Scientific Errors in the Quran - Revision history

Qorqud: /* First humans created from clay */

2026-04-05T15:10:10Z

First humans created from clay

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	He created man from clay like [that of] pottery.}}		He created man from clay like [that of] pottery.}}

	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|38\|71\|75}}\|[So mention] when your Lord said to the angels, "'''Indeed, I am going to create a human being from clay. So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration.'''" So the angels prostrated - all of them entirely. Except Iblees; he was arrogant and became among the disbelievers. [Allah] said, "O Iblees, what prevented you from prostrating to '''that which I created with My hands?''' Were you arrogant [then], or were you [already] among the haughty?" He said, "I am better than him. '''You created me from fire and created him from clay.'''"}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|38\|71\|76}}\|[So mention] when your Lord said to the angels, "'''Indeed, I am going to create a human being from clay. So when I have proportioned him and breathed into him of My [created] soul, then fall down to him in prostration.'''" So the angels prostrated - all of them entirely. Except Iblees; he was arrogant and became among the disbelievers. [Allah] said, "O Iblees, what prevented you from prostrating to '''that which I created with My hands?''' Were you arrogant [then], or were you [already] among the haughty?" He said, "I am better than him. '''You created me from fire and created him from clay.'''"}}

	====Descent from Adam and Eve====		====Descent from Adam and Eve====

Qorqud: /* The sky-ways/cords of the heavens */

2026-04-02T08:52:48Z

The sky-ways/cords of the heavens

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	{{Main\|Cosmology of the Quran}}		{{Main\|Cosmology of the Quran}}
	Similar to other ancient Near-East and West Asian cosmologies, the sky/heavens are equipped with pathways or conduits, called sabab (singular) asbāb (plural),<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 223-224.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref> that are some kind of ropes or cords (as per their literal meaning)<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> that support or run along the high edifice of the heaven, which can be traversed physically by people who arrive at them. Al-Rabīʿ ibn Anas (d. 756), to whom is attributed an early Quran commentary on verse Q38:10 notes: "The asbāb are finer than hair and stronger than iron; it [sic] is in every place although it is invisible.<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 237.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref>		Similar to other ancient Near-East and West Asian cosmologies, the sky/heavens are equipped with pathways or conduits, called sabab (singular) asbāb (plural),<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 223-224.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref> that are some kind of ropes or cords (as per their literal meaning)<ref>Sinai, Nicolai. ''Key Terms of the Qur'an: A Critical Dictionary (p. 412).'' Princeton University Press. Kindle Edition. </ref> that support or run along the high edifice of the heaven, which can be traversed physically by people who arrive at them. Al-Rabīʿ ibn Anas (d. 756), to whom is attributed an early Quran commentary on verse Q38:10 notes: "The asbāb are finer than hair and stronger than iron; it [sic] is in every place although it is invisible.<ref>van Bladel, Kevin, ''"[https://islamspring2012.voices.wooster.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/192/2018/09/van-Bladel_heavenly-cords.pdf Heavenly cords and prophetic authority in the Qur’an and its Late Antique context]", pp. 237.'' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70 (2): 223-246, 2007. <nowiki>https://www.jstor.org/stable/40379198</nowiki></ref>
	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|36-37}}\|And Pharaoh said, "O Haman, construct for me a tower that I might reach the ways (asbāb) - The ways (asbāb) into the heavens - so that I may look at the deity of Moses; but indeed, I think he is a liar." And thus was made attractive to Pharaoh the evil of his deed, and he was averted from the [right] way. And the plan of Pharaoh was not except in ruin.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|40\|36-37}}\|And Pharaoh said, "O Haman, construct for me a tower that I might reach the ways (asbāb) - The ways (asbāb) into the heavens - so that I may look at the deity of Moses; but indeed, I think he is a liar." And thus was made attractive to Pharaoh the evil of his deed, and he was averted from the [right] way. And the plan of Pharaoh was not except in ruin.}}
	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|38\|10}}\|Or is theirs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them? Then let them ascend through [any] ways (asbāb) of access}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|38\|10}}\|Or is theirs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them? Then let them ascend through [any] ways (asbāb) of access}}
	Despite the existence of space exploration and telescopes these have not been found.		Despite the existence of space exploration and telescopes these have not been found.

