm (Al-Matīn), the One Who Aids (Al-Waliyy), the Praiseworthy (Al-Ḥamīd), the Encompasser (Al-Muḥṣi), the One Who Begins things (Al-Mubdi’), the One Who brings things back (Al-Mu`īd), the One Who gives life (Al-Muḥyi), the One Who causes death (Al-Mumīt), the Living (Al-Ḥayyu), the Self-Sufficient (Al-Qayyūm), the One Who brings into existence (Al-Wājid), the Illustrious (Al-Mājid), the One (Al-Wāḥid), the Master (Aṣ-Ṣamad), the Able (Al-Qādir), the Powerful (Al-Muqtadir), the One who hastens (Al-Muqaddim), the One who delays (Al-Mu’akhkhir), the First (Al-Awwal), the Last (Al-Ākhir), the Apparent (Aẓ-Ẓāhir), the Inner (Al-Bāṭin), the Owner (Al-Wāli), the Exalted (Al-Muta`āli), the Doer of Good (Al-Barr), the Acceptor of repentance (At-Tawwāb), the Avenger (Al-Muntaqim), the Pardoning (Al-`Afuww), the Kind (Ar-Ra’ūf), the Owner of Dominion (Mālikul-Mulk), the Possessor of Glory and Generosity (Dhul Jalāli wal Ikrām), the One who does justice (Al-Muqsiṭ), the Gatherer (Al-Jāmi`), the Rich (Al-Ghaniyy), the Enricher (Al-Mughni), the Preventer (Al-Māni`), the Harmer (Aḍ-Ḍār), the One who benefits (An-Nāfi`), the Light (An-Nūr), the Guide (Al-Hādi), the Originator (Al-Badī`), the Lasting (Al-Bāqi), the Inheritor (Al-Wārith), the Guide (Ar-Rashīd), the Tolerant (Aṣ-Ṣabūr).”}}
Tirmidhi elaborates on the quality of the hadith:
{{Quote|Tirmidhi comment on the list|"This (version of the) hadith is gharib [unusual, scarce]; it has been narrated from various routes on the authority of Abu Hurairah, but we do not know of the mention of the Names in the numerous narrations, except this one."
}}
From Ibn Tamiyya: {{Quote|Ibn Taimyya|"Al-Walid (one of the narrators of the hadith) related the Names from (the saying of) one of his Syrian teachers ... '''specific mention of the Names is not from the words of the Prophet''' (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), by the agreement of those familiar with Hadith."}}

===The list===
Some of the words given as names of Allah in this list are not present in the Quran. The following list links to Quranic verses cited as sources of each name and notes instances where the name does not actually appear.
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5"
!Num.
!In Arabic
!Transliteration
!Offical translation
!Actual translation
!Reference
!Notes
|-
|1||الرحمان||''ar-rahmaan''||The Most Gracious||The Gracious||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|2||الرحيم||''ar-raheem''||The Most Merciful||The Merciful||{{Quran|1|1}}||
|-
|3||المالك||''al-maalik''||The King||The Posessor <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||Some translations say "sovereign" <ref>http://quranx.com/59.23</ref>
|-
|4||القدوس||''al-quddoos''||The Holy||The Holy||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|5||السلام||''as-salaam''||The Peace||Free from defect||{{Quran|59|23}}||Ibn Kathir understands it as "free from defect" <ref>http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1602&Itemid=115</ref>
|-
|6||المؤمن||''al-mu'min''||The Granter of Security||The Believer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%A4%D9%85%D9%86/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||''Mu'min'' in all other verses means "believer" <ref>http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsp?q=Amn</ref>
|-
|7||المهيمن||''al-muhaymin''||The Controller||The Controller||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|8||العزيز||''al-'azeez''||The Powerful||The Honorable <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%B9%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B2/</ref>||{{Quran|3|6}}||
|-
|9||الجبار||''al-jabbar''||The Strong||The Forceful <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1/</ref>|||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|10||المتكبر||''al-mutakabbir''||The Supreme||The Arrogant/The Boaster <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|59|23}}||
|-
|11||الخالق||''al-khaaliq''||The Creator||The Creator||{{Quran|6|102}}||
|-
|12||البارئ||''al-baari''||The Maker||The Maker||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|13||المصور||''al-musawwir''||The Fashioner||The Fashioner||{{Quran|59|24}}||
|-
|14||الغفار||''al-ghaffaar''||The Repeatedly Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|20|82}}||
|-
|15||القهار||''al-qahhaar''||The Subduer||The Despot / The Conqueror||{{Quran|12|39}}||
|-
|16||الوهاب||''al-wahhaab''||The Bestower||The Provider <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8/</ref>||{{Quran|38|9}}||Also a name of the founder of Wahhabism.
|-
|17||الرزاق||''ar-razaaq''||The Provider||The Provider||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|18||الفتاح||''al-fattaah''||The Opener||The Opener||{{Quran|34|26}}||"fath" (opening) is a euphemism for Islamic conquests (''futuhaat islamiyya'', literally "islamic openings").
|-
|19||العليم||''al-'aleem''||The Knowing||The Knowing||{{Quran|2|158}}||
|-
|20||القابض||''al-qaabid''||The Restrainer||The Grabbing <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B6/</ref>||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||قبضة ''qabda'' is fist
|-
|21||الباسط||''al-baasit''||The Extender||The Extender||{{Quran|2|245}} (it's not there)||It should be actually باصط.
|-
|22||الخافض||''al-khaafid''||The Humiliator||The Lessener/Lowerer||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|23||الرافع||''ar-raafee''||The Exalter||The Raiser||{{Quran|56|3}} (it's not there)||
|-
|24||المعز||''al-muiz''||The Giver of Honor||The Honored||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|25||المذل||''al-mudhil''||The Giver of Dishonor||The Humiliating <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%84/</ref>||{{Quran|3|26}} (it's not there)||
|-
|26||السميع||''as-samii''||The Hearing||The Hearing||{{Quran|2|127}}||
|-
|27||البصير||''al-baseer''||The All-Seeing||The Seeing||{{Quran|4|58}}||
|-
|28||الحكم||''al-hakam''||The Judge||The Judge||{{Quran|22|69}} (it's not there)||
|-
|29||العدل||''al-adl''||The Just||The Justice||{{Quran|6|115}} (it's not there)||
|-
|30||اللطيف||''al-lateef''||The Subtly Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|22|63}}||
|-
|31||الخبير||''al-khabeer''||The All-aware||The Informed <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1/</ref>||{{Quran|6|18}}||
|-
|32||الحليم||''al-haleem''||The Forbearing||The Forbearing||{{Quran|2|235}}||
|-
|33||العظيم||''al-'azeem''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|34||الغفور||''al-ghafoor''||The Much Forgiving||The Forgiving||{{Quran|2|173}}||The list already contains Ghaffar, which means the same.
|-
|35||الشكور||''ash-shakoor''||The Grateful||The Thankful||{{Quran|35|30}}||
|-
|36||العلى||''al-aliyy''||The Sublime||The Exalted||{{Quran|4|34}}||
|-
|37||الكبير||''al-kabeer''||The Great||The Great||{{Quran|13|9}}||Not ''akbar'' (اكبر) - the Greatest??
|-
|38||الحفيظ||''al-hafeez''||The Preserver||The Preserver||{{Quran|11|57}}||
|-
|39||المقيت||''al-muqeet''||The Nourisher||The Nourisher||{{Quran|4|85}}||
|-
|40||الحسيب||''al-haseeb''||The Bringer of Judgment||The Accountant||{{Quran|4|6}}||حساب hisaab means account
|-
|41||الجليل||''al-jaleel''||The Majestic||The Majestic||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|143}} (it's not there)||
|-
|42||الكريم||''al-kareem''||The Bountiful||The Bountiful||{{Quran|27|40}}||
|-
|43||الرقيب||''ar-raqeeb''||The Watchful||The Watchman||{{Quran|4|1}}||
|-
|44||المجيب||''al-mujeeb''||The Responsive||The Responsive||{{Quran|11|61}}||
|-
|45||الواسع||''al-waasie''||The Vast||The Vast||{{Quran|2|268}}||
|-
|46||الحكيم||''al-hakeem''||The Wise||The Wise||{{Quran|31|27}}||
|-
|47||الودود||''al-wadood''||The Affectionate||The Affectionate||{{Quran|11|90}}||
|-
|48||المجيد||''al-majeed''||The Glorious||The Glorious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|49||الباعث||''al-baaith''||The Resurrector||The Resurrector||{{Quran|22|7}} (it's not there)||
|-
|50||الشهيد||''ash-shaheed''||The Witness||The Witness||{{Quran|4|166}}||
|-
|51||الحق||''al-haqq''||The Truth||The Truth||{{Quran|22|6}}||Allah in the Quran claims that the [[Flat Earth and the Quran|Earth is flat]].
|-
|52||الوكيل||''al-wakeel''||The Trustee||The Trustee||{{Quran|3|173}}||
|-
|53||القوي||''al-qawee''||The Strong||The Strong||{{Quran|22|40}}||
|-
|54||المتين||''al-mateen''||The Firm||The Firm||{{Quran|51|58}}||
|-
|55||الولي||''al-walee''||The Friend||The Friend||{{Quran|4|45}}||
|-
|56||الحميد||''al-hameed''||The All Praiseworthy||The Praiseworthy||{{Quran|14|8}}||Muhammad (محمد) is derived from the same root.
|-
|57||المحصى||''al-muhsee''||The Accounter||The Accounter||{{Quran|72|28}} (it's not there), {{Quran|78|29}} (it's not there)||إحصىء means "statistics"
|-
|58||المبدئ||''al-mubdi''||The Initiator||The Initiator||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|59||المعيد||''al-mueed''||The Restorer||The Lecturer <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|10|34}} (it's not there), {{Quran|27|64}} (it's not there), {{Quran|29|19}} (it's not there), {{Quran|85|13}} (it's not there)||
|-
|60||المحي||''al-muhee''||The Giver of Life||The Giver of Life||{{Quran|30|50}}||
|-
|61||المميت||''al-mumeet''||The Bringer of Death||The Deadly <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AA/</ref>||{{Quran|3|156}} (it's not there), {{Quran|7|158}} (it's not there), {{Quran|15|23}} (it's not there), {{Quran|57|2}} (it's not there)||
|-
|61||الحى||''al-hayy''||The Living||The Living||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|63||القيوم||''al-qayyum''||The Subsisting||The Subsisting||{{Quran|2|255}}||
|-
|64||الواجد||''al-waajid''||The Perceiver||The Angry <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF/</ref>||{{Quran|38|44}} (it's not there)||
|-
|65||الماجد||''al-maajid''||The Illustrious||The Illustrious||{{Quran|11|73}}||
|-
|66||الواحد||''al-waahid''||The Single||The Single||{{Quran|13|16}}||
|-
|67||الأحد||''al-ahad''||The One||The One||{{Quran|112|1}}||
|-
|68||الصمد||''as-samad''||The Eternal||The Eternal||{{Quran|112|2}}||
|-
|69||القادر||''al-qaadir''||The All-Powerful||The Able||{{Quran|6|65}}||
|-
|70||المقتدر||''al-muqtadir''||The Determiner||The Able||{{Quran|18|45}}||
|-
|71||المقدم||''al-muqaddim''||He Who Brings Forward||The Donor||{{Quran|16|61}} (it's not there)||
|-
|72||المؤخر||''al-muakhir''||The Delayer||The Delayer||{{Quran|71|4}} (it's not there)||
|-
|73||الأول||''al-awwal''||The First||The First||{{Quran|57|3}}||The first what?
|-
|74||الآخر||''al-aakhir''||The Last||The Last||{{Quran|57|3}}||The last what?
|-
|75||الظاهر||''az-zaahir''||The Apparent||The Apparent||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|76||الباطن||''al-baatin''||The Inner||The Inner||{{Quran|57|3}}||
|-
|77||الوالي||''al-waali''||The Patron||The Patron||{{Quran|13|11}}||"And there is not for them besides Him any patron." - is it really a name?
|-
|78||المتعالي||''al-mutaali''||The Most High||The Arrogant <ref>https://www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A/</ref>||{{Quran|13|9}}||
|-
|79||البر||''al-barr''||The Good||The Good||{{Quran|52|28}}||
|-
|80||التواب||''at-tawwaab''||The Ever-Returning||The Merciful||{{Quran|4|64}}||
|-
|81||المنتقم||''al-muntaqim''||The Avenger||The Revenger||{{Quran|32|22}}||It's in plural form.
|-
|82||العفو||''al-'afuu''||The Pardoner||The Pardoner||{{Quran|4|43}}||
|-
|83||الرؤف||''ar-rauf''||The Kind||The Kind||{{Quran|9|117}}||
|-
|84||مالك الملك||''maalik ul-mulk''||The Owner of all Sovereignty||The Owner of all Dominion||{{Quran|3|26}}||
|-
|85||ذو الجلال والإكرام||''dhul jalaal wal ikraam''||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||The Owner, Lord of Majesty and Honour||{{Quran|55|27}}||
|-
|86||المقسط||''al-muqsit''||The Equitable||The Equitable||{{Quran|3|18}} (it's not there)||
|-
|87||الجامع||''al-jaami''||The Gatherer||The Gatherer||{{Quran|3|9}}||
|-
|88||الغني||''al-ghaani''||The Rich||The Rich||{{Quran|57|24}}||
|-
|89||المغني||''al-mughni''||The Enricher||The Enricher||{{Quran|9|28}} (it's not there)||
|-
|90||المانع||''al-maani''||The Preventer||The Preventer||{{Quran|67|21}} (it's not there)||It's not there at all.
|-
|91||الضار||''ad-daar''||The Harmer||The Harmer||{{Quran|6|17}} (it's not there)||
|-
|92||النافع||''an-naafi''||The Propitious||The Propitious||{{Quran|30|37}} (it's not there)||It's not there at all.
|-
|93||النور||''an-noor''||The Light||The Light||{{Quran|24|35}}||
|-
|94||الهادي||''al-haadi''||The Guide||The Guide||{{Quran|22|54}}||
|-
|95||البديع||''al-badee''||The Originator||The Originator||{{Quran|2|117}}||
|-
|96||الباقي||''al-baaqi''||The Immutable||The Remaining||{{Quran|55|27}} (it's not there)||"And there '''will remain''' the Face of your Lord..." - not a name.
|-
|97||الوارث||''al-waarith''||The Heir||The Heir||{{Quran|15|23}}||It's in plural
|-
|98||الرشيد||''ar-rasheed''||The Guide to the Right Path||The ِRightly Guided||{{Quran|72|10}} (it's not there)||"And we do not know [therefore] whether evil is intended for those on earth or whether their Lord intends for them '''a right course''' (رشدا)."
|-
|99||الصبور||''as-saboor''||The Patient||The Patient||{{Quran|2|153}} (it's not there), {{Quran|3|200}} (it's not there), {{Quran|103|3}} (it's not there)||
|}

