History of Islamic Thought - Revision history

Lightyears at 02:48, 26 January 2023

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	In the Indian sub-continent Mawdudi (d. 1979) too advocated Islamism, drawing on the Khalifat movement and founding his own Jama'at-i Islami movement. He saw the need for divine government with strict rules on gender segregation, limited freedoms for non-Muslims and the death penalty for apostasy. He extended the term ''jahiliyya'' (the pre-Islamic age of ignorance) to the present day, applying it to Sufis, Shi'a and modern secular ideologies. He wanted a total revolutionary break from the medieval Islamic past and its society.		In the Indian sub-continent Mawdudi (d. 1979) too advocated Islamism, drawing on the Khalifat movement and founding his own Jama'at-i Islami movement. He saw the need for divine government with strict rules on gender segregation, limited freedoms for non-Muslims and the death penalty for apostasy. He extended the term ''jahiliyya'' (the pre-Islamic age of ignorance) to the present day, applying it to Sufis, Shi'a and modern secular ideologies. He wanted a total revolutionary break from the medieval Islamic past and its society.

	Meanwhile, in 1940s Egypt Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966), was enraged by Imperialism, Zionism and poverty in ~~Egyptian~~, and felt repelled after visting America by what he saw as the moral and spiritual bankrupcy of the West. He turned to Islamism, and blamed Imperialism, West-pleasing scholars, Western orientalists, communists, and in his view behind them all, the Jews. Drawn to the Muslim brotherhood as the best defence against "Crusaders", and inspired by Mawdudi, Qutb wrote from prison a commentary on the Quran, interpreting it in a revolutionary and political way. He took up a starkly dualistic vision of Islam and jahiliyya, with even so-called Muslim societies sunk in the latter. Secular slogans must be abandoned and an Islamic vanguard established, a solution that would require violent jihad, including to overthrow the Egyptian state. For this, he was executed by the Egyptian ruler Nasser.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 198-202</ref>		Meanwhile, in 1940s Egypt Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966), was enraged by Imperialism, Zionism and poverty in Egypt, and felt repelled after visting America by what he saw as the moral and spiritual bankrupcy of the West. He turned to Islamism, and blamed Imperialism, West-pleasing scholars, Western orientalists, communists, and in his view behind them all, the Jews. Drawn to the Muslim brotherhood as the best defence against "Crusaders", and inspired by Mawdudi, Qutb wrote from prison a commentary on the Quran, interpreting it in a revolutionary and political way. He took up a starkly dualistic vision of Islam and jahiliyya, with even so-called Muslim societies sunk in the latter. Secular slogans must be abandoned and an Islamic vanguard established, a solution that would require violent jihad, including to overthrow the Egyptian state. For this, he was executed by the Egyptian ruler Nasser.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 198-202</ref>

	In 1979, Islamism took hold in Shi'a Iran, where the new Republic's constitution proclaimed its basis on the exclusive sovereignty of Allah. From the 1940s Khomeini (d. 1989) wrote on Islamist themes about the overthrow of the government and by the 1960s was known as an ''Ayatollah'' (literally, 'sign of God') and ''Marja' al-Taqlid'' (source of emulation), the top scholarly titles in Twelver Shi'ism. He denounced the Iranian state for its US-inspired reform attempts and favourable treatment of Americans and Israel. Echoing Sunni Islamists, he taught that Jews, Crusaders, Imperialists and Orientalists had distorted Muslims' view of their own religion. Distinctly Shia, however, was his view that until the twelfth Imam returns, political authority had passed to the jurists to lead the people in defeating external enemies, establishing and governing the Islamic state.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 203-205</ref>		In 1979, Islamism took hold in Shi'a Iran, where the new Republic's constitution proclaimed its basis on the exclusive sovereignty of Allah. From the 1940s Khomeini (d. 1989) wrote on Islamist themes about the overthrow of the government and by the 1960s was known as an ''Ayatollah'' (literally, 'sign of God') and ''Marja' al-Taqlid'' (source of emulation), the top scholarly titles in Twelver Shi'ism. He denounced the Iranian state for its US-inspired reform attempts and favourable treatment of Americans and Israel. Echoing Sunni Islamists, he taught that Jews, Crusaders, Imperialists and Orientalists had distorted Muslims' view of their own religion. Distinctly Shia, however, was his view that until the twelfth Imam returns, political authority had passed to the jurists to lead the people in defeating external enemies, establishing and governing the Islamic state.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 203-205</ref>