Lightyears at 00:18, 21 March 2026

2026-03-21T00:18:06Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 00:18, 21 March 2026
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	{{Main\|Geocentrism and the Quran\|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}		{{Main\|Geocentrism and the Quran\|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

	The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16<sup>th</sup> century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran\|13\|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and ~~likewise appears, to~~ the casual observer, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).		The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16<sup>th</sup> century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran\|13\|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and for the casual observer appears to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).
	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}\|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}\|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}
	{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim\|\|159a\|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).		{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim\|\|159a\|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).
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	===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===		===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===

	~~{{Main\|Historical Errors in the Quran}}~~		One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For a more detailed discussion see [[Historical Errors in the Quran]].
	One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For ~~further~~ discussion see the ~~main article~~.

	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|28\|8\|9}}\|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|28\|8\|9}}\|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}

Lightyears at 23:58, 20 March 2026

2026-03-20T23:58:52Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:58, 20 March 2026
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	{{Main\|Geocentrism and the Quran\|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}		{{Main\|Geocentrism and the Quran\|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

	The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>)~~, but does not mention once that the Earth does too~~. This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16<sup>th</sup> century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran\|13\|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and likewise appears, to the casual observer, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).		The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16<sup>th</sup> century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran\|13\|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and likewise appears, to the casual observer, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).
	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}\|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}\|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}
	{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a ~~[[sahih]] [[~~hadith]] ({{Muslim\|\|159a\|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).		{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim\|\|159a\|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).

	An alternative view cited by classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE), attributed to Qatada ibn Di'amah (d. 735 CE),<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.38 Tafsir ibn Kathir for 36:38]</ref> and which is favoured by many Muslim scholars today, was that this refers to the sun's final 'resting' on the last day. Other verses talk about the sun swimming for a 'term appointed' (though using a different Arabic word).		An alternative view cited by classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir (d. 1373 CE), attributed to Qatada ibn Di'amah (d. 735 CE),<ref>[https://quranx.com/tafsirs/36.38 Tafsir ibn Kathir for 36:38]</ref> and which is favoured by many Muslim scholars today, was that this refers to the sun's final 'resting' on the last day. Other verses talk about the sun swimming for a 'term appointed' (though using a different Arabic word).
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	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|21\|33}}\|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|21\|33}}\|And He it is Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They float, each in an orbit.}}

	A modern vantage point would explain the above Qur'anic description of the sun moving in ~~an orbit (~~''~~fee falakin~~'' - see note above) as a reference to our sun orbiting the black hole at the center of the milky way galaxy every 225 million years. Critics argue that this is of no relevance to human time scales, and that nothing from the text implies that the sun is orbiting anything other than the Earth. The Quran never in any way differentiates the sun's orbit from that of the moon and consistently ~~implies that they are of a common nature~~.		A modern vantage point would explain the above Qur'anic description of the sun moving in a ''falak'' (see note above) as a reference to our sun orbiting the black hole at the center of the milky way galaxy every 225 million years. Critics argue that this is of no relevance to human time scales, and that nothing from the text implies that the sun is orbiting anything other than the Earth. The Quran never in any way differentiates the sun's orbit from that of the moon and consistently mentions them together. Nor does it ever mention the Earth's own movement.