===Issues===
==== "The Compassionate" ====
Reynolds (2020) discusses one of the most commonly used names for Allah, Al-Rahman or The Compassionate:
{{Quote|Reynolds, Gabriel Said. Allah: God in the Qur'an (pp. 94-96). Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.|Most tellingly, perhaps, on fifty-six occasions the Qur’an simply names God al-rahman, “the Compassionate.” This would seem to suggest that the Qur’an’s idea of God is deeply intertwined with the concept of mercy. A closer analysis, however, complicates this suggestion in three ways. First, the name al-rahman is used for God in a number of verses in which God is not merciful.14 This is the case with Q 19:45, in which Abraham tells his (pagan) father, “I am indeed afraid that a punishment from al-rahman will befall you, and you will become Satan’s accomplice.” This paradoxical use of al-rahman appears again in Q 21:42, where God commands the Prophet: “Say, ‘Who can guard you, day and night, against [the punishment of] al-rahman.”15Second, in the Qur’an the term al-rahman always appears with the definite article (al) and never as a simple adjective. And third, whereas rahim is used to refer to things other than God (e.g., in Q 9:128 Muhammad is rahim), al-rahman is used only to refer to God. Together these things suggest that the Qur’an’s author meant to use al-rahman principally as a proper noun for God. This possibility seems more likely in light of what we know from the evidence left behind on rocks by monotheists who lived in Arabia before Islam. Pre-Islamic Arabian rock inscriptions often refer to God, or God the Father in the Christian Trinity, with a version of the name al-rahman. In South Arabian the name appears as rahmanan.16In North Arabia, too, God, or a god, was referred to as “the merciful.” A North Arabian inscription (in a variety of Ancient North Arabian known as Safaitic) includes an appeal to a god who is referred to with a term related to Arabic rahim and rahman.17 Thus, al-rahman (or other versions of it) seems simply to have been a typical way to refer to God in Arabia.18}}
"Rahmanan" above is synonymous with al-rahman, with the definite article being expressed through the 'an' suffix,as in some Southern Arabian languages, rather than the 'al' prefix as in contemporary Arabic.<ref>Reynolds, Gabriel Said. ''Allah: God in the Qur'an (p. 254)'''.''''' Yale University Press. Kindle Edition.

Footnote 16: This is not the only name that Arabian monotheists used for God. The French archaeologist Christian Robin has carefully catalogued names for God used by Jews in the South Arabian kingdom of Himyar in the fifth and sixth centuries. In addition to rahmanan (“the Compassionate”; the an at the end of the word is the definite article used in certain South Arabian languages), they used a name close to Arabic allah (ʾlahan) along with rabb (“lord”)—a term closely related to a name used for God in the Qurʾan..

</ref>

====Duplicates====
The verse 55:27 is considered as an instance of both "ذو الجلال والإكرام" and "الجليل". It is not clear what the difference could be between الغفور and الغفار or between "مالك" and "مالك الملك".

====Names not mentioned in the Quran====
Some of the purported names of Allah do not appear in the Quran, for example the last on the list, الصبور (The Patient). It is often cited as appearing in verse 2:153:{{Quote|{{Quran|2|153}}|
O you who have believed, seek help '''through patience''' (بالصبر) and prayer. Indeed, Allah is with the patient.
}}
In this case, the relevant word means "patience" and not "The Patient One."

Another verse from which the claim is derived uses the term as a verb and command for believers:
{{Quote|{{Quran|3|200}}|O you who have believed, '''persevere and endure''' (اصبروا وصابروا) and remain stationed and fear Allah that you may be successful.
}}Another verse similarly translates to "patience," not "The Patient One":
{{Quote|{{Quran|103|3}}|Except for those who have believed and done righteous deeds and advised each other to truth and advised each other '''to patience''' (بالصبر).
}}
A similar phenomenon occurs with another purported name, The Preventer (المانع), which is cited as occuring in verse 67:21: the verb in this verse is not derived from the same root, منع.

====Other names not mentioned in the list====
The Qur'an refers to Allah as [[Allah the Best Deceiver|The Best of Deceivers]] (''khayru al-makireena'').{{quote |{{Qtt|3|54}}|
'''Arabic:''' ومكروا ومكر الله والله خير الماكرين

'''Transliteration:''' Wamakaroo wamakara Allahu waAllahu khayru almakireena

'''Literal:''' And they cheated/deceived and Allah cheated/deceived, and Allah (is) the best (of) the cheaters/deceivers.<ref>[{{Reference archive|1=http://iknowledge.islamicnature.com/quran/surah/3/lang/englishliteral/|2=2011-08-25}} 3. Ali-Imran - The Family Of 'Imran (سورة آل عمران) - Revealed in Madinah (English: Literal)] - IslamicNature, accessed August 25, 2011</ref>}}

The list also doesn't mention the word "Allah" itself (الله).

==See also==

External:

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101_Names_of_God Wikipedia: 101 Names of God in Zoroastrianism]
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_and_titles_of_Muhammad Wikipedia: Names and titles of Muhammad]
*[https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%89#%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A1%D9%87%D8%A7 Arabic Wikipedia article compiling lists of Allah's names]

==References==
<references />
[[Category:Allah]]
[[Category:Sufism]]
[[Category:Supernatural beings]]

Khula

2025-12-05T21:35:22Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=4|References=2}}

''Talaq'' (طلاق) (divorce) is the right of a man to end his marriage in Islamic law, which is permitted for any reason. According to traditional [[Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)|fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)]], women do not share this right. Although modern Islamic feminists have challenged this inequality, it remains the position of the major madhaahab (schools of jurisprudence) of Islamic law. A woman who wishes to divorce her husband must instead obtain permission "through the (Islamic) court" by means of a process known as ''khula'' or ''Khul''' (خلع)<ref>[https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/women-in-islamic-law-examining-five-prevalent-myths Women in Islamic Law: Examining Five Prevalent Myths] </ref> <ref>{{Cite web| title = Can Muslim women divorce?| author = Yaqeen Institute | work = YouTube| date = 17 December 2019| access-date = 20 October 2021| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OY8KtRQWzrg}}</ref>.

Khul' is subject to several conditions and restrictions not applied to talaq.

*Khul' is not considered a right, and a woman's husband has the right to either grant or deny it.
*With the exception of a few specific circumstances, traditional [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]] does not allow Islamic courts to compel a husband to grant his wife's wish to divorce.
*Khul' requires that a woman financially compensa<nowiki/>te her husband in order to divorce him. If the husband accepts her offer, the divorce may proceed; if he does not accept, the woman must remain in the marriage.
*While physical abuse is generally not accepted as grounds to override the husband's veto, an exception exists for cases where the husband inflicts extremely serious injuries, such as broken bones. In such cases, a court can force the dissolution of the marriage over the husband's objection, though the woman must still compensate the husband financially.

Khul' is sometimes confused with the 'Faskh' (فسخ) of Nikah (dissolution of marriage).

In 'Faskh' (i.e. dissolution of marriage):

*A woman may obtain a dissolution of her marriage without the requirement to offer financial compensation.
*Faskh can take place only under a small number of special circumstances, such as a husband's failure to financially support his wife, mental illness, or his whereabouts being unknown. In these cases, the woman is still compelled to wait for several years before the dissolution of the marriage.

==Quranic Verse about the Khul'==
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|229}}|الطَّلاَقُ مَرَّتَانِ فَإِمْسَاكٌ بِمَعْرُوفٍ أَوْ تَسْرِيحٌ بِإِحْسَانٍ وَلاَ يَحِلُّ لَكُمْ أَن تَأْخُذُواْ مِمَّا آتَيْتُمُوهُنَّ شَيْئًا إِلاَّ أَن يَخَافَا أَلاَّ يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللّهِ فَإِنْ خِفْتُمْ أَلاَّ يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللّهِ فَلاَ جُنَاحَ عَلَيْهِمَا فِيمَا افْتَدَتْ بِهِ 
A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold Together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness. It is not lawful for you, (Men), to take back any of your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah. If ye (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah, there is no blame on either of them '''if she gives something for her freedom ( Arabic word:افْتَدَتْ which means Ransom money)'''.}}

==Physical abuse leaving bruises==
According to Sahih Bukhari, even a brutal beating resulting in bruises is not enough to dissolve a marriage through Khul' or in any other way:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari||77|42|in-book}}|Rifa`a divorced his wife whereupon `AbdurRahman married her. `Aisha said that the lady (came), wearing a green veil, and complained to her (Aisha) of her husband '''and showed her a green spot on her skin caused by beating.''' It was the habit of ladies to support each other, so when Allah's Messenger came, `Aisha said, '''"I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"'''

When `AbdurRahman heard that his wife had gone to the Prophet, he came with his two sons from another wife.

She said, '''"By Allah! I have done no wrong to him but he is impotent and is as useless to me''' as this," holding and showing the fringe of her garment,

`Abdur-Rahman said, "By Allah, O Allah's Messenger! She has told a lie! I am very strong and can satisfy her '''but she is disobedient and wants to go back to (her first husband) Rifa`a.

" Allah's Messenger said, to her, "If that is your intention (i.e. to do Halala), then know that it is unlawful for you to remarry Rifa`a unless `Abdur-Rahman has had sexual intercourse with you."

Then the Prophet saw two boys with `Abdur- Rahman and asked (him), "Are these your sons?" On that `AbdurRahman said, "Yes." The Prophet said, "You claim what you claim (i.e.. that he is impotent)? But by Allah, these boys resemble him as a crow resembles a crow"}}

==Physical abuse resulting in broken bones==
{{Quote|{{Bukhari||13|54|in-book}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Habibah daughter of Sahl was the wife of Thabit ibn Qays Shimmas. '''He beat her and broke some of her part'''. So she came to the Prophet after morning, and complained to him against her husband. The Prophet called on Thabit ibn Qays and said (to him): '''Take a part of her property and separate yourself from her'''. He asked: Is that right, Messenger of Allah? He said: Yes. He said: '''I have given her two gardens of mine as a dower''', and they are already in her possession. The Prophet said: '''Take them (as the ransom money) and separate yourself from her'''.