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	That early controversy was known as ''al Mihna''. It concerned the ontological status of the Quran. While Allah was eternal (qadim), the world was his temporal creation, and the Quran was indentified with his speech (kalam), one of his divine attributes. The mainstream view was therefore that the Quran was uncreated. However, apparently in agreement with the Mu'tazila view, Caliph al Ma'mun in 833 CE issued an edict that jurists and scholars must testify that the Quran was created, citing {{Quran\|4\|33}} as evidence. Within a few decades and faced with widespread discontent, Caliph al Mutawakkil revoked the Mihna persecution and so the uncreated argument won the day.<ref>Fitzroy Morrissey, ''A short history of Islamic thought'', pp. 31-32, 50</ref>		That early controversy was known as ''al Mihna''. It concerned the ontological status of the Quran. While Allah was eternal (qadim), the world was his temporal creation, and the Quran was indentified with his speech (kalam), one of his divine attributes. The mainstream view was therefore that the Quran was uncreated. However, apparently in agreement with the Mu'tazila view, Caliph al Ma'mun in 833 CE issued an edict that jurists and scholars must testify that the Quran was created, citing {{Quran\|4\|33}} as evidence. Within a few decades and faced with widespread discontent, Caliph al Mutawakkil revoked the Mihna persecution and so the uncreated argument won the day.<ref>Fitzroy Morrissey, ''A short history of Islamic thought'', pp. 31-32, 50</ref>

	Later, the Sunnis would come to recognise two schools of theology as legitimate.~~<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', p. 64</ref>~~ Al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE) disgreed strongly with the Mu'tazila, most importantly on three major issues. He argued that the Qur'an was uncreated. He disagreed with their metaphorical interpretation of the divine attributes (God's 'hands' are his blessing, God's 'eyes' are his knowledge etc.<ref>[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052 Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila] - Muslimphilosophy.com</ref>), rather they are real yet unlike a human body and cannot be understood by human reason. He also rejected their belief in free will, but instead everything in creation was sustained by the will of Allah. Ash'ari theology gained followers among the prominent figures of the major schools of jurisprudence, especially the Shafi'i school, though not among the Hanafis who instead followed Maturidi (d. 944 CE). Maturidi's doctrines were essentially close to al-Ash'ari's with subtle differences. He tended to be more rationalist on controversial questions, most notably arguing that there was a role for human intellect in discovering what was good and evil, whereas al-Ash'ari said this was determined by Allah alone and must be learned from the Qur'an and hadith. While there were some tensions between the two schools where they shared geographical proximity, a spirit of compromise and tolerance again prevailed.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 64-70</ref>		Later, the Sunnis would come to recognise two schools of theology as legitimate. Al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE) disgreed strongly with the Mu'tazila, most importantly on three major issues. He argued that the Qur'an was uncreated. He disagreed with their metaphorical interpretation of the divine attributes (God's 'hands' are his blessing, God's 'eyes' are his knowledge etc.<ref>[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052 Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila] - Muslimphilosophy.com</ref>), rather they are real yet unlike a human body and cannot be understood by human reason. He also rejected their belief in free will, but instead everything in creation was sustained by the will of Allah. Ash'ari theology gained followers among the prominent figures of the major schools of jurisprudence, especially the Shafi'i school, though not among the Hanafis who instead followed Maturidi (d. 944 CE). Maturidi's doctrines were essentially close to al-Ash'ari's with subtle differences. He tended to be more rationalist on controversial questions, most notably arguing that there was a role for human intellect in discovering what was good and evil, whereas al-Ash'ari said this was determined by Allah alone and must be learned from the Qur'an and hadith. While there were some tensions between the two schools where they shared geographical proximity, a spirit of compromise and tolerance again prevailed.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 64-70</ref>