	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|31\|29}}\|'''Do you not see''' that Allah causes the night to enter the day and causes the day to enter the night and has subjected the sun and the moon, each running [its course] for a specified term, and that Allah, with whatever you do, is Acquainted?}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|31\|29}}\|'''Do you not see''' that Allah causes the night to enter the day and causes the day to enter the night and has subjected the sun and the moon, each running [its course] for a specified term, and that Allah, with whatever you do, is Acquainted?}}
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	Moreover, there is no ancient Egyptian evidence of cross amputation (punitive removal of a single hand and foot on opposite sides). It seems that here again a contemporary punitive practice has been transferred in the Quran to ancient Egypt. A parallel using the same Arabic words occurs in {{Quran\|5\|33}}, which commands crucifixion or cross amputation among a range of punishment options (both of which became part of Islamic jurisprudence). In the exceptionally cruel combination of both punishments put in the mouth of Pharaoh in 20:71 quoted above (see also {{Quran\|7\|124}} and {{Quran\|26\|49}}), the victim would need to be fastened to the palm tree by what remains of their limbs. In Roman crucifixion, ropes were typically used, though nails were sometimes driven through the heel bones and perhaps between the ulnar and radius above each wrist. Sometimes a crossbeam (patibulum) was added, though other times just a tree or upright post (''crux simplex'', or ''stipes''), which is likely what the Quranic author had in mind.<ref>[https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion Dispelling Some Myths: Crucifixion] - Tastes of History, March 31, 2024 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20250619085601/https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion archive])</ref>		Moreover, there is no ancient Egyptian evidence of cross amputation (punitive removal of a single hand and foot on opposite sides). It seems that here again a contemporary punitive practice has been transferred in the Quran to ancient Egypt. A parallel using the same Arabic words occurs in {{Quran\|5\|33}}, which commands crucifixion or cross amputation among a range of punishment options (both of which became part of Islamic jurisprudence). In the exceptionally cruel combination of both punishments put in the mouth of Pharaoh in 20:71 quoted above (see also {{Quran\|7\|124}} and {{Quran\|26\|49}}), the victim would need to be fastened to the palm tree by what remains of their limbs. In Roman crucifixion, ropes were typically used, though nails were sometimes driven through the heel bones and perhaps between the ulnar and radius above each wrist. Sometimes a crossbeam (patibulum) was added, though other times just a tree or upright post (''crux simplex'', or ''stipes''), which is likely what the Quranic author had in mind.<ref>[https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion Dispelling Some Myths: Crucifixion] - Tastes of History, March 31, 2024 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20250619085601/https://www.tastesofhistory.co.uk/post/dispelling-some-myths-crucifixion archive])</ref>

	===~~The singular~~ Pharaoh===		===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===

	~~Geographically,~~ the ~~Coptic land~~ of ~~Egypt is adjacent to Arabia. Thus,~~ most ~~Arabs were aware of~~ the ~~preservation method applied by~~ the ~~ancient Egyptian to their pharaohs~~. ~~Pharaohs were preserved intact using methods such as salt to dry the body (hence~~, ~~salt~~ in the ~~body of Ramesses II does not suggest that he drowned in~~ the ~~dead sea~~). ~~There were many pharaohs from numerous dynasties who were preserved~~ in this ~~way. The Qur~~'an, ~~by contrast~~, ~~only speaks of~~ "~~Pharaoh~~" ~~(''Firaun''~~) ~~singularly~~, ~~as a proper noun without~~ the ~~definite~~ article~~, suggesting that its author was unaware of the multiplicity of pharaohs~~.		{{Main\|Historical Errors in the Quran}}
			One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For further discussion see the main article.
	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|10\|90}}\|~~We took~~ the ~~Children~~ of ~~Israel across~~ the ~~sea:~~ Pharaoh and ~~his hosts followed them in insolence~~ and ~~spite~~. ~~At length, when overwhelmed with~~ the ~~flood~~, ~~he said:~~ "~~I believe that there is no god except Him Whom~~ the ~~Children of Israel believe in: I am of those who submit (to Allah in Islam)~~."}}
			{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|28\|8\|9}}\|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}

	===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===		===Nabatean rock tombs at al-Hijr as homes and palaces from before the time of Pharaoh===

Lightyears: /* David invented coats of mail */

2026-01-07T23:39:42Z

David invented coats of mail

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:39, 7 January 2026
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	===David invented coats of mail===		===David invented coats of mail===

	Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While, older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.		Historians commonly credited the invention of coat mail (not to be confused with scale armor) to the Celts in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="books.google.com">Richard A. Gabriel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79 ''The ancient world''], Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007 P.79</ref>. Mail has also been found in a 5th century BCE Scythian grave, and there is a cumbersome Etruscan pattern mail artifact from the 4th century BCE.<ref>Robinson, H. R., [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BaDMDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 ''Oriental Armour''], New York:Dover Publications, 1995, pp.10-12</ref> The nature of coat mail is such that it should persist for several millennia, and such advantageous military technologies would spread rapidly, so it is unlikely that coat mail would have originated much earlier, undiscovered by archaeologists. While older translations of the Bible mention Goliath and David wearing a "coat of mail" in 1 Samuel 17:5 and 17:38 respectively, this is a well known mistranslation for a word meaning armor in general.

	In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.		In the Qur'an, by contrast, David in the 10th century BCE is taught by Allah how to make long coats of mail (''sabighatin'' سَٰبِغَٰتٍ<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سبغ]</ref>) after Allah made the iron (''al hadid'' ٱلْحَدِيدَ) malleable for him and told him to measure the chainmail links (''as-sardi'' ٱلسَّرْدِ) thereof.<ref>[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000022.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1298 سَٰبِغَٰتٍ], [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume4/00000071.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 1347 ٱلسَّرْدِ]</ref> A second passage adds that people should be thankful for this knowledge which has been passed down since David and protects them today.

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Heaven made from smoke

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	Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}, discussed above).		Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}, discussed above).

	Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance (the Greek translation ~~he used~~ says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew verse says vanished like smoke).<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>		Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance (he used the Septuagint Greek translation which says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew verse says vanished like smoke).<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>

	===Seven Earths===		===Seven Earths===

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Heaven made from smoke

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	Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}, discussed above).		Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}, discussed above).

	Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible (~~which in~~ the Greek ~~version~~ says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew says vanished like smoke) ~~to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance~~.<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>		Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance (the Greek translation he used says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew verse says vanished like smoke).<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>

	===Seven Earths===		===Seven Earths===

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	===Heavens to be rolled up===		===Heavens to be rolled up===

	{{Quran\|21\|104}} and {{Quran\|39\|67}} state that the heavens will be 'rolled up' come the day of judgement, implying ~~the~~ corporeality and ~~'flatness' of space~~.		{{Quran\|21\|104}} and {{Quran\|39\|67}} state that the heavens will be 'rolled up' come the day of judgement, implying their corporeality and two dimensional form.
	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|21\|104}}\|The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll. }}		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|21\|104}}\|The Day when We shall roll up the heavens as a recorder rolleth up a written scroll. }}

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	===Flat Earth===		===Flat Earth===
	{{Main\|Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth}}The Qur'an describes a flat-Earth cosmography. The later idea that Islamic scriptures themselves indicated a spherical Earth was a creative act of reinterpretation when Islamic scholars encountered advances in astronomy. Attempts to explain Quranic verses about the Earth only in terms of local flatness at a human level, non-literal readings, and/or by ignoring context, are often challenged by critics, as discussed in the [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth\|main article]], which also contains further evidence and verses beyond those listed here.		{{Main\|Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth}}The Qur'an assumes and describes a flat-Earth cosmography according to multiple academic studies. The later idea that Islamic scriptures themselves indicated a spherical Earth was a creative act of reinterpretation when Islamic scholars encountered advances in astronomy. Attempts to explain Quranic verses about the Earth only in terms of local flatness at a human level, non-literal readings, and/or by ignoring context, are often challenged by critics, as discussed in the [[Islamic Views on the Shape of the Earth\|main article]], which also contains further evidence and verses beyond those listed here.