Sheikh Albani declared this Hadith to be “Sahih” (authentic)}}

==Husband's infertility==
All four schools of Sunni [[fiqh]] agree that the wife cannot be granted a divorce on the grounds that her husband is infertile.

{{Quote|[https://web.archive.org/web/20211011105923/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/21592/ruling-on-asking-for-a-divorce-from-a-husband-who-has-some-medical-problems Fatwa Website Islam Question and Answer]|With regard to the man’s sterility, i.e., his inability to father children, this is not counted as a fault that would necessitate annulment of the marriage, according to the majority of scholars, apart from the view of al-Hasan al-Basri, and Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah}}

On the other hand, if woman is infertile, Islamic law stipulates that a husband may immediately divorce her, as in the case of Umar Ibn Khattab<ref>Umar Ibn Khattab divorced his wife due to the fault of her being infertile.[https://web.archive.org/web/20211010131320/https://www.islamweb.org/en/fatwa/93808/the-status-of-the-barren-women-in-islam]</ref>.

==Character of women who seek divorce==
Some hadith report that women who seek khul' are hypocrites and will not enter paradise.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|11|1186}}|عَنْ ثَوْبَانَ، عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏"‏ الْمُخْتَلِعَاتُ هُنَّ الْمُنَافِقَاتُ ‏"‏

The Prophet said: "The women who seek a Khul are hypocrites."
Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|11|1187}}|عَنْ ثَوْبَانَ أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏ "‏ أَيُّمَا امْرَأَةٍ سَأَلَتْ زَوْجَهَا طَلاَقًا مِنْ غَيْرِ بَأْسٍ فَحَرَامٌ عَلَيْهَا رَائِحَةُ الْجَنَّةِ

The Messenger of Allah said: "Whichever woman seeks a Khul from her husband without harm, then the scent of Paradise will be unlawful for her."
Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}
No hadith attributes similar charges to men who seek divorce.

==Influence of Islamic law on modern legislation==
The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Muslim_Marriages_Act,_1939 'Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939'] shows influence from the ideas of Faskh. The law was written by Muslim scholars of the Indian subcontinent and later became official legislation in Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as personal/family law for Muslims in India.

{{Quote|[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Muslim_Marriages_Act,_1939 Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939]|'''Grounds for divorce'''
Under the act a woman married under Muslim Law shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds,[1]

(i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of '''four years''' ;

(ii) that the husband has neglected or has failed to provide for her maintenance for a period of '''two years''' ;

(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of '''seven years''' or upwards ;

(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause his marital obligations for a period of '''three years''' ; continues to be so:

(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and

(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of '''two years''' or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease ;

(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of fifteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years : '''Provided that the marriage has not been consummated''' (''i.e. if the husband has slept with her before she becomes 18 years old, then she will loose her right to get divorce'') ;}}

==Women's movement against the rulings of Khul' and Faskh rulings in Pakistan and Bangladesh==
Women's protests against Khul' and Faskh regulations began shortly after Pakistan gained independence from the British Crown in 1947. The Supreme Court of Pakistan ruled that women may divorce their husbands through Khul' without offering their husbands financial compensation. The same rule took effect in Bangladesh after it gained its independence in 1971.<ref>Judicial Law-Making: An Analysis of Case Law on Khul‘ in [https://www.iiu.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/downloads/journals/ilr/volume1/num-1/Article_1_Vol1_1_010817.pdf Pakistan]</ref> During this period, the wait times prescribed in Faskh regulations were also reduced.

The Supreme Court of Pakistan's ruling had been subject to criticism from Islamic scholars, who consider it incompatible with the [[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]]<ref>Right of Women to Divorce: Adjudication of Redemption (Khul') In Islamic Law and Pakistani Law, A Critical Analysis of the Orthodox Islamic Scholars and Recommendations of Pakistani Courts On The Basis of Legal Opinion (Ijtehad)[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281634445_Right_of_Women_to_Divorce_Adjudication_of_Redemption_Khul'_In_Islamic_Law_and_Pakistani_Law_A_Critical_Analysis_of_the_Orthodox_Islamic_Scholars_and_Recommendations_of_Pakistani_Courts_On_The_Basis_of]</ref>.

{{Quote|[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281634445_Right_of_Women_to_Divorce_Adjudication_of_Redemption_Khul'_In_Islamic_Law_and_Pakistani_Law_A_Critical_Analysis_of_the_Orthodox_Islamic_Scholars_and_Recommendations_of_Pakistani_Courts_On_The_Basis_of Right of Women to Divorce: Adjudication of Redemption (Khul') In Islamic Law and Pakistani Law, A Critical Analysis of the Orthodox Islamic Scholars and Recommendations of Pakistani Courts On The Basis of Legal Opinion (Ijtehad)]|'''Abstract''':
Pakistan is an Islamic country. The laws made by the Parliament and Judiciary are administered according to the injunction of Islam. There are many laws made for the protections of women. Among these rights granted, right of women to khul " is also awarded by Islamic Law. Khul " is the proposal given to the husband by the wife for divorce. Judicial Khul " is exercised in Pakistani courts, according to Article 2(ix) of dissolution of Muslims Marriages Act 1939. '''A large number of Ulama (Islamic Jurists) even today, refuse to recognize khul " granted by courts without the consent of the husband as a valid divorce. Confusion is caused by two parallel and conflicting interpretations of the Islamic Law. On one hand, there is the statutory law and interpretation by the Superior Courts of Pakistan and on the other hand, is the interpretation of Jurists of Islamic Law with strong arguments from Qur " an and Sunnah'''.}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

Khula

2025-12-05T21:35:07Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language and removed argumentative material

{{QualityScore|Lead=3|Structure=2|Content=3|Language=1|References=2}}

''Talaq'' (طلاق) (divorce) is the right of a man to end his marriage in Islamic law, which is permitted for any reason. According to traditional [[Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence)|fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)]], women do not share this right. Although modern Islamic feminists have challenged this inequality, it remains the position of the major madhaahab (schools of jurisprudence) of Islamic law. A woman who wishes to divorce her husband must instead obtain permission "through the (Islamic) court" by means of a process known as ''khula'' or ''Khul''' (خلع)<ref>[https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/women-in-islamic-law-examining-five-prevalent-myths Women in Islamic Law: Examining Five Prevalent Myths] </ref> <ref>{{Cite web| title = Can Muslim women divorce?| author = Yaqeen Institute | work = YouTube| date = 17 December 2019| access-date = 20 October 2021| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OY8KtRQWzrg}}</ref>.

Khul' is subject to several conditions and restrictions not applied to talaq.

*Khul' is not considered a right, and a woman's husband has the right to either grant or deny it.
*With the exception of a few specific circumstances, traditional [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]] does not allow Islamic courts to compel a husband to grant his wife's wish to divorce.
*Khul' requires that a woman financially compensa<nowiki/>te her husband in order to divorce him. If the husband accepts her offer, the divorce may proceed; if he does not accept, the woman must remain in the marriage.
*While physical abuse is generally not accepted as grounds to override the husband's veto, an exception exists for cases where the husband inflicts extremely serious injuries, such as broken bones. In such cases, a court can force the dissolution of the marriage over the husband's objection, though the woman must still compensate the husband financially.

Khul' is sometimes confused with the 'Faskh' (فسخ) of Nikah (dissolution of marriage).

In 'Faskh' (i.e. dissolution of marriage):

*A woman may obtain a dissolution of her marriage without the requirement to offer financial compensation.
*Faskh can take place only under a small number of special circumstances, such as a husband's failure to financially support his wife, mental illness, or his whereabouts being unknown. In these cases, the woman is still compelled to wait for several years before the dissolution of the marriage.

==Quranic Verse about the Khul'==
{{Quote|{{Quran|2|229}}|الطَّلاَقُ مَرَّتَانِ فَإِمْسَاكٌ بِمَعْرُوفٍ أَوْ تَسْرِيحٌ بِإِحْسَانٍ وَلاَ يَحِلُّ لَكُمْ أَن تَأْخُذُواْ مِمَّا آتَيْتُمُوهُنَّ شَيْئًا إِلاَّ أَن يَخَافَا أَلاَّ يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللّهِ فَإِنْ خِفْتُمْ أَلاَّ يُقِيمَا حُدُودَ اللّهِ فَلاَ جُنَاحَ عَلَيْهِمَا فِيمَا افْتَدَتْ بِهِ 
A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold Together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness. It is not lawful for you, (Men), to take back any of your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah. If ye (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah, there is no blame on either of them '''if she gives something for her freedom ( Arabic word:افْتَدَتْ which means Ransom money)'''.}}

==Physical abuse leaving bruises==
According to Sahih Bukhari, even a brutal beating resulting in bruises is not enough to dissolve a marriage through Khul' or in any other way:
{{Quote|{{Bukhari||77|42|in-book}}|Rifa`a divorced his wife whereupon `AbdurRahman married her. `Aisha said that the lady (came), wearing a green veil, and complained to her (Aisha) of her husband '''and showed her a green spot on her skin caused by beating.''' It was the habit of ladies to support each other, so when Allah's Messenger came, `Aisha said, '''"I have not seen any woman suffering as much as the believing women. Look! Her skin is greener than her clothes!"'''

When `AbdurRahman heard that his wife had gone to the Prophet, he came with his two sons from another wife.

She said, '''"By Allah! I have done no wrong to him but he is impotent and is as useless to me''' as this," holding and showing the fringe of her garment,

`Abdur-Rahman said, "By Allah, O Allah's Messenger! She has told a lie! I am very strong and can satisfy her '''but she is disobedient and wants to go back to (her first husband) Rifa`a.

" Allah's Messenger said, to her, "If that is your intention (i.e. to do Halala), then know that it is unlawful for you to remarry Rifa`a unless `Abdur-Rahman has had sexual intercourse with you."

Then the Prophet saw two boys with `Abdur- Rahman and asked (him), "Are these your sons?" On that `AbdurRahman said, "Yes." The Prophet said, "You claim what you claim (i.e.. that he is impotent)? But by Allah, these boys resemble him as a crow resembles a crow"}}

==Physical abuse resulting in broken bones==
{{Quote|{{Bukhari||13|54|in-book}}|Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin:
Habibah daughter of Sahl was the wife of Thabit ibn Qays Shimmas. '''He beat her and broke some of her part'''. So she came to the Prophet after morning, and complained to him against her husband. The Prophet called on Thabit ibn Qays and said (to him): '''Take a part of her property and separate yourself from her'''. He asked: Is that right, Messenger of Allah? He said: Yes. He said: '''I have given her two gardens of mine as a dower''', and they are already in her possession. The Prophet said: '''Take them (as the ransom money) and separate yourself from her'''.

Sheikh Albani declared this Hadith to be “Sahih” (authentic)}}

==Husband's infertility==
All four schools of Sunni [[fiqh]] agree that the wife cannot be granted a divorce on the grounds that her husband is infertile.

{{Quote|[https://web.archive.org/web/20211011105923/https://islamqa.info/en/answers/21592/ruling-on-asking-for-a-divorce-from-a-husband-who-has-some-medical-problems Fatwa Website Islam Question and Answer]|With regard to the man’s sterility, i.e., his inability to father children, this is not counted as a fault that would necessitate annulment of the marriage, according to the majority of scholars, apart from the view of al-Hasan al-Basri, and Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah}}

On the other hand, if woman is infertile, Islamic law stipulates that a husband may immediately divorce her, as in the case of Umar Ibn Khattab<ref>Umar Ibn Khattab divorced his wife due to the fault of her being infertile.[https://web.archive.org/web/20211010131320/https://www.islamweb.org/en/fatwa/93808/the-status-of-the-barren-women-in-islam]</ref>.

==Character of women who seek divorce==
Some hadith report that women who seek khul' are hypocrites and will not enter paradise.
{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|11|1186}}|عَنْ ثَوْبَانَ، عَنِ النَّبِيِّ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏"‏ الْمُخْتَلِعَاتُ هُنَّ الْمُنَافِقَاتُ ‏"‏

The Prophet said: "The women who seek a Khul are hypocrites."
Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}{{Quote|{{Al Tirmidhi||2|11|1187}}|عَنْ ثَوْبَانَ أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وسلم قَالَ ‏ "‏ أَيُّمَا امْرَأَةٍ سَأَلَتْ زَوْجَهَا طَلاَقًا مِنْ غَيْرِ بَأْسٍ فَحَرَامٌ عَلَيْهَا رَائِحَةُ الْجَنَّةِ

The Messenger of Allah said: "Whichever woman seeks a Khul from her husband without harm, then the scent of Paradise will be unlawful for her."
Grade: Sahih (Darussalam)}}
No hadith attributes similar charges to men who seek divorce.