	===Shi'a Sources of Knowledge===		===Shi'a Sources of Knowledge===
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	According to Morrisey (writing in 2022), three broad tendencies define contemporary Islam: Neo-traditionalists represented by the scholars (Ulema) graduating from institutions like the prestigious al-Azhar University in Cairo, the Shi'i seminaries, or the Indonesian Nahdlatul Ulama, seek continuity with the traditional schools of legal thought and theology, and the Sufi orders. For them, Islam is a theological doctrine, a moral code, and spritual source, and is not conditional on establishing political government. Loyalty and patriotism towards the modern nation-state that grants them freedom of worship is advocated and a virtue. They are willing to make common inter-faith cause in their concern about a spiritual crisis of modernity and tend to be socially conservative, while seeing Islam as tolerant and moderate.		According to Morrisey (writing in 2022), three broad tendencies define contemporary Islam: Neo-traditionalists represented by the scholars (Ulema) graduating from institutions like the prestigious al-Azhar University in Cairo, the Shi'i seminaries, or the Indonesian Nahdlatul Ulama, seek continuity with the traditional schools of legal thought and theology, and the Sufi orders. For them, Islam is a theological doctrine, a moral code, and spritual source, and is not conditional on establishing political government. Loyalty and patriotism towards the modern nation-state that grants them freedom of worship is advocated and a virtue. They are willing to make common inter-faith cause in their concern about a spiritual crisis of modernity and tend to be socially conservative, while seeing Islam as tolerant and moderate.

	Salafis and Islamists are concerned with purity of belief and preventing innovation, heirs to Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Wahhab. They are opposed to most other tendancies in Islam such as neo-traditionalism, Sufism and Islamic modernists. Quietest Salafis such as the Wahhabists of Saudi Arabia are focused on what they call purification and education, while Islamist Salafi political parties are commited to advancing "the Islamic solution" (''al-hall al-islam'') to all social and political problems. The latter will work with their governments with a view to eventually overthrowing them, and are strongly opposed to the West, Israel, and secularism. At the far end of the spectrum are the Salafi-Jihadists like al-Qaeda and ISIS. These groups advocate violent jihad in order to destroy the enemies of Islam and ultimately achieve a global Caliphate, drawing their heritage from Sayyid Qutb. To them, democracy is "the tribulation of the age", while Shi'a, secularist Muslims, and rulers of Muslim countries are apostates, supported by "clerics of evil". They and the Judeo-Crusader west must all be fought and killed. ~~Like some classical scholars~~ (~~see~~ [[Jihad in Islamic Law]]) ~~these groups take an extreme abrogationist approach to reading the Quran~~.		Salafis and Islamists are concerned with purity of belief and preventing innovation, heirs to Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Wahhab. They are opposed to most other tendancies in Islam such as neo-traditionalism, Sufism and Islamic modernists. Quietest Salafis such as the Wahhabists of Saudi Arabia are focused on what they call purification and education, while Islamist Salafi political parties are commited to advancing "the Islamic solution" (''al-hall al-islam'') to all social and political problems. The latter will work with their governments with a view to eventually overthrowing them, and are strongly opposed to the West, Israel, and secularism. At the far end of the spectrum are the Salafi-Jihadists like al-Qaeda and ISIS. These groups advocate violent jihad in order to destroy the enemies of Islam and ultimately achieve a global Caliphate, drawing their heritage from Sayyid Qutb. To them, democracy is "the tribulation of the age", while Shi'a, secularist Muslims, and rulers of Muslim countries are apostates, supported by "clerics of evil". They and the Judeo-Crusader west must all be fought and killed. These groups take an extreme abrogationist approach to reading the Quran ([[Jihad in Islamic Law\|like some classical scholars]]).