	====Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles====		====Fasting and prayer requirements near the Poles====
	{{Main\|The Ramadan Pole Paradox}}		{{Main\|The Ramadan Pole Paradox}}

	The Qur'an instructs Muslims to fast by abstaining from food and drink from sunrise till sunset during Ramadan. In the polar regions there are six months of sunlight and six months of perpetual night during Summer and Winter. Such fasting is not practicable for anyone living in the polar regions, and very easy (depth of Winter) or extremely hard (height of Summer) in places within around 40 degrees latitude of the poles. Various rules have been contrived by Muslim scholars for ~~those~~ at such latitudes to try to accommodate the (here inconvenient) fact that we live on a round Earth.		The Qur'an instructs Muslims to fast by abstaining from food and drink from sunrise till sunset during Ramadan. In the polar regions there are six months of sunlight and six months of perpetual night during Summer and Winter. Such fasting is not practicable for anyone living in the polar regions, and very easy (depth of Winter) or extremely hard (height of Summer) in places within around 40 degrees latitude of the poles. Various rules have been contrived by Muslim scholars for people at such latitudes to try to accommodate the (here inconvenient) fact that we live on a round Earth.

	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|2\|187}}\|		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|2\|187}}\|

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Heaven made from smoke

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	Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}, discussed above).		Some modern Muslim scholars nevertheless interpret 'smoke' as the primordial state of the universe after the big bang. It is worth noting, however, that the verse indicates a time when heaven alone, but not the Earth, was smoke. This is especially challenging when one considers that the Earth and its mountains are described as already existing in the previous two verses ({{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}, discussed above).

	Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible (which in the Greek version ~~stated "The~~ heaven was made like smoke ~~[καπνός]"~~) to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance.<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>		Academic scholarship has identified a late antique Christian homilitic precedent for these enigmatic verses. Basil the Great of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (d. 379 CE) understood Isaiah 51:6 in the Bible (which in the Greek version says the heaven as smoke [ὡς καπνός] was made firm [ἐστερεώθη], whereas the Hebrew says vanished like smoke) to mean that the heaven was initially made from a smoke-like substance.<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32011.htm Hexaemeron, Homily 1:8] - New Advent church fathers website</ref><ref>Julien Decharneux (2023), Creation and Contemplation: The Cosmology of the Qur’ān and Its Late Antique Background, Berlin: De Gruyter, pp. 128-9</ref>

	===Seven Earths===		===Seven Earths===

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	{{Main\|Geocentrism and the Quran\|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}		{{Main\|Geocentrism and the Quran\|l1=Geocentrism and the Qur'an}}

	The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16<sup>th</sup> century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran\|13\|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and ~~likewise appears, to~~ the casual observer, to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).		The Qur'an mentions a few times that the sun and the moon travel in an orbit or sphere/hemisphere (''fee falakin'' فِى فَلَكٍ<ref name="LLFalak">[http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000227.pdf Lane's Lexicon p. 2443 فَلَكٍ] and [http://www.studyquran.org/LaneLexicon/Volume6/00000228.pdf p. 2444]</ref>). This is consistent with an Earth-centered (geocentric) view of the cosmos that places a motionless Earth at the center of the universe and all "heavenly bodies" travel around the Earth. This was the prevailing understanding of the universe prior to the 16<sup>th</sup> century when Copernicus helped explain and popularize a sun-centered (heliocentric) view of the universe. Tellingly, the sun's movement is almost always mentioned in the context of night and day (seven times; {{Quran\|13\|2}} is the sole exception) and is always mentioned with that of the moon (which does in fact orbit the Earth each month, and for the casual observer appears to traverse the sky each night when it is visible).
	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}\|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}\|A token unto them is night. We strip it of the day, and lo! they are in darkness. And the sun runneth on unto a resting-place for him. That is the measuring of the Mighty, the Wise. And for the moon We have appointed mansions till she return like an old shrivelled palm-leaf. It is not for the sun to overtake the moon, nor doth the night outstrip the day. They float each in an orbit.}}
	{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim\|\|159a\|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).		{{Quran-range\|36\|37\|40}}, occurring in a passage about night and day, right after describing the change from day to night, states that the sun runs on to a resting place for it (''li-mustaqarrin lahā'' لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَّهَا). Useful linguistic evidence is found in a hadith, ({{Muslim\|\|159a\|reference}}) which mentions the sun's daily cycle using the same Arabic word to mean a resting place, which is underneath Allah's throne, and is where each night the sun prostrates and is asked to go and rise 'from its rising place' (مِنْ مَطْلِعِهَا). This cycle repeats, until one day Allah asks the sun to rise 'from your setting place' (مِنْ مَغْرِبِكِ).
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	===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===		===Pharaoh as the name of a single Egyptian ruler===