==Influence of Islamic law on modern legislation==
The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Muslim_Marriages_Act,_1939 'Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939'] shows influence from the ideas of Faskh. The law was written by Muslim scholars of the Indian subcontinent and later became official legislation in Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as personal/family law for Muslims in India.

{{Quote|[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_Muslim_Marriages_Act,_1939 Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939]|'''Grounds for divorce'''
Under the act a woman married under Muslim Law shall be entitled to obtain a decree for the dissolution of her marriage on any one or more of the following grounds,[1]

(i) that the whereabouts of the husband have not been known for a period of '''four years''' ;

(ii) that the husband has neglected or has failed to provide for her maintenance for a period of '''two years''' ;

(iii) that the husband has been sentenced to imprisonment for a period of '''seven years''' or upwards ;

(iv) that the husband has failed to perform, without reasonable cause his marital obligations for a period of '''three years''' ; continues to be so:

(v) that the husband was impotent at the time of the marriage and

(vi) that the husband has been insane for a period of '''two years''' or is suffering from leprosy or a virulent venereal disease ;

(vii) that she, having been given in marriage by her father or other guardian before she attained the age of fifteen years, repudiated the marriage before attaining the age of eighteen years : '''Provided that the marriage has not been consummated''' (''i.e. if the husband has slept with her before she becomes 18 years old, then she will loose her right to get divorce'') ;}}

==Women's movement against the rulings of Khul' and Faskh rulings in Pakistan and Bangladesh==
Women's protests against Khul' and Faskh regulations began shortly after Pakistan gained independence from the British Crown in 1947. The Supreme Court of Pakistan ruled that women may divorce their husbands through Khul' without offering their husbands financial compensation. The same rule took effect in Bangladesh after it gained its independence in 1971.<ref>Judicial Law-Making: An Analysis of Case Law on Khul‘ in [https://www.iiu.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/downloads/journals/ilr/volume1/num-1/Article_1_Vol1_1_010817.pdf Pakistan]</ref> During this period, the wait times prescribed in Faskh regulations were also reduced.

The Supreme Court of Pakistan's ruling had been subject to criticism from Islamic scholars, who consider it incompatible with the [[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]]<ref>Right of Women to Divorce: Adjudication of Redemption (Khul') In Islamic Law and Pakistani Law, A Critical Analysis of the Orthodox Islamic Scholars and Recommendations of Pakistani Courts On The Basis of Legal Opinion (Ijtehad)[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281634445_Right_of_Women_to_Divorce_Adjudication_of_Redemption_Khul'_In_Islamic_Law_and_Pakistani_Law_A_Critical_Analysis_of_the_Orthodox_Islamic_Scholars_and_Recommendations_of_Pakistani_Courts_On_The_Basis_of]</ref>.

{{Quote|[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281634445_Right_of_Women_to_Divorce_Adjudication_of_Redemption_Khul'_In_Islamic_Law_and_Pakistani_Law_A_Critical_Analysis_of_the_Orthodox_Islamic_Scholars_and_Recommendations_of_Pakistani_Courts_On_The_Basis_of Right of Women to Divorce: Adjudication of Redemption (Khul') In Islamic Law and Pakistani Law, A Critical Analysis of the Orthodox Islamic Scholars and Recommendations of Pakistani Courts On The Basis of Legal Opinion (Ijtehad)]|'''Abstract''':
Pakistan is an Islamic country. The laws made by the Parliament and Judiciary are administered according to the injunction of Islam. There are many laws made for the protections of women. Among these rights granted, right of women to khul " is also awarded by Islamic Law. Khul " is the proposal given to the husband by the wife for divorce. Judicial Khul " is exercised in Pakistani courts, according to Article 2(ix) of dissolution of Muslims Marriages Act 1939. '''A large number of Ulama (Islamic Jurists) even today, refuse to recognize khul " granted by courts without the consent of the husband as a valid divorce. Confusion is caused by two parallel and conflicting interpretations of the Islamic Law. On one hand, there is the statutory law and interpretation by the Superior Courts of Pakistan and on the other hand, is the interpretation of Jurists of Islamic Law with strong arguments from Qur " an and Sunnah'''.}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

Jihad as Obligation (Fard)

2025-12-05T20:44:43Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=1|References=3}}
Depending on the school of Islamic thought, [[jihad]] is classified either as an ''individual duty'' (فرض العين fard al-'ayn) (obligatory for all Muslims) or a ''sufficiency duty'' (فرض الكفائي‎ fard al-kifaya) (community responsibility). Scholarly discussions of these two views revolve especially around {{Quran|2|216}} and {{Quran|9|122}}.<ref>Reuven Firestone, ''Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam'', New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 60-61</ref>

Modern voices differentiate between a ''personal'' "greater jihad" and a military "lesser jihad." This dichotomy does not appear in classical or early Islamic literature or scripture, which refer to jihad largely as a doctrine of military conquest. Some have additionally argued that references to "internal struggle" in early Islamic literature are metaphorically used, making jihad an exclusively military concept.
==Scholars==

===Hanafi Fiqh===

{{Quote|Hanafi Madhhab|Ibn Aabidin said: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn if the enemy attacks one of the borders of the Muslims, and it becomes Fard Ayn upon those close by. For those who are far away, it is Fard Kifaya, if their assistance is not required. If they are needed, perhaps because those nearby the attack cannot resist the enemy, or are indolent and do not fight Jihad, then it becomes Fard Ayn upon those behind them, like the obligation to pray and fast. There is no room for them to leave it. If they too are unable, then it becomes Fard Ayn upon those behind them, and so on in the same manner until the jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon the whole Ummah of Islam from the East to the West". And the following have like Fatawa: Al Kassani, Ibn Najim and Ibn Hammam.<ref name="Islamic Emirate">[http://www.islamicemirate.com/fiqh-jurisprudence/jihad/1544-offensive-jihad-vs-defensive-jihad.html Offensive Jihad Vs. Defensive Jihad] - Islamic Emirate Online, The Fiqh Department</ref>}}

===Maliki Fiqh===

{{Quote|Maliki Madhhab|In Hashiyat ad Dussuqi it is stated: Jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon a surprise attack by the enemy. Dussuqi said: "Wherever this happens, jihad immediately becomes Fard Ayn upon everybody, even women, slaves and children, and they march out even if their guardians, husbands and creditors forbid them to.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun Ibn Khaldun] (1332 - 1406), a renowned Maliki jurist, philosopher, historian, and sociologist, wrote:

{{Quote||In the Muslim community, the holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the [Muslim] mission and [the obligation to] convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force. Therefore, caliphate and royal authority are united [in Islam], so that the person in charge can devote the available strength to both of them [i.e. religion and politics] at the same time. The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save only for purposes of defense. ... Islam is under obligation to gain power over other nations. ... 
Thereafter, there were dissensions among the Christians with regard to their religion and to Christology. ... We do not think that we should blacken the pages of this book with discussion of their dogmas of unbelief. In general, they are well known. All of them are unbelief. This is clearly stated in the noble Qur'an. [To] discuss or argue those things with them is not up to us. It is [for them to choose between] conversion to Islam, payment of the poll tax, or death.<ref>Ibn Khaldun, ''The Muqudimmah: An Introduction to History'', trans. Franz Rosenthal, vol. 1 (New York: Pantheon, 1958), pp. 60, 473, 480.</ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes Ibn Rushd (Averroes)] (1126 - 1198), an Andalusian-Arab master of Islamic law, philosopher, physician and mathematician, wrote:

{{Quote||'''''The legal qualification (hukm) of this activity and the persons obliged to take part in it''''' Scholars agree that the jihad is a collective not a personal obligation. Only 'Abd Allah Ibn al-Hasan professed it to be a recommendable act. According to the majority of scholars, the compulsory nature of the jihad is founded on [K 2:216] "''Fighting is prescribed for you, though it is distasteful to you.''"That this obligation is a collective and not a personal one, i.e., that the obligation, when it can be properly carried out by a limited number of individuals, is canceled for the remaining Moslems, is founded on [K 9:112]: "''It is not for the believers to march out all together,'' and, lastly, on the fact that the Prophet never went to battle without leaving some people behind. All this together implies that this activity is a collective obligation. The obligation to participate in the jihad applies to adult free men who have the means at their disposal to go to war and who are healthy, that is, not ill or suffering from chronic diseases. ... '''''The enemy''''' Scholars agree that all polytheists should be fought. This is founded on [K 8:39]: "''Fight them until there is no Fitnah and the religion is entirely Allah's''." ... '''''The damage allowed to be inflicted upon the different categories of enemies''''' Damage inflicted upon the enemy may consist in damage to his property, injury to his person or violation of his personal liberty, i.e., that he is made a slave and is appropriated. This may be done, according to the ''Consensus (idjma)'' to all polytheists: men, women, young and old, important and unimportant. Only with regard to monks do opinions vary; for some take it that they must be left in peace and that they must not be captured ... Most scholars are agreed that, in his dealings with captives, carious policies are open to the Imam. He may pardon them, kill them, or release them either on ransom or as ''dhimmi'', in which latter case the released captive is obliged to pay poll-tax." ... It is only allowed to slay the enemy on the condition that ''aman'' [safe conduct] has not been granted. There is no dissension about this among the Moslems. There is controversy, however, concerning who is entitled to grant ''aman''. Everyone is agreed that the Imam is entitled to this. ... As regards injury to the person, that is, the slaying of the enemy, the Moslems agree that in times of war, all adult, able bodied, unbelieving males may be slain. ... There is controversy about the question whether it is allowed to slay hermits who have retired from the world, the blind, the chronically ill and the insane, those who are old and unable to fight any longer, peasants, and serfs. ... '''''The prerequisites for warfare''''' According to all scholars, the prerequisite for warfare is that the enemy must have heard the summons to Islam. This implies that it is not allowed to attack them before the summons has reached them. All Moslems are agreed about this because of [K 17:15]: "''We have not be accustomed to punish until We have sent a messenger.''" However, there is controversy about the question whether the summons should be repeated when the war is resumed. ...
 '''''The maximum number of enemies against which one is obliged to stand one's ground''''' The maximum number of enemies against which one is obliged to stand one's group is twice the number [of one's won troops]. About this, everybody agrees on account of [K 8:66]: "Now Allah hath made it lighter for you and knoweth that there is weakness among you.''" ... '''''The aims of warfare''''' The Moslems are agreed that the aim of warfare against the People of the Book, with the exception of those belonging to the Quraysh-tribe and Arab Christians, is twofold: either conversion to Islam, or payment of poll-tax (''djizyah''). This is based on [K 9:29]: "''Fight against those who do not believe in Allah nor in the last Day, and do not make forbidden what Allah and His messenger have made forbidden, and do not practice the religion of truth, of those who have been given the Book, until they pay the jizya off-hand, being subdued.''" Most lawyers likewise agree that poll-tax may also be collected from Zoroastrians on the strength of the words of the Prophet: "''Treat them like the People of the Book''." There is, however, controversy with regard to polytheists who are not People of the Book: is it allowed to accept poll-tax from them or not? ...<ref>Excerpted from ''Bidayat al-Mudjtahid'', in Rudolph Peters, ''Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam: The Chapters on Jihad from Averroes' Legal Handbook "Bidayat al-mudjtahid,''" trans. and annotated by Rudolph Peters (Leiden: Brill, 1977), pp. 9-25.</ref>}}

===Shafi'i Fiqh===

{{Quote|Shaffi Madhhab|In the Nihayat al Mahtaj by Ramli: "If they approach one of our lands and the distance between them and us becomes less than the distance permitting the shortening of prayers, then the people of that territory must defend it and it becomes Fard Ayn even upon the people for whom there is usually no jihad; the poor, the children, the slaves, the debtor and the women.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafi'i] (767 - 820), widely considered the greatest Imam from among the Four Imams of Fiqh, wrote:

{{Quote||40. Shafi'i replied: God has imposed the [duty of] jihad as laid down in His Book and uttered by His Prophet's tongue. He stressed the calling [of men to fulfill] the jihad [duty] as follows:
<blockquote>God has brought from the believers their selves and their possessions against [the gift of] Paradise. They fight in the way of God; they kill, and are killed; that is a promise binding upon God in the Torah and Gospel and the Qur'an; and who fulfills his covenant better than God? So rejoice in the bargain you have made with Him. That is the mightly triumph. [Q. 9:112] 
And He said: 
Fight the polytheists totally as they fight you totally; and know that God is with the godfearing. [Q. 9:36] 
And He said: 
Slay the polytheists wherever you find them, and take them, and confine them, and lie in ambush for them everywhere. But if they repent and perform the prayer and pay the zakat, then set them free. God is All-forgiving, All-compassionate. [Q. 9:5] 
And He said: 
Fight those who do not believe in God nor in the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and His Apostle have made forbidden, and who do not practice the religion of truth, of those who have been given the Book, until they pay the jizya out of hand and have been humbled. [Q. 9:29]</blockquote> 
41. Abd al-Aziz b. Muhammad as-Darawardi told us from Muhammed b. Amr b. Alqama from Abu Salama [b. Abd al-Rahman] from Abu Hurayra, who said that the Apostle of God said: 
<blockquote>I shall continue to fight the unbelievers until they say: "There is no god but God," if they make this pronouncement they shall be secured in their blood and property, unless taken for its price, and their reward shall be given by God. 
And God, gloried by His praise, said: 
O believers, what is the matter with you, that when it is said to you: "Go forth in the way of God," you sink down to the ground? Are you so content with this present life as to neglect the Here-after? The enjoyment of this life is little in comparison with the Hereafter. If you do not go forth, He will inflict upon you a painful punishment, and instead of you He will substitute another people; and you will not hurt Him at all, for God is powerful over everything. [Q. 9:38-39] 
And he said: 
Go forth, light and heavy! Struggle in God's way with your possessions and yourselves! That is better for you, did you but know. [Q. 9:41]</blockquote> 
42. Shafi'i said: These communications mean that the jihad, and rising up in arms in particular, is obligatory for all able-bodied [believers], exempting no one, just as prayer, pilgrimage and [payment of] alms are performed, and no person is permitted to perform the duty for another, since performance by one will not fulfil the duty for another. They may also mean that the duty of [jihad] is a collective (kifaya) duty different from that of prayer: Those who perform it in the war against the polytheists will fulfill their duty and reciever the supererogatory merit, thereby preventing those who stayed behind from falling into error. But God has not put the two [categories of men] on equal footing, for He said: 
<blockquote>Such believers who sit at home - unless they have an injury - are not the equals of those who fight in the path of God with their possessions and their selves. God has given precedence to those who fight with their possessions and their selves over those who sit at home. Hod has promised the best of things to both, and He has preferred those who fight over those who fit at home by [granting them] a might reward. [Q. 4:97]</blockquote>
. . . 
So far as I have been informed, the Muslims have continued to act as I have stated, from the time of the Prophet to the present. Only a few men must know the law, attend the funeral service, perform the jihad and respond to greeting, while others are exempt. So those who know the law, perform the jihad, attend the funeral service, and respond to a greeting will be rewarded, while others do not fall into error since a sufficient number fulfill the [collective] duty.<ref>Excerpted from Majid Khadduri, trans., ''al-Imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shaf'i's al-Risala fi us ul al-fiqh: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence'' (Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1997), pp. 82-87.</ref>}}

{{Quote|Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik|
o9.0 (O: Jihad means to war against non-Muslims, and is etymologically derived from the word mujahada, signifying warfare to establish the religion. o9.1 '''Jihad is a communal obligation''' (def: c3.2). When enough people perform it to successfully accomplish it, it is no longer obligatory upon others. o9.8 The caliph makes war upon Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians [kafirs] (N: provided he has first invited them to enter Islam in faith and practice, and if they will not, then invited them to enter the social order of Islam by paying the non-Muslim poll tax (jizya, def: o11.4) - which is the significance of their paying it, not the money itself-while remaining in their ancestral regions) (O: and the war continues) until they become Muslim or else pay the non-Muslim poll tax (O: in accordance with the word of Allah Most High. (A: though if there is no caliph (def: o25), no permission is required).<ref>Ahmad Ibn Lulu Ibn Al-Naqib, translated by Noah Ha Mim Keller - [http://www.amazon.com/Reliance-Traveller-Classic-Islamic-Al-Salik/dp/0915957728 Reliance of the Traveller: The Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law Umdat Al-Salik] - Published by Amana Corporation; Revised edition (July 1, 1997), ISBN-13: 978-0915957729</ref>}}

===Hanbali Fiqh===

{{Quote|Hanafi Madhhab|In Al Mughni by Ibn al Qadamah: "Jihad becomes Fard Ayn in three situations:
1) If the two sides meet in battle and they approach each other. 
2) If the Kuffar enter a land, jihad becomes Fard Ayn upon its people. 3) If the Imam calls a people to march forward it is obligatory upon them to march forward.<ref name="Islamic Emirate"></ref>}}

[[w:Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya |Ibn Qayyim]] (1292-1350), an Islamic jurist, commentator on the Qur'an, astronomer, chemist, philosopher, psychologist, scientist and theologian, wrote:

{{Quote||…thereafter it became an obligation upon them to fight the Mushrikeen (idolaters, disbelievers) completely. When such an action was initially haram (prohibited), then made permissible (by Allah (swt)); then made an obligation against those who began the aggression and finally (they were) ordered to fight the Kuffar entirely. Such a duty is either Fard ‘Ayn (an individual obligation) or Fard Kifayah according to the more famous opinion of the scholars.<ref>Referenced in '[http://downloads.islambase.info/booksEN/RulingJihad.pdf The Rulings on Jihad and its Divisions]', by Shaykh Yusuf al Uyayree, translated by Abu Osama</ref>}}

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Qudamah Ibn Qudamah] (1147-1223), an Islamic scholar born in Jerusalem, wrote:

{{Quote||Legal war (jihad) is an obligatory social duty (''fard-kifaya''); when one group of Muslims guarantees that it is being carried out in a satisfactory manner, the others are exempted. The jihad becomes a strictly binding personal duty (fard-'ain) for all Muslims who are enlisted or whose country has been [invaded] by the enemy. It is obligatory only for free men who have reached puberty, are endowed with reason and capable of fighting. Jihad is the best of the works of supererogation. ... Naval expeditions are more meritorious than campaigns on land. One must fight under every leader, whether it be a respectable man or a corrupt man. Every nation must fight the enemies that are its immediate neighbors. A full stint of service in a frontier post (''ribat'') is of forty days' duration. ... No one can engage in jihad without the permission of his father and mother, if they are alive and Muslims, unless the jihad is an individual duty that strictly obliges. Only elderly women are permitted to venture into the war zone in order to replenish the water supply and to care for the wounded. No one should enlist the services of an infidel except in case of need. ... It is permitted to surprise the infidels under cover of night, to bombard them with mangonels and to attack them without declaring battle (du'a). ... The chief of state decides on the fate of the men who are taken prisoners; he can have them put to death, reduce them to slavery, free them in return for a ransom or grant them their freedom as a gift. ... The head tax can be demanded only from the People of the Book (''ahl-al-kitab'') and from Zoroastrians (''Magus''), who pledge to pay it and submit to the laws of the community. ... It cannot be demanded from children who have not reached the age of puberty, from women, helpless old men, the sick, the blind, or slaves, nor from poor people who are unable to pay it. An infidel subject to the head tax who converts to Islam is free of this obligation. When an infidel dies, his heirs are responsible for the head tax.<ref>Excerpted from Henri Laoust, trans., ''Le precis de droit d'Ibn Qudama, jurisconsulte musulman d'ecole hanbalite ne a Jerusalem en 541/1146, mort a Damas en 620/1123'', Livre 20, "La Guerre Legale" (Beirut, 1950), pp. 273-76, 281. English translation by Michael J. Miller.</ref>}}

===Other / Unknown===

{{Quote|[http://downloads.islambase.info/booksEN/RulingJihad.pdf Thawaabit ala darb al Jihad (Constants on The Path of Jihad)] Shaykh al Uyayree|This is the request and call, from the Muslims to the Kuffar (disbelievers) in their lands and dwelling places to enter Islam and to fight them if they do not accept the rule of the Islamic authority over them. This type of Jihad [offensive] is a collective obligation (Fard ul-Kifaya) upon the Muslims. There are numerous evidences detailing this type of Jihad in both the Qur’an and the Sunnah.}}

==Hadith==

{{Quote|{{Muslim||1910|reference}}|It has been narrated on the authority of Abu Huraira that the Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) said: One who died but did not fight in the way of Allah nor did he express any desire (or determination) for Jihad died the death of a hypocrite. }}

{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5708 Jihad is made Obligatory] Sahih hadith, Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2=Whoever dies but neither fought (i.e., in Allah's cause), nor sincerely considered fighting, will die a death of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era of ignorance.}}

==Quran==

===Fighting is good for you (2:216)===

====Verse====

{{Quote|{{Quran|2|216}}|Fighting is prescribed for you, and ye dislike it. But it is possible that ye dislike a thing which is good for you, and that ye love a thing which is bad for you. But Allah knoweth, and ye know not}}

====Meaning====

{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=2&tid=5708 Jihad is made Obligatory] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2='''Jihad is made Obligatory'''

In this Ayah, Allah made it obligatory for the Muslims to fight in Jihad against the evil of the enemy who transgress against Islam. '''Az-Zuhri said, "Jihad is required from every person, whether he actually joins the fighting or remains behind. Whoever remains behind is required to give support, if support is warranted; to provide aid, if aid is needed; and to march forth, if he is commanded to do so. If he is not needed, then he remains behind.''' It is reported in the Sahih:

(Whoever dies but neither fought (i.e., in Allah's cause), nor sincerely considered fighting, will die a death of Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic era of ignorance).)'''

On the day of Al-Fath (when he conquered Makkah), the Prophet said:

(There is no Hijrah (migration from Makkah to Al-Madinah) after the victory, but only Jihad and good intention. If you were required to march forth, then march forth.)

Allah's statement:

(...though you dislike it) means, `Fighting is difficult and heavy on your hearts.' Indeed, fighting is as the Ayah describes it, as it includes being killed, wounded, striving against the enemies and enduring the hardship of travel. Allah then said:

(. ..and it may be that you dislike a thing which is good for you) meaning, fighting is followed by victory, dominance over the enemy, taking over their lands, money and offspring. Allah continues:

(...and that you like a thing which is bad for you.)

This Ayah is general in meaning. Hence, one might covet something, yet in reality it is not good or beneficial for him, such as refraining from joining the Jihad, for it might lead to the enemy taking over the land and the government. Then, Allah said:

(Allah knows, but you do not know.) meaning, He has better knowledge than you of how things will turn out to be in the end, and of what benefits you in this earthly life and the Hereafter. Hence, obey Him and adhere to His commands, so that you may acquire the true guidance.}}

{{Quote|1=[http://quran.com/2/216 Surat Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2:216] Tafsir al-Jalalayn|2=Prescribed for you, obligatory [for you], is fighting, disbelievers, though it be hateful to you, by nature, because of the hardship involved. Yet it may happen that you hate a thing which is good for you; and it may happen that you love a thing which is bad for you: because the soul inclines towards those desires which result in its destruction and its rejection of the religious obligations that would bring about its happiness.}}

===Go forth light and heavy (9:41)===

====Verse====

{{Quote|{{Quran|9|41}}|Go forth light and heavy, and strive hard in Allah's way with your property and your persons; this is better for you, if you know.}}

====Meaning====

{{Quote|1=[http://tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&tid=21210 Jihad is required in all Conditions] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|2='''Jihad is required in all Conditions'''

Sufyan Ath-Thawri narrated from his father from Abu Ad-Duha, Muslim bin Subayh, who said, "This Ayah,

(March forth, whether you are light or heavy) `Ali bin Zayd narrated that Anas said that Abu Talhah commented (on this Ayah), "Whether you are old or young, '''Allah did not leave an excuse for anyone'''.'' Abu Talhah marched to Ash-Sham and fought until he was killed. In another narration, Abu Talhah recited Surah Bara'ah until he reached this Ayah,

(March forth, whether you are light or heavy, and strive hard with your wealth and your lives in the cause of Allah.) He then said, "I see that Allah had called us to mobilize whether we are old or young. O my children! Prepare my supplies.'' His children said, `May Allah grant you His mercy! You conducted Jihad along with the Messenger of Allah until he died, then with Abu Bakr until he died, then with `Umar until he died. Let us perform Jihad in your place.'' Abu Talhah refused and he went to the sea [under the command of Mu`awiyah] where he died. They could not find an island to bury him on until nine days later, during which his body did not deteriorate or change and they buried him on the island. As-Suddi said,

(March forth, whether you are light or heavy), whether you are rich, poor, strong, or weak. A man came forward, and he was fat, complained, and asked for permission to stay behind [from Jihad], but the Prophet refused. Then this Ayah,}}

==Encyclopaedia of Islam Online==

{{Quote|Encyclopaedia of Islam Online|The duty of the jihad exists as long as the universal domination of Islam has not been attained. Peace with non-Muslim nations is, therefore, a provisional state of affairs only; the chance of circumstances alone can justify it temporarily. Furthermore there can be no question of genuine peace treaties with these nations; only truces, whose duration ought not, in principle, to exceed ten years, are authorized. But even such truces are precarious, inasmuch as they can, before they expire, be repudiated unilaterally should it appear more profitable for Islam to resume the conflict.<ref>[http://www.brill.nl/publications/online-resources/encyclopaedia-islam-online "Encyclopaedia of Islam Online"]. BRILL. 2007. Retrieved October 2008.</ref>}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]

Al-Wala' wal-Bara' (Loyalty and Disavowal)

2025-12-03T22:15:33Z

Zhothaqquah:

{{QualityScore|Lead=1|Structure=3|Content=3|Language=2|References=3}}
The [[Islam|Islamic]] concept of '''Al Wala' Wal Bara'''' (loyalty and disavowal) refers to "love for the sake of [[Allah]]" and "hate for the sake of Allah." According to this concept, Muslims must love what Allah loves and hate what Allah hates.