	Finally, there is liberal Islam, an extension of Islamic Modernism (which is a growing trend dating from the 19th century, these days often applying modern historical-critical scholarship to critique medieval interpretions of the Quran and the authenticity of hadiths). They advocate modern human rights including on gender and freedom of individual conscience, limiting the applicability of Quranic rulings on jihad, polygamy, slavery, and gender segregation to the 7th century. At the same time they draw on the rationalism of earlier movements like the mu'tazila and Ibn Rusd, or the Sufi spiritual masters in order to show Islamic precedent for their views.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 206-213</ref>		Finally, there is liberal Islam, an extension of Islamic Modernism (which is a growing trend dating from the 19th century, these days often applying modern historical-critical scholarship to critique medieval interpretions of the Quran and the authenticity of hadiths). They advocate modern human rights including on gender and freedom of individual conscience, limiting the applicability of Quranic rulings on jihad, polygamy, slavery, and gender segregation to the 7th century. At the same time they draw on the rationalism of earlier movements like the mu'tazila and Ibn Rusd, or the Sufi spiritual masters in order to show Islamic precedent for their views.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 206-213</ref>

Lightyears at 14:46, 17 January 2023

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← Older revision		Revision as of 14:46, 17 January 2023
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	That early controversy was known as ''al Mihna''. It concerned the ontological status of the Quran. While Allah was eternal (qadim), the world was his temporal creation, and the Quran was indentified with his speech (kalam), one of his divine attributes. The mainstream view was therefore that the Quran was uncreated. However, apparently in agreement with the Mu'tazila view, Caliph al Ma'mun in 833 CE issued an edict that jurists and scholars must testify that the Quran was created, citing {{Quran\|4\|33}} as evidence. Within a few decades and faced with widespread discontent, Caliph al Mutawakkil revoked the Mihna persecution and so the uncreated argument won the day.<ref>Fitzroy Morrissey, ''A short history of Islamic thought'', pp. 31-32, 50</ref>		That early controversy was known as ''al Mihna''. It concerned the ontological status of the Quran. While Allah was eternal (qadim), the world was his temporal creation, and the Quran was indentified with his speech (kalam), one of his divine attributes. The mainstream view was therefore that the Quran was uncreated. However, apparently in agreement with the Mu'tazila view, Caliph al Ma'mun in 833 CE issued an edict that jurists and scholars must testify that the Quran was created, citing {{Quran\|4\|33}} as evidence. Within a few decades and faced with widespread discontent, Caliph al Mutawakkil revoked the Mihna persecution and so the uncreated argument won the day.<ref>Fitzroy Morrissey, ''A short history of Islamic thought'', pp. 31-32, 50</ref>