	~~{{Main\|Historical Errors in the Quran}}~~		One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For a more detailed discussion see [[Historical Errors in the Quran]].
	One of the most prominent characters in the Quran is Pharaoh (fir'awn) in the story of Moses. Historically, Pharaoh was a title held by many rulers of Egypt and there are two in the Biblical Moses story (the first during his infancy). The Quran in contrast has a single character throughout the story and consistently uses it as his name rather than a title. According to academic scholars this is evident from the fact that fir'awn is grammatically an Arabic diptote, like all other personal names in the Quran, and never appears with the definite article (unlike for example al-malik, "the King"), even in construct. For ~~further~~ discussion see the ~~main article~~.

	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|28\|8\|9}}\|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|28\|8\|9}}\|And the family of Pharaoh picked him up [out of the river] so that he would become to them an enemy and a [cause of] grief. Indeed, Pharaoh and Haman and their soldiers were deliberate sinners. And the wife of Pharaoh said, "[He will be] a comfort of the eye for me and for you. Do not kill him; perhaps he may benefit us, or we may adopt him as a son." And they perceived not.}}

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	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}\|Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two Days? And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds. He set on the (earth), mountains standing firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the earth, and measure therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days, in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (Sustenance).}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|41\|9\|10}}\|Say: Is it that ye deny Him Who created the earth in two Days? And do ye join equals with Him? He is the Lord of (all) the Worlds. He set on the (earth), mountains standing firm, high above it, and bestowed blessings on the earth, and measure therein all things to give them nourishment in due proportion, in four Days, in accordance with (the needs of) those who seek (Sustenance).}}

	Mountains nonetheless continue to rise and erode to this day. Similarly, living things and their sustenance continue to evolve, yet the Qur'an says that the creation of mountains and sustenance occurred in a specific period ~~that ended two~~ days ~~before the~~ creation ~~of the universe was completed~~. See the next section regarding the final two of the six days (~~from~~ {{Quran-range\|41\|11\|12}}) which immediately follow the verses discussed above.		Mountains nonetheless continue to rise and erode to this day. Similarly, living things and their sustenance continue to evolve, yet the Qur'an says that the creation of mountains and sustenance occurred in a specific period during the six days of creation. See the next section regarding the final two of the six days ({{Quran-range\|41\|11\|12}}) which immediately follow the verses discussed above, and another verse which confirms this sequence.

	===Earth created before stars===		===Earth created before stars===
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	{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|5\|72\|75}}\|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran-range\|5\|72\|75}}\|They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the Messiah, son of Mary. The Messiah (himself) said: O Children of Israel, worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord. Lo! whoso ascribeth partners unto Allah, for him Allah hath forbidden paradise. His abode is the Fire. For evil-doers there will be no helpers. '''They surely disbelieve who say: Lo! Allah is the third of three'''; when there is no Allah save the One Allah. If they desist not from so saying a painful doom will fall on those of them who disbelieve. Will they not rather turn unto Allah and seek forgiveness of Him? For Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. '''The Messiah, son of Mary, was no other than a messenger''', messengers (the like of whom) had passed away before him. '''And his mother was a saintly woman. And they both used to eat (earthly) food.''' See how We make the revelations clear for them, and see how they are turned away!}}

	A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible ~~alternative~~ interpretation proposed so far ~~relates~~ these verses to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (~~for~~ details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]]).		A common interpretation advocated by Muslim scholars today is that this refers to a fringe Arab Christian sect known as the Collyridians. However, this sect were only mentioned in a 4th century CE book on heresies. The most plausible interpretation proposed so far by academic scholars interprets these verses as a response to a Byzantine theological dispute and contemporary war propaganda (or a misunderstanding thereof, in the view of critics). For details, see the Qur'anic Trinity section of the article [[Parallels Between the Qur'an and Late Antique Judeo-Christian Literature]].