==Qur'an==

===Verse 60:4===

{{Quote|{{Quran|60|4}}|Indeed, '''there is for you a good example in Ibrahim and those with him when they said to their people:''' Surely we are clear of you and of what you serve besides Allah; we declare ourselves to be clear of you, and '''enmity and hatred have appeared between us and you forever until you believe in Allah alone'''-- but not in what Ibrahim said to his father: I would certainly ask forgiveness for you, and I do not control for you aught from Allah-- Our Lord! on Thee do we rely, and to Thee do we turn, and to Thee is the eventual coming:}}

====Tafsir of Verse====

=====Harshness=====

{{Quote|[http://www.theholybook.org/content/view/8636/2/ Qualities of the Faithful Believers and Their Refinement] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|Allah declares that without doubt, Muhammad is truly His Messenger,

(Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.) and this quality includes every beautiful description. Allah praises the Companions of the Messenger , may Allah be pleased with them all,

(And '''those who are with him are severe against disbelievers, merciful among themselves'''.) just as He, the Exalted and Most Honored, said in another Ayah,

(Allah will bring a people whom He will love and they will love Him; humble towards the believers, stern towards the disbelievers.)(5:54) '''This is the description of the believers; harsh with the disbelievers, merciful and kind to the believers, angry without smiling before the disbelievers, smiling and beaming with pleasure before his believing brother'''. Allah the Exalted said in another Ayah,

(O you who believe! Fight those of the disbelievers who are close to you, and let them find harshness in you.) (9:123) The Prophet said,

(The parable of the believers in their kindness and mercy for each other, is that of the body: when one of its organs falls ill, the rest of the body responds with fever and sleeplessness.) The Prophet also said,

(A believer to another believer is like a building whose different parts enforce each other.)}}

=====Hate=====

{{Quote|[http://www.theholybook.org/content/view/8801/2/ The Good Example of Ibrahim and His Followers, when They disowned Their Disbelieving People] Tafsir Ibn Kathir|Allah the Exalted says to His faithful servants, whom '''He commanded to disown the disbelievers, to be enemies with them, and to distant themselves and separate from them''':

(Indeed there has been an excellent example for you in Ibrahim and those with him,) meaning, his followers who believed in him,

(when they said to their people: "Verily we are free from you...) '''meaning, `we disown you,'''

(and whatever you worship besides Allah: we rejected you,) meaning, `we disbelieve in your religion and way,'

(and there has started between us and you, hostility and hatred forever) meaning, `Animosity and enmity have appeared between us and you from now and as long as you remain on your disbelief; '''we will always disown you and hate you''','

(until you believe in Allah alone,) meaning, `unless, and until, you worship Allah alone without partners and disbelieve in the idols and rivals that you worship besides Him.' Allah's statement,}}

==Hadith==

{{Quote|[{{Compendium-of-muslim-texts-base-url}}/hadith/qudsi.php Hadith Qudsi 24]|On the authority of Abu Hurayrah (may Allah be pleased with him), who said that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said:

If Allah has loved a servant [of His] He calls Gabriel (on whom be peace) and says: I love So-and-so, therefore love him. He (the Prophet pbuh) said: So Gabriel loves him. Then he (Gabriel) calls out in heaven, saying: Allah loves So-and-so, therefore love him. And the inhabitants of heaven love him. He (the Prophet pbuh) said: Then acceptance is established for him on earth. And if Allah has abhorred a servant [of His], He calls Gabriel and says: I abhor So-and-so, therefore abhor him. So Gabriel abhors him. Then Gabriel calls out to the inhabitants of heaven: Allah abhors So-and-so, therefore abhor him. He (the Prophet pbuh) said: So they abhor him, and abhorrence is established for him on earth.

It was related by Muslim (also by al-Bukhari, Malik, and at-Tirmidhi).}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4681|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuUmamah: 
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: If anyone loves for Allah's sake, hates for Allah's sake, gives for Allah's sake and withholds for Allah's sake, he will have perfect faith.}}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||4599|darussalam}}|Narrated AbuDharr: 
The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: The best of the actions is to love for the sake of Allah and to hate for the sake of Allah.}}

In the following hadith (classed by Al-Albani as "hassan", meaning "good") Ibn Abbas reports that [[Muhammad]] said:

{{Quote|1=[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:kr1Dz6F0i2UJ:www.kalamullah.com/Books/Al%2520Wala%2520wal%2520Bara%2520Part%25202.pdf+al+wala+wal+bara&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi13fzRcsT4DnI-E9jWw30aMdIwl7nXcAt43YkE6E4pP3DFXvbHhv3gT0JIhX_1II9SwKshIdgzl1oVEBHRMrlE2brJGS0_FhJMyxCxQwrZvgwLpEbyORLJ_ZIYbThNsVJQX-cX&sig=AHIEtbTCDWRH5lOwxN8kJrzbGYCqpFwTmw At-Tabarani, al-Kabir., as-Suyuti, al-Jami' as-Saghir, 1/69]|2="The strongest bond of faith is loyalty for the sake of Allah and opposition for His sake, love for the sake of Allah and enmity for His sake}}

Imam Ahmad reports from Jarir ibn Abdullah that Muhammad made him swear an oath to:

{{Quote|Imam Ahmad Hadith|'offer counsel to every Muslim and to steer clear of every disbeliever. '<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani">Dr. Muhammad Saeed Al-Qahtaani - [http://www.muslimtents.com/aminahsworld/Al_wala.html Al-Wala’ Wa’l-Bara’ in Islam] - Translated by: Omar Johnstone</ref>}}

Ibn Shayba reports that Muhammad said:

{{Quote|Ibn Shayba hadith|"The strongest bond of faith is love for the sake of Allah and enmity for His sake."<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani"></ref> }}

{{Quote|{{Abu Dawud||5205|darussalam}}, See also: {{Muslim||2167a|reference}} and {{Muslim||2167b|reference}}|Narrated AbuHurayrah: 
Suhayl ibn AbuSalih said: I went out with my father to Syria. The people passed by the cloisters in which there were Christians and began to salute them. My father said: Do not give them salutation first, for AbuHurayrah reported the Apostle of Allah (peace be upon him) as saying: Do not salute them (Jews and Christians) first, and when you meet them on the road, force them to go to the narrowest part of it.}}

==Scholars==

===Ibn Taymiyya===

{{Quote|Ibn Taimiya, al-Ihtijaj bil-Qadar, p.62|"The declaration of faith, there is no god but Allah, requires you to love only for the sake of Allah, to hate only for the sake of Allah, to ally yourself only for the sake of Allah, to declare enmity only for the sake of Allah; '''it requires you to love what Allah loves and to hate what Allah hates'''<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani"></ref>}}

===Ibn Abbas===

{{Quote|Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, Jami' al-Ulum wal Hikam, p.30|"Whoever loves for the sake of Allah, and hates for the sake of Allah, and whoever seals a friendship for His sake, or declares an enmity for His sake, will receive, because of this, the protection of Allah. No one may taste true faith except by this, even if his prayers and fasts are many. People have come to build their relationships around the concerns of the world, but it will not benefit them in any way.<ref name="Muhammad Saeed Al Qahtaani"></ref>}}

===Sheikh Hamad Ben Ateeq===

{{Quote|[http://www.slideshare.net/creatorsslave/alwala-walbara-part-1 An-Najaat wal-Fakak, p.14]
|In the Book of Allah (Qur'an) there is no ruling more apparent and significantthan the ruling of al- Wala' Wal Bara', after the requirement of Tawhid and the prohibition of its opposite}}

===Shaykh Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahab===

{{Quote|Majmuat at-Tawhid, p.19|Islam of a man can never be accepted, even if he abandons polytheism, unless he shows enmity towards the disbelievers and polytheists, as Allah says in Surat al-Muja'dilah, verse: 22,
You will not find any people who believe in Allah and the Last Day, making friendship with those who oppose Allah and His Messenger, even though they were their fathers, or their sons, or their brothers, or their kindred (people)}}

===Ahmad Sirhindi===

Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) was an Islamic scholar and a prominent Sufi. He is regarded as having rejuvenated Islam, earning him the moniker "Mujadid Alf Thani," or "reviver of the second millennium."

{{Quote||''Shariat can be fostered through the sword. 
''Kufr'' and Islam are opposed to each other. The progress of one is possible only at the expense of the other and co-existences between these two contradictory faiths in unthinkable. 
The honor of Islam lies in insulting ''kufr'' and ''kafirs''. One who respects ''kafirs'', dishonors the Muslims. To respect them does not merely mean honouring them and assigning them a seat of honor in any assembly, but it also implies keeping company with them or showing considerations to them. They should be kept at an arm's length like dogs. ... If some worldly business cannot be performed without them, in that case only a minimum of contact should be established with them but without taking them into confidence. The highest Islamic sentiment asserts that it is better to forego that worldly business and that no relationship should be established with the ''kafirs''. 
The real purpose in levying ''jizya'' on them is to humiliate them to such an extent that, on account of fear of ''jizya'', they may not be able to dress well and to live in grandeur. They should constantly remain terrified and trembling. It is intended to hold them under contempt and to uphold the honor and might of Islam. 
. . . 
Whenever a Jew is killed, it is for the benefit of Islam.<ref>Excerpted from Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, ''Muslim Revivalist Movements in Northern India in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries'' (Agra, Lucknow: Agra University, Balkrishna Book Co., 1965), pp.247-50; and Yohanan Friedmann, ''Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity'' (Montreal, Quebec: McGill University, Institute of Islamic Studies, 1971), pp. 73-74.</ref>}}

===Recent Fatwas===

{{Quote|[http://www.islamqa.com/en/ref/11793/ Being friends with non-Muslims] Shaykh Saleh Munajid, Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 11793|With regard to non-Muslims, the Muslim should disavow himself of them, and he should not feel any love in his heart towards them. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):...''[quotes {{Quran|60|1}} below]''

Something else that will help you to stop mixing with non-Muslims is to remember that these kaafirs – even though they may have good manners and some good qualities – also do a number of seriously wrong things, any one of which is sufficient to nullify any good deeds that they may do. Among these evil things is the belief of the Christians – for example – that God is one of three (trinity), as Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning):...''[quotes {{Quran|5|73}} below]''

Even if they give you some of your rights by treating you nicely, they do not give Allaah His rights and they do not give the Qur’aan its rights and they do not give our Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) his rights. The rights of Allaah and His Book and His Prophet are more important than our personal rights. Remember this, for this is one of the things that will help you to hate them and regard them as enemies until they believe in Allaah alone, as mentioned in the aayah quoted above (interpretation of the meaning):...''[quotes {{Quran|60|4}} below]''}}

{{Quote|[http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/47322 Can he pray for his Christian friend to be healed?] Islam Q&A, Fatwa No. 47322|The belief in al-wala’ wa’l-bara’ (loyalty and friendship vs. disavowal and enmity) is one of the most important basic principles of Islam. Just as faith increases and decreases, so too people vary in the extent to which they adhere to this important principle, and their adherence to it increases and decreases. But if this principle is destroyed completely in a person’s heart and he does not do what it implies, this means that faith has been destroyed entirely as well, and faith is the basis on which he loves the close friends of Allaah and hates His enemies. This principle is indicated by a number of verses in the Book of Allaah and ahaadeeth from the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). These include the following:...''[quotes {{Quran|58|22}}, {{Quran|4|144}}, {{Quran|5|51}}, {{Quran|3|118}}, Muslim 1817, Bukhari 415, Muslim 33, below]''

There are many such reports, which indicates that it is haraam to take the kaafirs as close friends and to love them. This friendship may take many forms, such as approving of their kufr, mixing with them and being friendly towards them, living with them, taking them as close friends, loving them, preferring them to the believers, referring to their laws for judgement and so on. See question no. [http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/2179 2179].