	Later, the Sunnis would come to recognise two schools of theology as legitimate.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', p. 64</ref> Al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE) disgreed strongly with the Mu'tazila, most importantly ~~by arguing~~ that the Qur'an was uncreated~~, that Allah would be seen be believers on~~ the ~~day of resurrection~~ (~~since~~ his ~~attributes were not meant metaphorically~~, ~~even if we~~ cannot ~~understand how that is so)~~. He also rejected their belief in free will, but instead everything in creation was sustained by the will of Allah. Ash'ari theology gained followers among the prominent figures of the major schools of jurisprudence, especially the Shafi'i school, though not among the Hanafis who instead followed Maturidi (d. 944 CE). Maturidi's doctrines were essentially close to al-Ash'ari's with subtle differences. He tended to be more rationalist on controversial questions, most notably arguing that there was a role for human intellect in discovering what was good and evil, whereas al-Ash'ari said this was determined by Allah alone and must be learned from the Qur'an and hadith. While there were some tensions between the two schools where they shared geographical proximity, a spirit of compromise and tolerance again prevailed.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 64-70</ref>		Later, the Sunnis would come to recognise two schools of theology as legitimate.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', p. 64</ref> Al-Ash'ari (d. 936 CE) disgreed strongly with the Mu'tazila, most importantly on three major issues. He argued that the Qur'an was uncreated. He disagreed with their metaphorical interpretation of the divine attributes (God's 'hands' are his blessing, God's 'eyes' are his knowledge etc.<ref>[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H052 Ash'ariyya and Mu'tazila] - Muslimphilosophy.com</ref>), rather they are real yet unlike a human body and cannot be understood by human reason. He also rejected their belief in free will, but instead everything in creation was sustained by the will of Allah. Ash'ari theology gained followers among the prominent figures of the major schools of jurisprudence, especially the Shafi'i school, though not among the Hanafis who instead followed Maturidi (d. 944 CE). Maturidi's doctrines were essentially close to al-Ash'ari's with subtle differences. He tended to be more rationalist on controversial questions, most notably arguing that there was a role for human intellect in discovering what was good and evil, whereas al-Ash'ari said this was determined by Allah alone and must be learned from the Qur'an and hadith. While there were some tensions between the two schools where they shared geographical proximity, a spirit of compromise and tolerance again prevailed.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 64-70</ref>

	===Shi'a Sources of Knowledge===		===Shi'a Sources of Knowledge===
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	Salafis and Islamists are concerned with purity of belief and preventing innovation, heirs to Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Wahhab. They are opposed to most other tendancies in Islam such as neo-traditionalism, Sufism and Islamic modernists. Quietest Salafis such as the Wahhabists of Saudi Arabia are focused on what they call purification and education, while Islamist Salafi political parties are commited to advancing "the Islamic solution" (''al-hall al-islam'') to all social and political problems. The latter will work with their governments with a view to eventually overthrowing them, and are strongly opposed to the West, Israel, and secularism. At the far end of the spectrum are the Salafi-Jihadists like al-Qaeda and ISIS. These groups advocate violent jihad in order to destroy the enemies of Islam and ultimately achieve a global Caliphate, drawing their heritage from Sayyid Qutb. To them, democracy is "the tribulation of the age", while Shi'a, secularist Muslims, and rulers of Muslim countries are apostates, supported by "clerics of evil". They and the Judeo-Crusader west must all be fought and killed. Like some classical scholars (see [[Jihad in Islamic Law]]) these groups take an extreme abrogationist approach to reading the Quran.		Salafis and Islamists are concerned with purity of belief and preventing innovation, heirs to Ibn Taymiyyah and al-Wahhab. They are opposed to most other tendancies in Islam such as neo-traditionalism, Sufism and Islamic modernists. Quietest Salafis such as the Wahhabists of Saudi Arabia are focused on what they call purification and education, while Islamist Salafi political parties are commited to advancing "the Islamic solution" (''al-hall al-islam'') to all social and political problems. The latter will work with their governments with a view to eventually overthrowing them, and are strongly opposed to the West, Israel, and secularism. At the far end of the spectrum are the Salafi-Jihadists like al-Qaeda and ISIS. These groups advocate violent jihad in order to destroy the enemies of Islam and ultimately achieve a global Caliphate, drawing their heritage from Sayyid Qutb. To them, democracy is "the tribulation of the age", while Shi'a, secularist Muslims, and rulers of Muslim countries are apostates, supported by "clerics of evil". They and the Judeo-Crusader west must all be fought and killed. Like some classical scholars (see [[Jihad in Islamic Law]]) these groups take an extreme abrogationist approach to reading the Quran.