	For further Christology in the Quran, see [[Qur'anic Christology]] and [[Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)]].		For further Christology in the Quran, see [[Qur'anic Christology]] and [[Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ)]].
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	"Wife of 'Imran" is here im'ra-atu ʿim'rāna, literally woman of Imran, though the same construction certainly means "wife" a few verses later ({{Quran\|3\|40}}), and in several other verses.		"Wife of 'Imran" is here im'ra-atu ʿim'rāna, literally woman of Imran, though the same construction certainly means "wife" a few verses later ({{Quran\|3\|40}}), and in several other verses.

	Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements. {{Muslim\|\|2135\|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.		Some modern academic scholars cite evidence that this could be a case of typology (deliberate literary allusion between characters - see main article). This may be the best explanation, although the verses would still be misleading as historical statements. {{Muslim\|\|2135\|reference}} seeks to explain the coincidence based on alleged customary forms of address (to explain "sister of Aaron") or naming customs (to explain why Imran named his daughter Mary), depending on interpretation of the hadith. Either interpretation only reduces part of the coincidence. Even if a naming custom could increase the odds that this father-daughter pair would share names with some earlier biblical family, a further coincidence would still be required if her father happened to be named the same as the father (Imran) in the particular biblical family alluded to when his daughter is addressed customarily as "sister of Aaron". Another attempted explanation is that this Imran actually had a son called Aaron as well as a daughter named Mary.

	==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===		==='Uzayr as the son of God in Jewish doctrine===
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	{{Quote\|{{Quran\|9\|30}}\|The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?}}		{{Quote\|{{Quran\|9\|30}}\|The Jews say, "Ezra is the son of Allah "; and the Christians say, "The Messiah is the son of Allah." That is their statement from their mouths; they imitate the saying of those who disbelieved [before them]. May Allah destroy them; how are they deluded?}}

	ʿUzayr has traditionally been interpreted as the Biblical Ezra. Academic scholarship has tended to concur, noting that Ezra was held in high ~~esteme~~ (though not the "son of god") in ~~Jewish texts such as 1 Enoch, a non-canonical apocalyptic text~~.		ʿUzayr has traditionally been interpreted as the Biblical Ezra. Academic scholarship has tended to concur, noting that Ezra was held in high esteem (though not the "son of god") in the Talmud.

	~~However, more~~ recent work in 2025 found a more likely identification of ʿUzayr as Rabbi Eliezar ben Hurcanus. For details see [[Historical_Errors_in_the_Quran#'Uzayr_as_the_son_of_God_in_Jewish_doctrine\|Historical Errors in the Quran]]. To critics, the Quran appears to misunderstand the reverence in which R. Eliezar was held in rabbinic circles since god describes him as "Eliezer, my son" in certain texts, language which is actually common in the Hebrew Bible and is applied to multiple rabbis in the Talmud.		More recent academic work in 2025 found a more likely identification of ʿUzayr as the 2nd century CE Rabbi, Eliezar ben Hurcanus. For details see [[Historical_Errors_in_the_Quran#'Uzayr_as_the_son_of_God_in_Jewish_doctrine\|Historical Errors in the Quran]]. To critics, the Quran appears to misunderstand the reverence in which R. Eliezar was held in rabbinic circles since god describes him as "Eliezer, my son" in certain texts, language which is actually common in the Hebrew Bible and is applied to multiple rabbis in the Talmud.

	===David invented coats of mail===		===David invented coats of mail===