From the above, you will see that loving a kaafir is a serious matter, because it goes against one of the most important principles of Tawheed, which is loving and being loyal towards the believers, and disavowing and rejecting the disbelievers.}}

==See Also==
{{Hub4|Non-Muslims|Non-Muslims}}

==External Links==

*[http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:kr1Dz6F0i2UJ:www.kalamullah.com/Books/Al%2520Wala%2520wal%2520Bara%2520Part%25202.pdf+al+wala+wal+bara&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi13fzRcsT4DnI-E9jWw30aMdIwl7nXcAt43YkE6E4pP3DFXvbHhv3gT0JIhX_1II9SwKshIdgzl1oVEBHRMrlE2brJGS0_FhJMyxCxQwrZvgwLpEbyORLJ_ZIYbThNsVJQX-cX&sig=AHIEtbTCDWRH5lOwxN8kJrzbGYCqpFwTmw AL-WALA' WAL-BARA', by Shaykh Muhammad Saeed Al-Qahtaani]

==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Salafism]]
[[Category:Society and human nature]]
[[Category:Modern movements]]
[[Category:Jihad]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]

Fard

2025-12-03T21:42:16Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=3|Content=2|Language=3|References=1}}
'''Fard''' (الفرض‎), mostly synonymous with ''wajib'', is a term of [[Islamic law]] meaning ''compulsory''. It is one of the five rulings (or ''[[Fiqh#Ahkam|ahkam]]'') that [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]] applies to any action a person can take.

==Types of fard==
Fard refers to religious duties incumbent upon all Muslims, of which there are two types:

*Individual duty (الواجب العين, or ''fard al-ayn''), which all Muslims are obligated to perform

*Sufficiency duty (الواجب الكفائي, or ''fard al-kifaya''), a collective duty for believers that may not require each individual Muslim to perform; this type of duty is fulfilled so long as ''someone'' in the local community of Muslims is doing it

===Fard vs. wajib===
Hanafi fiqh differentiates between ''fard'', as "that which is obligatory," and ''wajib,'' as "that which is necessary." An example of ''wajib'' is the performance of ritual [[ablution]], or ''wudu'', prior to performing daily [[Salah|prayers]], which are themselves ''fard''. In this example, it is simply necessary that a person perform ''wudu'' in order to complete their prayers, which are themselves obligatory, but performing ''wudu'' is not itself an obligation; in other words, a person is not required to make ''wudu'' at any point in the day.

==Examples==
The most notable examples of ''fard'' actions in Islam are the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of Islam]], which include stating the [[Shahadah]] (the Islamic testimony of faith), praying [[Salah]], completing the [[Hajj]], [[fasting]] during [[Ramadan]], and giving [[Zakat]].

==See Also==

*[[Five Pillars of Islam]]
*[[Fiqh]]
*[[Jihad as Obligation (Fard)]]

[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Fiqh (legal theory)]]
[[Category:Ritual]]

European Court of Human Rights on Shariah Law

2025-12-03T21:32:58Z

Zhothaqquah:

European Court of Human Rights on Shariah Law

2025-12-03T21:31:47Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=2|Content=2|Language=3|References=2}}
[[File:European Court of Human Rights logo.svg|right|thumb]]
The '''European Court of Human Rights''' (ECtHR; French: ''Cour européenne des droits de l’homme'') is an international court established on January 21, 1959 by the European Convention on Human Rights. It hears applications alleging that a contracting state has breached one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention and its protocols. The Convention was adopted by the Council of Europe, and all of its 46 member states are signatories to the Convention. The Court is based in Strasbourg, France.

==Shari'ah==

With the banning of Turkey's Islamist Welfare Party (''Refah Partisi'', RP) and a ban on its leaders sitting in Parliament or holding certain other political offices for five years, the European Court of Human Rights determined on July 31, 2001, that "the institution of Sharia law and a theocratic regime, were incompatible with the requirements of a democratic society." The Court held that the sanctions imposed on the applicants could reasonably be considered to meet a pressing social need for the protection of democratic society, since "on the pretext of giving a different meaning to the principle of secularism, the leaders of the Refah Partisi had declared their intention to establish a plurality of legal systems based on differences in religious belief, to institute Islamic law (the Sharia), a system of law that was in marked contrast to the values embodied in the Convention."<ref name="ECtHR2001">[{{Reference archive|1=http://web.archive.org/web/20010811161803/http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2001/July/RefahPartisi2001jude.htm|2=2013-09-14}} ECtHR Judgment in the case of Refah Partisi (The Welfare Party) Erbakan, Kazan and Tekdal v Turkey] (Press Release 31.7.2001; Judgment 31.7.2001)</ref>

The ban was upheld by the ECtHR on February 13, 2003. Noting that the Welfare Party had pledged to set up a regime based on the [[Shari'ah (Islamic Law)|Shari'ah]], the Court found that "a sharia-based regime was incompatible with the Convention, in particular, as regards the rules of criminal law and procedure, the place given to women in the legal order and its interference in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts."<ref name="ECtHR2003a">European Court of Human Rights, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Annual_report_2003_ENG.pdf|2=2013-09-14}} "Annual Report 2003"], (2004) pp. 5-6.</ref> It further opined that "sharia, which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by religion, is stable and invariable."<ref name="ECtHR2003">European Court of Human Rights, [{{Reference archive|1=http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Annual_report_2003_ENG.pdf|2=2013-09-14}} "Annual Report 2003"], (2004) p. 21.</ref>

===Texts===

====Press Release (July 2001)====

{{Quote||<center>JUDGMENT IN THE CASE OF REFAH PARTISI (THE WELFARE PARTY) ERBAKAN, KAZAN AND TEKDAL v. TURKEY</center>

In a judgment<ref>[fn1] Under Article 43 of the European Convention on Human Rights, within three months from the date of a Chamber judgment, any party to the case may, in exceptional cases, request that the case be referred to the 17-member Grand Chamber of the Court. In that event, a panel of five judges considers whether the case raises a serious question affecting the interpretation or application of the Convention or its Protocols, or a serious issue of general importance, in which case the Grand Chamber will deliver a final judgment. If no such question or issue arises, the panel will reject the request, at which point the judgment becomes final. Otherwise Chamber judgments become final on the expiry of the three-month period or earlier if the parties declare that they do not intend to make a request to refer the case to the Grand Chamber.</ref> delivered at Strasbourg on 31 July 2001 in the case of ''Refah Partisi, Erbakan, Kazan and Tekdal v. Turkey'' (nos. 41340/98 & 41342-4/98), the European Court of Human Rights held, by four votes to three, that there had been no violation of Article 11 (freedom of assembly and association) of the European Convention on Human Rights and unanimously that no separate issues arose under Articles 9, 10, 14, 17 and 18 of the Convention and Articles 1 and 3 of Protocol No. 1.

'''1. Principal facts'''

The first applicant, Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party, hereafter the "''RP''") was a political party that had been founded on 19 July 1983. It was represented by its Chairman, Necmettin Erbakan. He is the second applicant and was a Member of Parliament at the material time. The third and fourth applicants, Şevket Kazan and Ahmet Tekdal, are politicians and lawyers and were at the material time Members of Parliament and Vice-Chairmen of the ''RP''.

On 21 May 1997 the Principal State Counsel at the Court of Cassation brought proceedings in the Turkish Constitutional Court seeking the dissolution of the ''RP'', which he accused of having become "a centre of activities against the principle of secularism". In support of his application, he relied on various writings and declarations made by leaders and members of the RP which he said indicated that some of the party’s objectives, such as the institution of ''Sharia'' law and a theocratic regime, were incompatible with the requirements of a democratic society.

Before the Constitutional Court the applicant’s representatives argued that the prosecution had relied on mere extracts from the speeches concerned, thereby altering their meaning and without looking at the documents as a whole. They also maintained that the ''RP'', which at the material time had been in power for a year as part of a coalition, had consistently observed the principle of secularism and respected all religious beliefs and consequently was not to be confused with political parties that sought the establishment of a totalitarian regime. They added that some of the ''RP''’s leaders had only become aware of certain of the remarks impugned in the case after the Principal State Counsel’s application for the dissolution of the party was served on them and that they had nonetheless expelled those responsible from the party to avoid the ''RP'' being seen as a "centre" of illegal activities for the purposes of the law on the regulation of political parties.

On 16 January 1998 the Constitutional Court made an order dissolving the ''RP'' on the ground that it had become a "centre of activities against the principle of secularism". It also declared that the ''RP''’s assets were to be transferred by operation of law to the Treasury. The Constitutional Court further held that the public declarations of the ''RP''’s leaders, and in particular Necmettin Erbakan, Şevket Kazan and Ahmet Tekdal, had a direct bearing on the constitutionality of the ''RP''’s activities. Consequently, it imposed a further sanction in the form of a ban on their sitting in Parliament or holding certain other forms of political office for a period of five years.

'''2. Procedure and composition of the Court'''

The applications were lodged on 22 May 1998 and declared partly admissible on 3 October 2000. A hearing on the merits was held on 16 January 2001. Judgment was given by a Chamber of seven judges, composed as follows:

Jean-Paul Costa (French), ''President'', Willi Fuhrmann (Austrian), Loukis Loucaides (Cypriot), Riza Türmen (Turkish), Nicolas Bratza (British), Hanne Sophie Greve (Norwegian), Kristaq Traja (Albanian), ''judges'',

and also Sally Dollé, ''Section Registrar''.

'''3. Summary of the judgment'''<ref>[fn2] This summary by the Registry does not bind the Court.</ref>

'''Complaints'''

The applicants complained of a violation of Articles 9 (freedom of thought), 10 (freedom of expression), 11 (freedom of association), 14 (prohibition of discrimination), 17 (prohibition of abuse of rights) and 18 (limitations on use of restrictions on rights) of the European Convention on Human Rights, and of Article 1 (protection of property) and 3 (right to free elections) of Protocol No. 1.

'''Decision of the Court'''

The Court considered that, when campaigning for changes in legislation or to the legal or constitutional structures of the State, political parties continued to enjoy the protection of the provisions of the Convention and of Article 11 in particular provided they complied with two conditions: (1) the means used to those ends had to be lawful and democratic from all standpoints and (2) the proposed changes had to be compatible with fundamental democratic principles. It necessarily followed that political parties whose leaders incited others to use violence and/or supported political aims that were inconsistent with one or more rules of democracy or sought the destruction of democracy and the suppression of the rights and freedoms it recognised could not rely on the Convention to protect them from sanctions imposed as a result.

The Court held that the sanctions imposed on the applicants could reasonably be considered to meet a pressing social need for the protection of democratic society, since, on the pretext of giving a different meaning to the principle of secularism, the leaders of the Refah Partisi had declared their intention to establish a plurality of legal systems based on differences in religious belief, to institute Islamic law (the ''Sharia''), a system of law that was in marked contrast to the values embodied in the Convention. They had also left in doubt their position regarding recourse to force in order to come to power and, more particularly, to retain power.

The Court considered that even if States’ margin of appreciation was narrow in the area of the dissolution of political parties, since pluralism of ideas and parties was an inherent element of democracy, the State concerned could reasonably prevent the implementation of such a political programme, which was incompatible with Convention norms, before it was given effect through specific acts that might jeopardise civil peace and the country’s democratic regime.

Judges Fuhrmann, Loucaides and Bratza expressed a dissenting opinion, which is annexed to the judgment.

<center><nowiki>***</nowiki></center>

The Court’s judgments are accessible on its Internet site (<nowiki>http://www.echr.coe.int</nowiki>).

'''Registry of the European Court of Human Rights F – 67075 Strasbourg Cedex Contacts: Roderick Liddell (telephone: (0)3 88 41 24 92) Emma Hellyer (telephone: (0)3 90 21 42 15) Fax: (0)3 88 41 27 91'''

''The European Court of Human Rights was set up in Strasbourg in 1959 to deal with alleged violations of the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights. On 1 November 1998 a full-time Court was established, replacing the original two-tier system of a part-time Commission and Court.''<ref name="ECtHR2001"></ref>}}

====Annual Report 2003 (May 2004)====

From the Foreword by Luzius Wildhaber, the President of the European Court of Human Rights (November 1, 1998 – January 18, 2007):

{{Quote||The Court’s Annual Reports always provide an ideal opportunity to look back over the past year and to take stock of the events that marked it. So what is to be gleaned from 2003?