	Finally, there is liberal Islam, an extension of Islamic Modernism (which is a growing trend dating from the 19th century, these days often applying modern historical-critical scholarship to critique medieval interpretions of the Quran and hadiths ~~which in their view were often unjustified and mistaken~~). They advocate modern human rights including on gender and freedom of individual conscience, limiting the applicability of Quranic rulings on jihad, polygamy, slavery, and gender segregation to the 7th century. At the same time they draw on the rationalism of earlier movements like the mu'tazila and Ibn Rusd, or the Sufi spiritual masters in order to show Islamic precedent for their views.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 206-213</ref>		Finally, there is liberal Islam, an extension of Islamic Modernism (which is a growing trend dating from the 19th century, these days often applying modern historical-critical scholarship to critique medieval interpretions of the Quran and the authenticity of hadiths). They advocate modern human rights including on gender and freedom of individual conscience, limiting the applicability of Quranic rulings on jihad, polygamy, slavery, and gender segregation to the 7th century. At the same time they draw on the rationalism of earlier movements like the mu'tazila and Ibn Rusd, or the Sufi spiritual masters in order to show Islamic precedent for their views.<ref>Fitzroy Morrisey, ''A short History of Islamic Thought'', pp. 206-213</ref>

	==See Also==		==See Also==

Lightyears at 11:18, 16 January 2023

2023-01-16T11:18:11Z

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Lightyears: Lightyears moved page Islamic Philosophy to History of Islamic Thought: Article has been expanded and is now more comprehensive in scope

2023-01-16T01:32:07Z

Lightyears moved page Islamic Philosophy to History of Islamic Thought: Article has been expanded and is now more comprehensive in scope

← Older revision	Revision as of 01:32, 16 January 2023
(No difference)

Lightyears: Rewritten to summarise Morrisey's book in order to create more comprehensive article on the history of Islamic thought (integrated some of the old content). Will also rename.

2023-01-16T01:31:18Z

Rewritten to summarise Morrisey's book in order to create more comprehensive article on the history of Islamic thought (integrated some of the old content). Will also rename.

Show changes

IbnPinker at 20:47, 7 March 2021

2021-03-07T20:47:51Z

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	==Reaction and Decline==		==Reaction and Decline==

	The twelfth to the fifteenth century was marked by the emergence of Islamic fundamentalism, and a reaction to the humanistic and often secular ideas of the [[Golden Age]] philosophers. After the Abbasid [[Caliph\|caliphate]] was overthrown by Mongol conquests in the thirteenth century), Islamic philosophy was fragmented in different centers. In the fourteenth century, fundamentalist traditionalist views, exemplified by the polemics of [[Ibn ~~Taymiyya~~]], who called for believers to rid Islam of all forms of innovation, began to dominate Islamic scholarship. The same period also saw the rise of Al-Ghazali's approach to 'Ash'arite theology.<ref name="Oxford Companion">{{cite web\|url= http://www.amazon.co.uk/Oxford-Companion-Philosophy-Ted-Honderich/dp/0198661320\|title= Oxford Companion to Philosophy\|publisher= Oxford University Press\|series= (article 'Islamic Philosophy')\|author= Ted Honderich\|date= 1995\|isbn=9780198661320\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		The twelfth to the fifteenth century was marked by the emergence of Islamic fundamentalism, and a reaction to the humanistic and often secular ideas of the [[Golden Age]] philosophers. After the Abbasid [[Caliph\|caliphate]] was overthrown by Mongol conquests in the thirteenth century), Islamic philosophy was fragmented in different centers. In the fourteenth century, fundamentalist traditionalist views, exemplified by the polemics of [[Ibn Taymiyyah]], who called for believers to rid Islam of all forms of innovation, began to dominate Islamic scholarship. The same period also saw the rise of Al-Ghazali's approach to 'Ash'arite theology.<ref name="Oxford Companion">{{cite web\|url= http://www.amazon.co.uk/Oxford-Companion-Philosophy-Ted-Honderich/dp/0198661320\|title= Oxford Companion to Philosophy\|publisher= Oxford University Press\|series= (article 'Islamic Philosophy')\|author= Ted Honderich\|date= 1995\|isbn=9780198661320\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>