The first thing that stands out every year is the way in which, through the Court’s caselaw, solutions to a wide range of situations and issues are to be found in the handful of substantive Convention provisions. . . . 
Out of the 703 judgments delivered in 2003, I have selected two which, through both their differences and their complementarity, reflect the dual role played by the Court. These are the judgments in the cases of Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey<ref>[GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, to be reported in ECHR 2003-II.</ref> and Jakupovic v. Austria,<ref>No. 36757/97.</ref> which were delivered on 13 and 6 February 2003 respectively.

The first is a unanimous Grand Chamber decision and is one of a series of judgments over the past few years in which the Court has sought to define the bases of the democratic system on which the Convention is founded. . . . 
the Court, aided by the pan-European consensus provided by the Convention, has a role to play in identifying the constituent elements of democracy and in reminding everyone of the minimum essential requirements of a political system if human rights within the meaning of the Convention are to be protected. It has in the past applied itself to establishing the basic principles of the rule of law, the role of political parties, and the limits on freedom of political expression and parliamentary immunity. In Refah Partisi, it carried out a thorough examination of the relationship between the Convention, democracy, political parties and religion, and found that a sharia-based regime was incompatible with the Convention, in particular, as regards the rules of criminal law and procedure, the place given to women in the legal order and its interference in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts.<ref name="ECtHR2003a"></ref>}}

From the speech given by Luzius Wildhaber on the occasion of the opening of the judicial year, January 22, 2004:

{{Quote||As I do every year, I will tonight outline some of the main messages which emerge from our case-law over the past year. This year I shall talk about four cases.

The first concerned the dissolution, by the Turkish Constitutional Court, of a political party, the Welfare Party, on the grounds that it wanted to introduce sharia law and a theocratic regime. A Grand Chamber of the Court found unanimously that there had been no violation of Article 11 of the Convention, which protects freedom of association. This case gave the Court the opportunity to conduct an in-depth analysis of the relationship between the Convention and democracy, political parties, and religion.

In its judgment,<ref>Refah Partisi (the Welfare Party) and Others v. Turkey [GC], nos. 41340/98, 41342/98, 41343/98 and 41344/98, judgment of 13 February 2003, to be reported in ECHR 2003-II.</ref> the Court first noted that freedom of thought, of religion, of expression and of association as guaranteed by the Convention could not deprive the authorities of a State in which an association, through its activities, jeopardised that State’s institutions, of the right to protect those institutions. It necessarily followed that a political party whose leaders incited to violence or put forward a policy which failed to respect democracy or which was aimed at the destruction of democracy and the flouting of the rights and freedoms recognised in a democracy, could not lay claim to the Convention’s protection against penalties imposed on those grounds. Such penalties could even, where there was a sufficiently established and imminent danger for democracy, take the form of preventive intervention.

Noting that the Welfare Party had pledged to set up a regime based on sharia law, the Court found that sharia was incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy as set forth in the Convention. It considered that “sharia, which faithfully reflects the dogmas and divine rules laid down by religion, is stable and invariable. Principles such as pluralism in the political sphere or the constant evolution of public freedoms have no place in it”. According to the Court, it was difficult to declare one’s respect for democracy and human rights while at the same time supporting a regime based on sharia, which clearly diverged from Convention values, particularly with regard to its criminal law and criminal procedure, its rules on the legal status of women and the way it intervened in all spheres of private and public life in accordance with religious precepts.

There is no doubt that this judgment is one of the major judgments of the Court in which it endeavours to define the shape and the boundaries of democracy and the rule of law.<ref name="ECtHR2003"></ref>}}

==See Also==

*[[Portal: Islam and Human Rights]]

==External Links==

*{{external link| url = http://politicsreligion.eu/issues-we-work-on/secularism-and-sharia-law/| title = Secularism and sharia law| publisher = The European Parliament Platform for Secularism in Politics| author = | date = August 2010| archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fpoliticsreligion.eu%2Fissues-we-work-on%2Fsecularism-and-sharia-law%2F&date=2013-09-14| deadurl = no}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{page_title|European Court of Human Rights on Shari'ah Law}}
[[Category:Shariah (Islamic Law)]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Criticism of Islam]]
[[Category:Critics of Islam]]
[[fr:La cour europénne des droits de l'Homme et la Shariah]]

Early Conversions to Islam

2025-12-03T21:06:14Z

Zhothaqquah: Revised language

{{QualityScore|Lead=2|Structure=3|Content=2|Language=3|References=3}}
Two of the four schools of [[Sunni]] [[jurisprudence]] and [[Islamic law]] (the Hanbali and Shafi'is) permit the forced conversion of idolaters and pagans upon Islamic conquest (on pain of death), whereas the other two schools (the Hanafis and Malikis) maintain that the conquered practitioners of any religious faith are simply to be reduced to the status of ''[[Jizyah]]''-paying [[Dhimmitude|''dhimmis'']].<ref>Gerhard Bowering, ed. (2009). ''Islamic Political Thought: An Introduction''. Princeton University Press. pp. 127–128. ISBN <bdi>9781400866427</bdi>.</ref><ref>Wael B. Hallaq (2009). ''Sharī'a: Theory, Practice, Transformations''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 327–328. ISBN <bdi>9780521861472</bdi>.</ref>

All schools of Islamic law agree, however, that [[Islam and Apostasy|apostates]], even if they convert to another monotheistic religion, must convert back to Islam, or be killed.

==Early Islamic history==

===Under Abu Bakr===
Immediately following [[Muhammad's Death|Muhammad's death]], the first [[caliph]], Abu Bakr (one of [[Muhammad]]'s [[companions]]), began the Apostasy Wars (wars of ''Ridda'') against nominally Muslim tribes who rejected his authority as caliph. This represents the earliest instance in Islamic history of forced conversion at a mass scale<ref>Richard W. Bullient (2013). "Conversion". In Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone (ed.). ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought''. Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford University Press (Kindle edition). p. 50.</ref>, justified by the Islamic death penalty for apostasy, which has precedence in Islamic scriptures and [[List of Killings Ordered or Supported by Muhammad|in Muhammad's life]].

==8th-19th centuries==
In the 9th century, Samaritans of Palestine faced persecution and forced conversion at the hands of a rebel leader, ibn Firāsa, against whom they were defended by Abbasid caliphate troops.<ref>{{cite book|author=Moshe Gil|title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA822|publisher=CUP Archive|page=822|year=1992}}</ref>

===India===
In an invasion of the Kashmir valley in 1015, Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the valley, took numerous prisoners, and carried out conversions to Islam.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire|author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|authorlink=|year=1951|page=12}}</ref> In his later campaigns in Mathura, Baran and Kanauj, many conversions again took place, including among soldiers who surrendered to him. In Baran (Bulandshahr), an estimated 10,000 people were converted to Islam, including the king.

Al-Qazwini writes that "when Mahmud went to wage religious war against India, he made great efforts to capture and destroy Somnath, in the hope that the Hindus would then become Muhammadans."<ref>{{cite book|title=India 2001: Reference Encyclopedia, Volume 1|page=29|author=Catherine B. Asher|publisher=South Asia Publicaitons}}</ref> Tarikh-i-Yamini, Rausat-us-Safa and Tarikh-i-Ferishtah discuss the construction of new mosques and schools, as well as the appointment of preachers and teachers by Mahmud and his successor Masud. <ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They| first=K.S. |last=Lal |chapter=1 |year=2004 |isbn=978-8185990101 |asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref>

The raids of Muhammad Ghori and his generals brought in thousands of slaves in the late 12th century, most of whom were compelled to convert as one of the preconditions of their freedom.<ref name="imwat-1">{{cite book| title=Indian Muslims:Who Are They| first=K.S. |last=Lal |chapter=1 |year=2004 |isbn=978-8185990101 |asin=B003DRH2FI}}</ref><ref>Habibullah, ''The Foundation of Muslim Rule in India'', (Allahabad, 1961), pp.69 and 334</ref><ref>Hasan Nizami, ''Taj-ul-Maasir'', II, p.216</ref><ref>Titus, Murray. ''Islam in India and Pakistan'', ([[Calcutta]], 1959), p.31</ref> Qutb ud-Din Aibak reportedly demolished almost 1,000 temples and built mosques on their foundations.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent|page=72|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> In the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Sikandar Butshikan demolished Hindu temples and forcibly converted Hindus in Kashmir.<ref>{{cite book|title=Kashmir: Valley and Its Culture|author=Shiri Ram Bakshi|publisher=Sarup & Sons|year=1997|page=70}}</ref>

===Persia===
Ismail I, founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, designated Twelver Shia Islam as the official state religion and ordered executions of a number of Sunni intellectuals who refused to accept Shiism.<ref>{{Cite book|authors=Savory, R.M., Gandjeï, T.| year=2012 | title=Ismāʿīl I|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editors=P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs|volume=4|page=186}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| author=H.R. Roemer| entry=The Safavid Period |title=The Cambridge History of Iran|volume=Volume 6|publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=harv |year=1986 |editors=William Bayne Fisher, Peter Jackson, Lawrence Lockhart|page=218}}</ref> Non-Muslims faced frequent persecution and at times forced conversions under the rule of his successors.<ref>Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-00807-8}}. p.52</ref>

After the capture of the Hormuz Island, Abbas I required local Christians to convert to Islam. Abbas II granted his ministers authority to force Jews to convert to Islam, and Sultan Husayn mandated the forcible conversion of Zoroastrians.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Lapidus | first = Ira M. | authorlink=Ira M. Lapidus | title = A History of Islamic Societies | publisher = Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) | year = 2014| isbn=978-0-521-51430-9 | pages=385–386}}</ref> In 1839, during the Qajar era, the Jewish community in the city of Mashhad was attacked by a mob and subsequently forced to convert to Islam.<ref name="JadidAlIslam">{{cite web|first=Jaleh |last=Pirnazar |url=http://www.fis-iran.org/en/irannameh/volxix/mashhad-jewish-community |title=The "Jadid al-Islams" of Mashhad |work=Foundation for Iranian Studies |location=Bethesda, MD, USA |publisher=Foundation for Iranian Studies |accessdate=2012-11-13}}</ref>

Timur invaded Georgia to defeat and capture Bagrat V, an Orthodox Christian, who subsequently agreed to convert to Islam.<ref>'': At the Crossroads of Empires : 14th - 15th Century Eastern Anatolia''. {{cite book | author=Andrew Peacock | title=Between Georgia and the Islamic World : The Atabegs of Samc'xe and the Turks | location=Istanbul | page=55}}</ref> Timur also raided the state of Jammu in 1399 and forced its Hindu ruler to convert to Islam.<ref>Bawa Satinder Singh. The Jammu Fox. A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh of Kashmir 1792-1857. Southern Illinois Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1974.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Life and Times of Maharaja Ranbir Singh (1830-1885). Jay Kay Book House, Jammu-Tawi, 1985.</ref><ref>Prof. Sukhdev Singh Charak. Maharaja Ranjitdev and the rise and fall of Jammu Kingdom, from 1700 A.D. to 1820 A.D. The Dogra-Pahari Itihas Kendra, Pathankot, 1971.</ref><ref>Sorabji Jehangir and F.S. Jehangir Taleyarkhan. Princes and Chiefs of India: A Collection of Biographies, with Portraits of the Indian Princes and Chiefs and Brief Historical Surveys of their Territories. Waterlow and Sons Limited, London, 1903.</ref><ref>Prof. M.L.Kapur (ed.). Maharaja Hari Singh (1895-1961). Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi, 1995.</ref><ref>Revised List of Ruling Princes, Chiefs and Leading Personages of the Jammu and Kashmir State and the Gilgit Agency. The Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1939.</ref><ref>Karan Singh. Autobiography 1931-1967. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1994.</ref><ref>Mohinder Singh. Raja Ram Singh, the forgotten prince and his times (1861-1899). Gajral Printers, Sanyaj Gandhi Nagar, Jammu, 1990.</ref><ref>G.M.D. Sufi. Kashīr, Being a History of KashmirFrom the Earliest Times to Our Own. 2 Vols. Light & Life Publishers, New Delhi, 1974.</ref>

==References==
<references />

[[Category: Rashidun Caliphs]]
[[Category: Pre-Islamic Arabia]]
[[Category: Sacred history]]
[[Category: Fiqh (legal theory)]]
[[Category: Shariah (Islamic Law)]]