	This had the effect of curtailing the spread of philosophy in Islam in a way that was not encountered to such an extent in the Latin West in the post-medieval period.<ref name="Oxford Companion"></ref>		This had the effect of curtailing the spread of philosophy in Islam in a way that was not encountered to such an extent in the Latin West in the post-medieval period.<ref name="Oxford Companion"></ref>

IbnPinker: /* Formative Period */

2021-03-07T03:06:59Z

Formative Period

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	==Formative Period==		==Formative Period==

	Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Prophet [[Muhammad\|Muhammad's]] [[Muhammad's Death\|death]] in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North [[Africa]] and Southern [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=203\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Prophet [[Muhammad\|Muhammad's]] [[Muhammad's Death\|death]] in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North Africa and Southern Spain.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=203\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>

	As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.		As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and Greece. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.

	The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>
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	The Ash'arite theologian Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), by contrast, represents Islamic reaction to Aristotle. Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labelled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith.		The Ash'arite theologian Al-Ghazali (1058-1111), by contrast, represents Islamic reaction to Aristotle. Ghazali bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labelled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith.

	Islamic Aristotelianism reached its height with [[~~Ibn Rushd - Averroes\|~~Ibn Rushd]], known to [[Europe]] as Averroes. Ibn Rushd argued against Ghazali's criticisms of Aristotelianism, although he is best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle. Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on Jewish philosophy. Averroes' school of thought is known as ''Averroism'', which only survived in Latin West after Ibn Rushd's work was condemned and then ignored in the Islamic world.		Islamic Aristotelianism reached its height with [[Ibn Rushd]], known to Europe as Averroes. Ibn Rushd argued against Ghazali's criticisms of Aristotelianism, although he is best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle. Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on Jewish philosophy. Averroes' school of thought is known as ''Averroism'', which only survived in Latin West after Ibn Rushd's work was condemned and then ignored in the Islamic world.

	[[Arab Transmission of the Classics\|Transmission of the classics]] from the East to the West began from the 11<sup>th</sup> century onward, culminating in the thirteenth century. These works had great influence on the development of Medieval Scholasticism.<ref>Scholasticism is a style of philosophy that arose in the Latin West in the middle ages (10<sup>th</sup> century to 15<sup>th</sup> century. The defining characteristics of scholasticism are: the project of reconciling Christian faith with classical philosophy, particularly the philosophy of Aristotle; a particular style of teaching and writing; a system arranged round certain books, such as the Sentences of Peter Lombard, Aristotle's logical works, the works of Augustine; focus on a characteristic set of questions, the most famous being the problem of universals.</ref>		[[Arab Transmission of the Classics\|Transmission of the classics]] from the East to the West began from the 11<sup>th</sup> century onward, culminating in the thirteenth century. These works had great influence on the development of Medieval Scholasticism.<ref>Scholasticism is a style of philosophy that arose in the Latin West in the middle ages (10<sup>th</sup> century to 15<sup>th</sup> century. The defining characteristics of scholasticism are: the project of reconciling Christian faith with classical philosophy, particularly the philosophy of Aristotle; a particular style of teaching and writing; a system arranged round certain books, such as the Sentences of Peter Lombard, Aristotle's logical works, the works of Augustine; focus on a characteristic set of questions, the most famous being the problem of universals.</ref>
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	==Revival in Iran==		==Revival in Iran==

	The sixteenth to early seventeenth century saw a revival of philosophy with Safavid rule in [[Iran]], which established [[Shiite\|Shi'ism]] as the state religion, primarily as a defensive measure against the Ottoman [[Sunni]] Empire. The Safavid dynasty was a literate family from its early origin endowing centers of scholarship, and supported academic freedom. One important outcome was the creation of Shi'ite thought, reform of the law based on the principles set out by al-Farabi.<ref name="Oxford Companion"></ref>		The sixteenth to early seventeenth century saw a revival of philosophy with Safavid rule in Iran, which established [[Shiite\|Shi'ism]] as the state religion, primarily as a defensive measure against the Ottoman [[Sunni]] Empire. The Safavid dynasty was a literate family from its early origin endowing centers of scholarship, and supported academic freedom. One important outcome was the creation of Shi'ite thought, reform of the law based on the principles set out by al-Farabi.<ref name="Oxford Companion"></ref>

	The main scholars of this period are Mir Damad and his pupil Molla Sadra, and other members of the School of Isfahan. Molla Sadra's main work is the voluminous ''The Four Intellectual Journeys''.		The main scholars of this period are Mir Damad and his pupil Molla Sadra, and other members of the School of Isfahan. Molla Sadra's main work is the voluminous ''The Four Intellectual Journeys''.

IbnPinker at 03:06, 7 March 2021

2021-03-07T03:06:32Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:06, 7 March 2021
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	{{QualityScore\|Lead=3\|Structure=3\|Content=3\|Language=3\|References=3}}		{{QualityScore\|Lead=3\|Structure=3\|Content=3\|Language=3\|References=3}}
	'''Islamic philosophy''' is a general term for the works of Islamic scholars who tried to reconcile the [[Philosophy\|philosophical]] tradition of the ancient world (primarily of Aristotle and Plato) with the teaching of [[Islam]]. It covers the genesis and development of philosophical thought in the Islamic world, from Andalusia to [[India]], from the ninth century to the present.		'''Islamic philosophy''' is a general term for the works of Islamic scholars who tried to reconcile the [[Philosophy\|philosophical]] tradition of the ancient world (primarily of Aristotle and Plato) with the teaching of [[Islam]]. It covers the genesis and development of philosophical thought in the Islamic world, from Andalusia to India, from the ninth century to the present.

	==Formative Period==		==Formative Period==
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	As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.		As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.

	The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>

	In the tenth century another school arose among the Jacobites. These knew little Greek, and used only Syriac translations. The works translated included nearly all the works of Aristotle, the writings of commentators such as Alexander of Aphrodisias, Themistius and Theophrastus, most of the dialogues of Plato, and some Neoplatonist works.		In the tenth century another school arose among the Jacobites. These knew little Greek, and used only Syriac translations. The works translated included nearly all the works of Aristotle, the writings of commentators such as Alexander of Aphrodisias, Themistius and Theophrastus, most of the dialogues of Plato, and some Neoplatonist works.

IbnPinker at 02:45, 7 March 2021

2021-03-07T02:45:43Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:45, 7 March 2021
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	Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Prophet [[Muhammad\|Muhammad's]] [[Muhammad's Death\|death]] in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North [[Africa]] and Southern [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=203\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Prophet [[Muhammad\|Muhammad's]] [[Muhammad's Death\|death]] in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North [[Africa]] and Southern [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=203\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>

	As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[~~Islam and the~~ People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.		As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.

	The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>

← Older revision		Revision as of 02:45, 7 March 2021
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	Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Prophet [[Muhammad\|Muhammad's]] [[Muhammad's Death\|death]] in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North [[Africa]] and Southern [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=203\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Prophet [[Muhammad\|Muhammad's]] [[Muhammad's Death\|death]] in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North [[Africa]] and Southern [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=203\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>

	As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[~~Islam and the~~ People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.		As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of [[People of the Book\|Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastranism]], and the philosophy of India and [[Greece]]. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret [[Qur'an\|Qur'anic]] doctrines.

	The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>		The first stage of this process was the translation into [[Arabic]] of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian Hunayn Ibn Ishaq (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into Syriac, then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance.<ref>{{cite web\|url= http://philpapers.org/rec/HYMPIT\|title= Philosophy in the Middle Ages\|publisher= Indianapolis: Hackett\|author= Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J.\|date= 1973\|isbn=9781603842082\|page=204\|archiveurl= \|deadurl=no}}</ref>